RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR

UNIT I RESEARCH DESIGN

Overview of research process and design, Use of Secondary and

exploratory data to answer the research question, Qualitative research,
Observation studies, Experiments and Surveys.
1.1 Overview of research
process and design Definition
of Research
Research refers to a search for knowledge.
It is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.
Research refers to the systematic method of enunciating (clearly stating) the
problem, formulating a hypothesis (proposed explanation made on the basis
of limited evidence), collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
problem or generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
Research Methodology
Enunciating
the problem

Formulating a hypothesis

Collecting the facts or data Analyzing the facts

Reaching
conclusion

Formulation

Solutions(s) towards the problem Generalizations for some

theoretical

Motivations in Research
The factors that motivate people to undertake research are
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
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 4. Desire to be of service to society
5. Desire to earn respect
6. Desire to get better employment
7. Curiosity about new things

Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
The various steps involved in a research process are not mutually
exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct.
They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order.
However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guideline regarding the research process:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypotheses
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis-testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

1. Formulating the research problem:

The researcher must firstly decide the general area of interest.
Formulating the research problem involves understanding the problem
thoroughly and stating the same in meaningful terms from an analytical point
of view.
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities relating to the problem can be resolved.
Then, the feasibility of a particular solution is considered before the
formulation of the problem is set up.
2. Extensive literature survey:

Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem.
For this purpose, academic journals, conference proceedings, books, government
reports, published or unpublished bibliographies etc.. are to be referred.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied.
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 3. Development of working hypotheses:
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state the working
hypothesis or hypotheses.
Working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to test its logical or
empirical consequences.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in
hand because it has to be tested.

Developing a working hypotheses:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem.
(b) Examination of data and records concerning the problem.
(c) Review of similar studies in the area.
(d) Investigation involving original field interviews with interested parties.

Some problems do not need working hypotheses, specially in the case of

exploratory or formulative researches the hypothesis.

4. Preparing the research design:

The function of research design is to provide relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure and effort.
The preparation of the research design involves:
(i) the means of obtaining the information
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)
(iii) Organization of information
(iv) time available for research
(v) finance available for the research.

5. Determining sample design:

A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a
sample
design.
The important sample designs are as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling:
It is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
It involves deliberate selection of particular units from the population.
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 (ii) Simple random sampling:
It is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and
every item in the population has an equal probability of inclusion.
(iii) Systematic sampling: Sometimes it is practical to pick every n th
element on a list. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population is non-homogeneous, then
stratified sampling technique is applied. In this technique, the population is
stratified into a number of nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each stratum.
(v) Quota sampling:
Quota samples are non-probability samples which are generally judgement
samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves
grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather
than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller
non-overlapping areas, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly
selected and all units in these small areas are included in the sample.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is meant for big inquiries extending to a
considerably
large geographical area like an entire country.

In this, the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as
states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.
(viii) Sequential sampling: The size of the sample is not fixed in
advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the
basis of information yielded as survey progresses.

6. Collecting the data:

Primary data can be collected through experiment or through survey. In
an experiment, the researcher records some observations.
In the case of a survey, data can be collected by observation, personal interview,
telephone interviews, mailing questionnaires or Through trained enumerators
7. Execution of the project:
The researcher should see that the project is executed
in a systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data:
The analysis of data involves coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical
inferences.

9. Hypothesis-testing:
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 After analysing the data, the researcher can test the formulated hypotheses
earlier. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

10. Generalisations and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Report should be written in concise and simple language avoiding vague

expressions such
as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

The layout of the report should be as follows:

(i) the preliminary pages;
(ii) the main text
(iii) the end matter.

The preliminary pages should carry title, acknowledgements, foreword,

table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, list of graphs and charts
given in the report.
The main text of the report should have:
(a) Introduction: It should contain objectives of the research, scope of the
study, limitations and explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research.
(b) Summary of findings
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections including
background, methodology and results.
(d) Conclusions
(e) Bibliography i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should
also be given in the end.

Research design definition

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen
by a researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods
that are suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.

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The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental,
survey research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-
type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of designs for research: Data collection,
measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the

research design and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines
which tools to use and how they are used.

An impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases

trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin
of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome.
The essential elements are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analysing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
1.2 Use of Secondary and exploratory data to answer the research question

Exploratory research: Definition

Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a
problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better
understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive results.
For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this
research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future
research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to
change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a
research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is
often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used
to answer questions like what, why and how.

For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that
increasing the variety of juices will enable increase in customers, however he is
not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to carry out an
exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an exploratory
research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get
more customers of if there is a better idea.

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Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can
be used to collect feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from
existing listeners as well as other podcast listeners that are currently not
subscribed to this channel. This helps the author of the podcast create curated
content that will gain a larger audience.

Types and methodologies of Exploratory research

While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very
little information about it, there are several methods which can help a
researcher figure out the best research design, data collection methods and
choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be conducted
namely primary and secondary.. Under these two types, there are multiple
methods which can used by a researcher. The data gathered from these research
can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of the most widely used research
designs include the following:

Primary research methods

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It
can be through a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be
carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ a third party to
conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried out to
explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.

Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a

predefined group of respondents. It is one of the most important
quantitative method. Various types of surveys or polls can be used to
explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in
technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access.
For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile
phones. This information is also available to the researcher in real time as well.
Nowadays, most organizations offer short length surveys and rewards to
respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates.
For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their
opinions about the size of mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on
such information organization can dig deeper into the topic and make
business related decision.

Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but
sometimes an in person interview can give in-depth information on the subject
being studied. Such a research is a qualitative research method. An interview
with a subject matter expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized
public source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in person or
on telephone which have open-ended questions to get meaningful information
about the topic.
For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to
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find out the degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter
expert of quantum theory can give you in-depth information on that topic.

Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory
research. In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to
express their insights on the topic that is being studied. Although, it is
important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in a focus group
they should have a common background and have comparable experiences.
For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of
consumers if they were to buy a phone. Such a research can help the
researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a phone. It may
be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on which the
organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer
opinions, etc.
Observations: Observation research can be qualitative observation or
quantitative observation. Such a research is done to observe a person and draw
the finding from their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there
is no direct interaction with the subject.
For example: An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to
the new shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers first
reaction and collects the data, which is then used to draw inferences from the
collective information.
Secondary research methods
Secondary research is gathering information from previously published
primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources likes
case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.

Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather
information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and
the researcher can download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be
noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity of the source
websites that the researcher is gathering the information from. For example: A
researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a
specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a
search engine and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.

Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive

method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of
information available in libraries, online sources, or even commercial
databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library,
documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature,
Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations and so on.
However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these
sources. Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may
come with a nominal cost. Also, research from educational institutions is

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generally overlooked, but in fact educational institutions carry out more
number of research than any other entities.

Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political

agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.

For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available
statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or organization
related or if the topic being studied is regarding financial situation of the country,
then research data can be accessed through government documents or commercial
sources.

Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding
more information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone
through a similar problem. Such analysis are very important and critical
especially in today’s business world.
The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to
all
the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly
used by business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.
For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for
performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up
this case to understand and benchmark the method in which this surgeon does
the procedure to increase their success rate.
1.3 Qualitative research

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical

data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or
experiences. It can be used to gather in- depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which

involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social

sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health
sciences, history, etc.

Qualitative research approaches

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 Approach What does it involve?

Grounded theory Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop
theories inductively.
Ethnography Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to
understand their cultures.
Action research Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to
drive social change.
Phenomenological Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and
research interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
Narrative research Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how
participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.

Qualitative research methods

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection
methods.
These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

 Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered

in detailed field notes.
 Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
 Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of
people.
 Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
 Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts,
images, audio or video recordings, etc.

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For
example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses,
fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

1. Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing

interviews or typing up field notes.
2. Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or
repeated ideas that emerge.
3. Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish
a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
4. Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis,
this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging
them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you
can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.

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 5. Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching
themes.

Advantages of qualitative research

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of
participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative
research is good for:

 Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or
patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

 Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

 Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be

used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

 Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or

opportunities
that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Disadvantages of qualitative research

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing
and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

 Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of

uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

 Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data,

qualitative research cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is
important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same
data can vary greatly.

 Limited generalizability

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Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts.
Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable
conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider
population.

 Labour-intensive
Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text,
data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

1.4 Observation Studies

The term observational research is used to refer to several different
types of non- experimental studies in which behaviour is systematically
observed and recorded. The goal of observational research is to describe a
variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is to obtain a snapshot of
specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting. As described
previously, observational research is non-experimental because nothing is
manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal conclusions
using this approach. The data that are collected in observational research
studies are often qualitative in nature but they may also be quantitative or both
(mixed-methods).
There are several different types of observational research designs that will be
described below.
1. participant
2. non
participant
3.Naturalisti
c
observation
4. simulation

1). Participant
observation

Another approach to data collection in observational research is

participant observation. In participant observation, researchers become active
participants in the group or situation they are studying. Participant observation
is very similar to naturalistic observation in that it involves observing people’s
behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs.
As with naturalistic observation, the data that is collected can include
interviews (usually unstructured), notes based on their observations and
interactions, documents, photographs, and other artifacts.
The only difference between naturalistic observation and participant
observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation become
active members of the group or situations they are studying.
The basic rationale for participant observation is that there may be
important information that is only accessible to, or can be interpreted only by,
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someone who is an active participant in the group or situation. Like naturalistic
observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised.
In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be
members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity
as researchers. In contrast
with undisguised participant observation, the researchers become a part of
the group they are studying and they disclose their true identity as researchers
to the group under investigation.
Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with disguised
participant observation. First no informed consent can be obtained and second
passive deception is being used.
The researcher is passively deceiving the participants by intentionally
withholding information about their motivations for being a part of the social
group they are studying. But sometimes disguised participation is the only way
to access a protective group (like a cult). Further, disguised participant
observation is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation.

2) non participant observation

The researcher does not participate in the activities of the group
being observed. on-participant Observation involves observing
participants without actively
participating. This option is used to understand a phenomenon by entering the
community or social system involved, while staying separate from the
activities being observed.

3) naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation is an observational method that involves
observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs.
Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research (as opposed to a type of
laboratory research). Jane Goodall’s famous
research on chimpanzees is a classic example of naturalistic observation. Dr.
Goodall spent three decades observing chimpanzees in their natural
environment in East Africa. She examined such things as chimpanzee’s social
structure, mating patterns, gender roles, family structure, and care of offspring
by observing them in the wild. However, naturalistic observation could more
simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a school
playground, or psychiatric inpatients in their wards. Researchers engaged in
naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively as
possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied. Such an
approach is called disguised naturalistic observation. Ethically, this method is
considered to be acceptable if the participants remain anonymous and the
behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an
expectation of privacy. Grocery shoppers putting items into their shopping
carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior that is easily observable by
store employees and other shoppers. For this reason, most researchers would
consider it ethically acceptable to observe them for a study. On the other hand,
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 one of the arguments against the ethicality of the naturalistic observation of
“bathroom behavior” discussed earlier in the book is that people have a
reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this
expectation was violated.

4) simulation observation

The researcher simulates or recreates a situation, environment, or

system and observes the subject under study in the simulated environment.

CASE STUDIES
A case study is an in-depth examination of an individual. Sometimes case
studies are also completed on social units (e.g., a cult) and events (e.g., a
natural disaster). Most commonly in psychology, however, case studies
provide a detailed description and analysis of an individual. Often the
individual has a rare or unusual condition or disorder or has damage to a
specific region of the brain.
1.5 Experiment
s and Surveys
Survey :
Survey refers to the way of gathering information regarding a variable under
study from all or a specified number of respondents of the universe. Surveys
are carried out by maintaining a structured form of data collection, through
interview, questionnaire, case study etc. In surveys prepared questions are
asked from the prepared formal questionnaire set and the output is collected
in the same form.
For example – Survey among the students about the new education policy of India.
Experiment :
Experiments refers to the way of experimenting something practically with
the help of scientific procedure/approach and the outcome is observed.
Experiments are carried out by performing the experiments by following
scientific procedure or scientific approach. In experiments the
investigator/examiner performs tests or experiments based on various factors
and observes the outcome of the experiment.
For example – Experiment in the chemistry laboratory by a group of students
and faculties specific to a topic.
Difference between Survey and Experiment :

S.No. SURVEY EXPERIMENT

It refers to a way of gathering information
01. regarding a variable under study from It refers to the way of experimenting
people. something practically with the help of
scientific procedure/approach and the
outcome is observed.

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 Sureys are conducted in case of descriptive Experiments are conducted in case of
02. research. experimental research.

Experiments are carried out to experience

03. Surveys are carried out to see something. something.

04. These studies usually have larger samples. These studies usually have smaller samples.

The surveyor does not manipulate the The researcher may manipulate the variable
05. variable or arrange for events to happen. or arrange for events to happen.

It is appropriate in case of social or It is appropriate in case of physical and

06. behavioral science. natural science.

07. It comes under field research. It comes under laboratory research.

Possible relationship between the data and

the unknowns in the universe can be Experiments are meant to determine such
08. studied through surveys. relationships.

Surveys can be performed in less cost than

09. a experiments. Experiments costs higher than the surveys.

10. Surveys often deals with secondary data. Experiments deal with primary data.

In surveys there is no requirement of

laboratory equipment or there is a very In experiments usually laboratory equipment
small requirement of equipment just to are used in various activities during the
11. collect any sample of data. experiment process.

12. It is vital in co-relational analysis. It is vital in casual analysis.

13. No manipulation is involved in surveys. Manipulation is involved in experiments.

In surveys data is collected through In experiments data is collected through

14. interview, questionnaire, case study etc. several readings of experiment.

15. Surveys can focus on broad topics. Experiments focuses on specific topic.

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