Shri G.S.

Institute of Technology and Science,

Indore

Session: 2024- 2025

LITHIUM – ION BATTERY

A Dissertation submitted to Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya,

Bhopal (M.P.) towards the partial fulfilment of requirements for
awarding the Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) in Electrical
Engineering.

Submitted to : Submitted By:

Mr. Abhishek Dubey Aditya Singh :- 0801EE211008

Avinash Pawar:- 0801EE211024
Hritik More :- 0801EE211043
Jayesh Barde :- 0801EE211046
Mohit Badukiya:- 0801EE211054
Mohit Suryawanshi:- 0801EE211058
Suresh Aarya:- 0801EE211084

Department of Electrical Engineering

Shri G.S. Institute of Technology and Science,
Indore-452003 (M.P.) –India
 Shri G.S. Institute of Technology and Science,
Indore-452003 (M.P.) –India

Session : 2024-25

Certificate

We are pleased to certify that the research report work entitled “Lithium – Ion
Battery” carried out by Aditya Singh, Avinash Pawar, Hritik More, Jayesh Barde,
Mohit Badukiya, Mohit Suryawanshi and Suresh Aarya is accepted in partial
fulfilment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical
Engineering of Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.) during
the year 2024-25. Submitted to the Department Of Electrical Engineering on
Shri G.S. Institute of Technology and Science, Indore.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Department of Electrical Engineering

 Shri G.S. Institute of Technology and Science,
Indore-452003 (M.P.) -India

Session: 2024-2025

DECLARATION
We, Aditya Singh, Avinash Pawar, Hritik More, Jayesh Barde, Mohit Badukiya, Mohit
Suryawanshi and Suresh Aarya, students of Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) in Electrical
Engineering, hereby declare that we have worked on project with title “Lithium – Ion Battery”
under the supervision of Mr. Abhishek Dubey, Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering and all
the materials used in the report are properly referenced and all references are taken into account to
the best of our belief.

Department of Electrical Engineering

 ABSTRACT
This project focuses on Experimental Investigation on Lithium – Ion Battery
Characterization and State Estimation. In a Battery management System, parameters like
State of Charge & State of Health play a crucial role for a good battery maintenance and
for durability of the battery. Both SoC and SoH cannot be measured directly, so they need
to be estimated. Real-time estimation methods are used to estimate SoC and SoH values of
a Battery. But these real-time systems are always Non-linear, due to the Noise in the
Process and Noise in the Measurement of estimation of a State. This non-linearity is taken
care by Unscented Kalman Filters. The State Estimation of Battery using Open Circuit
Voltage Method and Coulomb Counting Method results in an inaccurate value of the state
of battery as this method solely depend on a single parameter of battery and any variation
in other parameters in real time to deviate the value from the true SOC value. The
parameters considered for Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) method is Voltage of the battery
and Coulomb Counting Method parameters are Current of the Battery. Whereas, the
parameters considered for SoC are Current, Voltage and Temperature of the Battery and
similarly, for SoH the parameters considered are Current, Voltage, Temperature and SoC
of the Battery. The UKF is used primarily to estimate state in Non-linear Systems. In our
case the state of charge estimation of battery being Non-linear, is taken care by UKF.This
method requires all the three parameters the Current voltage and temperature of the
battery, to estimate SOC value which makes this method effective over other conventional
methods. The final SoC Values are shown in a Graphical Format where we considered
30% as minimum value and 90% as maximum value of a Battery’s Charge. We considered
the Common parameter from Kalman Filter Method and Open Circuit Voltage Method
that was Voltage and plotted the Graph from 10% -100% of SoC Values to find out the
difference between the two methods. Where in Kalman Filter method the voltage increases
linearly from 10% - 100% of SoC Values. Whereas, in OCV Method the Voltage
ValuesRemains Constant for Certain percentages in 10% - 100% of SoC Values.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

S.NO. Title Page NO.

1 Introduction

2 Working Lithium-ion Battery

3 Charactestics of Lithium-ion
Battery
4 State Of Charge (SoC)

5 State of Health (SoH)

6 Lithium-ion Battery Losses

7 Conclusion

8 Reference
 1. INTRODUCTION

There are numerous methods for conserving energy and reducing pollution, which
is a key contributor to global warming. We waste fuel in our daily lives, which can
be avoided by taking public transportation, carpooling, and other methods. In terms
of future generations, we should consider ways to preserve it rather than entirely
deplete it. To assess the usage of energy, we must consider ways to save it and
analyse the harm that it causes. This is where electric vehicles with battery
monitoring come into play. The rate of fuel consumption is nil, and the rate of
pollution is small, because the working is entirely based on the cells and their
properties. The use of a vehicle for one person, not turning off the car while a
traffic light (red), and over-speeding are all common causes of energy waste. This,
in turn, reduces the fuel's lifespan and contributes to global warming. This poses a
threat to humans by causing various health problems and creating an unsafe
environment for future generations. The project's major goal is to create a Battery
Management System for E-Vehicles that is more efficient and can run for longer
periods of time without needing to be recharged. This can be accomplished by
adjusting the Voltage, Current, and Temperature levels in the cells through Cell
Balancing. When these settings are changed, the cells are more likely to be safe and
avoid over-charging or over-discharging. We compared and presented Simulink
model of lithium-ion batteries that delivers constant voltage, current, and
temperature with cell balancing. The goal of this project's output is to improve the
battery's efficiency.

IMPORTANCE OF LITHIUM – ION BATTERY AND ITS

CONTRIBUTION IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have become popular due to their long lifespan, high
energy and power density, and environmental advantages. However, internal and
external defects can develop during operation, leading to performance issues and
safety risks like thermal runaway, fires, or explosions. Fault diagnosis is therefore a
critical function of the Battery Management System (BMS), ensuring early
detection and mitigation of potential issues for safe and reliable battery operation.

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are expected to play a key role in future mobility.
However, the environmental impact of Li-ion battery production, usage, and
disposal remains unclear, making comparisons with Internal Combustion Engine
Vehicles (ICEVs) difficult. Lifecycle studies show that the operational phase is the
main contributor to environmental impact, whether for BEVs or ICEVs. For BEVs,
the battery accounts for about 15% of the total environmental burden (measured by
Eco Indicator 99). Additionally, eco-indicators help drivers improve efficiency by
signaling when acceleration is excessive.
 2. WORKING OF LITHIUM – ION BATTERY
Lithium-ion Battery Structure
A lithium-ion battery consists of an anode (negative electrode), cathode (positive
electrode), separator, electrolyte, and two current collectors (positive and negative)

 Cathode: The cathode of a lithium-ion battery is typically made of a lithium

metal oxide, such as lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium manganese
oxide (LiMn2O4), or lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4).
The choice of cathode material influences the performance characteristics
of the battery
 Anode: The anode is usually composed of graphite. During
discharge, lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode through the
electrolyte, and during charging, they move back to the anode.
 Electrolyte: The electrolyte is a conductive medium that allows the flow of
lithium ions between the cathode and anode.
It is typically a lithium salt dissolved in a solvent.
 Separator: The separator is a permeable membrane that keeps the cathode
and anode apart to prevent a short circuit while allowing the passage of
lithium ions.
 Rechargeability: One of the key advantages of lithium-ion batteries is their
rechargeability.
They can be recharged hundreds to thousands of times, depending on the
specific chemistry and use conditions such
as overcharging or undercharging
Working :-

Working principle of Lithium-ion Battery based on electrochemical reaction. Inside

a lithium-ion battery, oxidation-reduction (Redox) reactions take place which
sustain the charging and discharging cycle.

Discharging:-

During this cycle, lithium ions form from the ionization of lithium atoms in the
anode.

Oxidation reaction takes place:-

LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-

The lithium ions move from the anode and pass through the electrolyte until they
reach the cathode, where they recombine with their electrons and electrically
neutralise. The lithium ions are small enough to be able to move through a micro-
permeable separator between the anode and cathode.Li-ion batteries are capable of
having a very high voltage and charge storage per unit mass and unit volume owing
to the small size of lithium.
Charging cycle:-

During the charging cycle, the process is exactly the opposite of the discharging
cycle. The lithium ions return to the anode from the cathode and electrons are
transferred from the anode to the cathode. Lithium ions flow from the cathode to the
anode, and electrons flow from the anode to the cathode, as the battery is charging.
There is a steady flow of electrons as long as lithium ions are making their way
from one electrode to the next.

Reduction takes place at the cathode –

CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2

( Cobalt oxide combines with lithium ions to form lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2).
 3. Charactestics of lithium ion Battery

1. Long cycle life

The life of rechargeable lithium batteries includes two indicators: cycle life and
calendar life.
Cycle life means that after the battery has experienced the number of cycles
the lithium battery manufacturer promises, the remaining capacity is still greater
than or equal to 80%.
Calendar life means that regardless of whether it is used, its remaining capacity
shall not be less than 80% within the period the manufacturer promises.
Battery cycle life is one of the key indicators of power batteries. On the one hand,
the big act of replacing the battery is troublesome, and the user experience is not
good. On the other hand, battery life is also a cost issue.
The concept is “full life cycle cost of electricity.” The total power of the power
battery multiplied by the number of cycles is the total amount of power that can
be utilized throughout the battery’s life cycle. Divide the total price of the battery
pack by this sum to get the price per kilowatt-hour of electricity over the entire
life cycle.
The battery prices we usually talk about, such as 1,500 RMB/kWh, are only
priced based on the total energy of the new battery cells. The full life cycle cost of
electricity is the direct benefit of end customers.
The most intuitive result is buying two battery packs with the same capacity at the
same price. It reaches the end of its life after charging and discharging 50 times.
The other can be used again after being charged and discharged 100 times. Of
these two battery packs, it’s clear which is cheaper and which is more expensive.

2. Low cost - The price per kilowatt hour of lithium battery is low, which is the
most intuitive cost. In addition to what was said earlier, whether the cost is really
low for users depends on the “full life cycle cost of electricity.”
In addition to the above two costs, battery maintenance costs must also be
considered. The maintenance of the battery cells themselves mainly refers to
manual balancing.
The built-in balancing function of the lithium battery BMS is limited by the size
of its designed balancing current. It may not be able to achieve the ideal balance
between cells. Over time, the problem of excessive pressure difference will occur
in the lithium battery pack. In such a situation, you have to perform manual
equalization and charge the cells separately with too low voltages. The less
frequently this occurs, the lower the maintenance costs.
3. High energy density/high power density
Energy density refers to the energy contained in unit weight or unit volume.
Power density refers to the value of the maximum discharge power corresponding
to unit weight or volume.
However, there is a certain contradictory relationship between energy density and
safety. As energy density increases, security will always face newer and more
difficult challenges.

4. High Coulomb efficiency

The ratio of the energy released during the discharge process of a lithium battery
to the energy charged into the battery from 0 before this discharge is called
Coulombic efficiency.
The efficiency is mainly related to the internal resistance of the battery.
Compared with other types of rechargeable batteries, the charge and discharge
efficiency of lithium batteries is relatively high, generally above 98%. Therefore,
this parameter is often not mentioned much.

5. High voltage
Because the negative electrode materials of lithium batteries use graphite
electrodes. The material properties of the cathode material mainly determine the
voltage of a lithium battery. The upper voltage limit of lithium iron phosphate
battery is 3.6V. The maximum voltage of ternary lithium and lithium manganate
batteries is about 4.2V.
Developing high-voltage batteries is a technical route for improving the energy
density of lithium batteries. To increase the output voltage of the cell, a cathode
material with a high potential is required. Anode material with low potential and
electrolyte with high stable voltage.

6. Good high-temperature performance

Lithium batteries have good high-temperature performance, which means that the
battery’s positive and negative electrode materials, separators, and electrolytes
can maintain stability when the battery core is in a higher-temperature
environment. Lithium battery packs can work normally at high temperatures, and
their lifespan will not accelerate. High temperatures are less likely to cause
thermal runaway accidents.The safety risks of lithium batteries largely come from
high temperatures. Generally, the maximum operating temperature of lithium
batteries is around 50°C. In particular, it can reach 60℃.
The SEI film on the surface of the negative electrode can begin to dissolve at
around 90°C. This causes the battery core to enter the self-heating stage. Self-
generated heat brings additional temperature rise; if not stopped in time, there will
be a risk of thermal runaway.
7. Good low-temperature performance
Lithium batteries have good low-temperature performance, which means that the
lithium ions and electrode materials inside the battery maintain high activity at
low temperatures. And the remaining capacity is high. The discharge capacity
decreases. It also allows for large charging rates.
As the temperature drops, the remaining capacity of lithium batteries decays at an
accelerated rate. The lower the temperature, the faster the capacity decays. Forced
charging at low temperatures is extremely harmful and can cause thermal runaway
accidents.
At low temperatures, the activity of lithium ions and electrode active materials
decreases, and the rate of lithium-ion embedding into the anode material seriously
decreases. When an external power supply is used to charge the battery at a power
exceeding the battery’s allowable power, many lithium ions accumulate around
the negative electrode. The lithium ions that have no time to embed in the
electrode receive electrons and are directly deposited on the surface of the
electrode to form lithium elemental crystals. The dendrites grow, directly
penetrate the separator, and pierce the positive electrode. This causes a short
circuit between the positive and negative poles, leading to thermal runaway.
Lithium elements are active in nature and can react violently at around 180°C. It
is undoubtedly a booster for thermal runaway.

8. Good consistency
Consistency means that cells used in the same battery pack have very small
differences in parameters such as capacity, open circuit voltage, internal
resistance, and self-discharge and have similar performance. Suppose the cell
monomers with excellent performance are not consistent. In that case, their
excellence will often be wiped out after being grouped.
Studies have shown that the capacity of the battery pack after being assembled is
determined by the minimum capacity cell, and the battery pack life is shorter than
the life of the shortest cell.

9. Safety
The safety of lithium batteries includes both the stability of the internal materials
and the effectiveness of battery cell safety auxiliary measures.
The safety of internal materials refers to the positive and negative electrode
materials, separators, and electrolytes. They have good thermal stability and
compatibility between the electrolyte and electrode materials, and the electrolyte
has good flame retardancy.
Safety auxiliary measures refer to the battery core’s safety valve design, fuse
design, temperature-sensitive resistor design, and appropriate sensitivity. After a
single cell fails, it can prevent the fault from spreading and play an isolation role.
 4. STATE OF CHARGE (SoC)

Battery SOC estimation is key component for battery management system. It

helps in describing the actual energy level available at the battery. SOC
assessment is significant not only for knowing the energy availability of the
battery but also for finding the battery lifetime. State of charge is used to provide
a metric that reflects the percentage levels of charge in the cells. The SOC is
directly measured in the Simulink Model utilised here. Look up tables are used to
assign values such as voltage, current, and temperature. Because each cell has a
different value, the available capacity is given as a percentage. It should always be
an absolute value based on the battery's capacity. For lithium-ion batteries,
understanding the SOC is especially crucial.

The SOC of a battery is defined as the ratio of its current capacity (Q (t)) to the
nominal capacity (Qn). Nominal Capacity, Qn is the maximum amount of charge
that can be stored in the battery. This rating is given by the manufacturer.

SOC (t) = q (t) / q n ……………………………………. Eq (1)

In other words, rate of charge means the ratio of the remaining charge of the
battery to the total charge while the battery is fully charged at the same specific
standard condition. During charges and discharges, battery internal parameters
like resistance, temperature, etc., vary with SOC, so these parameters are shown
useful for SOC estimation SOC is expressed in percentage

SOC= 100% battery fully charged

SOC = 0% battery fully discharged

Classification of SOC estimating methods:-

• Direct methods

• Indirect method or book keeping method

• Adaptive systems and Hybrid Methods

WORKING OF STATE OF CHARGE (SoC)

SoC cannot usually be measured directly, but it may be calculated in two ways:
offline and online, using direct measurement factors. The battery in offline
approaches like Coulomb counting wants to be charged and drained at a constant
rate. This approach provides a precise estimate of battery SoC, but it is time-
consuming, expensive, and disrupts main battery performance. As a result,
researchers are seeking for online methods. In general, there are four approaches for
indirectly determining SoC: Chemical, Voltage, Current Integration, and Kalman
filtering. Chemical Method: - This method only works with non-sealed lead acid
batteries, which have access to their liquid electrolyte. The electrolyte's specific
gravity or pH can be utilised to determine the battery's SoC. The specific gravity of
a battery is calculated using hydrometers. To determine specific gravity, the volume
of the electrolyte must be measured and weighed. Then (mass of electrolyte [g]/
volume of electrolyte [ml])/ (Density of Water, i.e., 1g/1ml) gives the specific
gravity. A look-up table of SG vs SoC is required to calculate SoC from specific
gravity. Voltage Method: - Using the battery's known discharge curve (voltage vs.
SoC), this approach transforms a readout of the battery voltage to SoC. The battery
current (due to the battery's electrochemical kinetics) and temperature, on the other
hand, have a greater impact on the voltage. This approach can be improved by
employing a look-up table of battery open circuit voltage vs. temperature and
adjusting the voltage measurement by a correction term proportionate to the battery
current. In fact, it is a declared goal of battery design to maintain a consistent
voltage regardless of the SoC, making this strategy impossible to implement.
Current Integration: - The SoC is calculated using this method, sometimes known as
"Coulomb counting," which involves measuring the battery current and integrating
it over time. Because no measurement is perfect, this method suffers from long-term
drift and a lack of a reference point: as a result, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a
regular basis, for as by setting the SoC to 100% when the battery is fully charged
(using one of the other methods described here). Kalman Filtering: - A Kalman
filter can be used to overcome the limitations of the voltage and current integration
methods. The battery can be described using an electrical model,
which will be used by the Kalman filter to anticipate the over-voltage caused by the
current. It can make an accurate estimate of the status of charge when used in
conjunction with coulomb counting. A Kalman filter's strength is that it can modify
its confidence in the battery voltage and coulomb counting in real time.
 5. STATE OF HEALTH (SoH)
The SoH of a battery is defined as the ratio of its maximum instantaneous releasable
capacity, (Q max (U) to the capacity of the new battery (Q new).

SOH (t) = (Q max/ (Q new) ………………………………….. eq (2).

• State of health (SOH) is a figure of merit of the present condition of a battery cell
(or a battery module, or a battery system), compared to its ideal conditions.

• The SOH is represented in percentage form. A SOH equal to 100% means it is a

fresh/new battery.

• The SOH could be derived capacity and the internal resistance, and it could also be
derived from other battery parameters like AC impedance, self-discharge rate, and
power density.

• Take the capacity as an example, SOH could be defined as the ratio of the current
capacity and the rated capacity given by the manufacture. Generally, if the battery
capacity is 80% less than the initial value, which means the SOH is less than 80%,
then the BMS would warn the user to change the batteries.

• The State of Health (SOH) of a battery declines over time due to aging and
degradation, leading to reduced capacity and increased internal resistance during
use or storage.

• For the battery in the PHEV (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle) which requires both
enough energy and sufficient power, both the capacity and internal resistance should
be considered for SOH estimation.

Parameters for Determining SoH: -

• Internal resistance and conductance

• Voltage

• Capacity

• Self-Discharge

• Age of the battery

• Ability to accept a charge

• Temperature of battery during its previous uses.

 6. Battery Losses
Energy losses in Li-ion batteries reduce efficiency and usable capacity. Key types
include:

 Ohmic Losses: Resistive heating from internal resistance (electrodes,

electrolyte, and contacts), proportional to I²R (current squared times
resistance).

 Polarization Losses: Voltage drops from slow ion diffusion or charge

transfer at electrode-electrolyte interfaces, especially at high currents.

 Self-Discharge: Chemical side reactions (e.g., electrolyte decomposition)

slowly drain charge, even when idle.

 Coulombic Efficiency Losses: Not all lithium ions return during charging
(~99% efficiency per cycle), accumulating over time.

 Thermal Losses: Excess heat from inefficiencies accelerates degradation,

particularly above 40°C.

Typical round-trip efficiency is 85–95%, influenced by charge/discharge rates (C-

rate), temperature, and age.
 7. Conclusion
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are a transformative technology, boasting high energy
density (150–250 Wh/kg), efficiency (85–95%), and versatility, making them
essential for electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and renewable energy storage.
Their low self-discharge (~1–2% monthly) and lack of memory effect ensure
reliable performance over 500–2000 cycles. However, success relies on managing
state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH). SOC, tracked via voltage, coulomb
counting, or advanced algorithms, prevents overcharge or deep discharge, while
SOH, often falling below 80% with age, signals degradation from capacity fade or
rising resistance. Battery losses—ohmic, polarization, self-discharge, and thermal—
reduce efficiency, with heat accelerating degradation, necessitating robust thermal
management.

Despite their strengths, Li-ion batteries face challenges: safety risks like thermal
runaway, high costs from scarce materials (e.g., cobalt, lithium), and environmental
concerns from production and disposal. Research is advancing solutions—solid-
state electrolytes for safety, silicon anodes for capacity, and AI-driven battery
management for longevity. Recycling and cobalt-free designs aim to enhance
sustainability. Li-ion batteries will remain vital, evolving to meet demands for a
cleaner, electrified future.
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