Department: Electrical & Electronic Engineering (EEE)

Course: Renewable Energy System

Course Code: EEE-4843
Credit Hours: 3
Semester: Spring-24

Segment: 05
PV System, Energy storage and Radiation Characteristics

Conducted by
Raihan Chowdhury
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE, IIUC
Email: [email protected]
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 Final Term Syllabus

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 Energy Storage Terminology
• Depth of Discharge (DoD)
DoD of a battery refers to the amount of a battery’s capacity that
has been used. Most manufacturers will specify a maximum DoD
for optimal performance.
For example, if a 10 kWh battery has a DoD of 90 percent, you
shouldn’t use more than 9 kWh of the battery before recharging it.
Generally speaking, a higher DoD means you will be able to Fig. 2: Depth of Discharge (DoD)
utilize more of your battery’s capacity.
• Capacity & power ratings
Capacity is the total amount of electricity that a solar battery can
store, measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). Most home solar
batteries are designed to be “stackable,” which means that you can
include multiple batteries with your solar-plus-storage system to
get extra capacity.
Fig. 3: Battery Capacity
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 Energy Storage Terminology
• Round-trip efficiency
A battery’s round-trip efficiency represents the amount of
energy that can be used as a percentage of the amount of
energy that it took to store it. For example, if you feed
five kWh of electricity into your battery and can only get
four kWh of useful electricity back, the battery has 80
percent round-trip efficiency (4 kWh / 5 kWh = 80%).
Generally speaking, a higher round-trip efficiency means Fig.4: Round Trip Efficiency
you will get more economic value out of your battery.
• Battery life & warranty
Example, a battery might be warrantied for 5,000 cycles
or 10 years at 70 percent of its original capacity. This
means that at the end of the warranty, the battery will have
lost no more than 30 percent of its original ability to store
energy.
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 Days of Autonomy (DOA)

✓ This is the number of days where no power generation is possible due to clouds or rain,
despite the fact that you continue to consume energy.
✓ DOA is defined as the time during which the load can be met with the battery alone, without
any solar inputs, starting of course from a "full charged" battery state.

Balance of System (BOS)

✓ The balance of system (BOS) encompasses all components of a photovoltaic system other
than the photovoltaic panels. This includes wiring, switches, a mounting system, one or
many solar inverters, a battery bank and battery charger, MPPT etc.

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Various Energy Storage Technologies

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energy storage technologies. 6
 Why Need Energy Storage?

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time. A device
that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator. Energy comes in multiple forms
including radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity, elevated
temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves converting energy from forms that
are difficult to store to more conveniently or economically storable forms.
✓ Solid State Batteries - A range of electrochemical storage solutions, including advanced
chemistry batteries and capacitors.
✓ Flow Batteries - batteries where the energy is stored directly in the electrolyte solution for
longer cycle life, and quick response times.
✓ Flywheels - mechanical devices that harness rotational energy to deliver instantaneous
electricity.
✓ Compressed Air Energy Storage - utilizing compressed air to create a potent energy reserve.
✓ Thermal - capturing heat and cold to create energy on demand.
✓ Pumped Hydro-Power - creating large-scale reservoirs of energy with water
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 Mechanical Energy Storage
Advantages:
• PHES has a roundtrip efficiency of 70–80%;
• Anticipated lifetime of PHES is around 40–60 years;
• Mature technology, capable of storing huge amounts of
energy.
• Fast response times;
• Inexpensive way to store energy.
Disadvantages:
• Few potential sites;
• Huge environmental impacts;
• Huge water source requirement.
Application:
Pumped Hydro Storage is at present the only utilized
method of large-scale grid energy storage. It can be
used to provide substantial benefits to the energy
system including frequency control, ramping/load
Fig. 9: Principal of a pumped hydro energy storage plant
leveling and peak shaving, load following, and
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provision of stand by reserve.
 Electrochemical Energy Storage
Conversion Efficiency: 85-95%
Life Cycle: 3000~8000 times
• Working Principal:
A battery is made up of an anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte,
and two current collectors (positive and negative). The anode and
cathode store the lithium. The electrolyte carries positively
charged lithium ions from the anode to the cathode and vice versa
through the separator. The movement of the lithium ions creates
free electrons in the anode which creates a charge at the positive
current collector. The electrical current then flows from the
current collector through a device being powered (cell phone,
computer, etc.) to the negative current collector. The separator
blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery.

• Application:
Mostly used in Mobile and Laptop Technology
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Fig. 10: Working phenomenon of Lithium Ion Battery
 Electrical Energy Storage
A supercapacitor also called as ultra capacitor or a high-capacity
capacitor or double-layer electrolytic capacitor that can store large
amounts of energy nearly 10 to 100 times more energy when
compared to the electrolytic capacitors.
Benefits:
• Efficiency and high-energy storage capacity.
• Faster charging capacity and faster delivery of energy.
• Has unlimited charging-discharging cycles
• Can handle low-high temperature, high reliability, and low
impedance.
• Supercapacitors are used to high power density.
Drawback:
• Low voltage cells, Voltage balancing needed, High self-discharge
as compared to electrochemical batteries.
Application: Large PV-installations, Used in wind turbines, Electric
Fig.11: Supercapacitor and hybrid vehicles, Back-ups the power in a quick discharging state.
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 Thermal Energy: Sensible Heat Storage

The sensible heat storage is one efficient way of storing thermal energy in order to the
conservation and utilization of the thermal energy and can be used to store and/or deliver energy
in many processes such as: solar collector systems, domestic cogeneration, exhaust gases from
domestic burners and then use this energy in domestic heating and domestic sanitary hot water.
One way to improve its efficiency is simulation using numerical methods to predict their
behavior and take advantage in the development of consumer applications. Through the
development of numerical simulation and the development of codes different situations can be
raised and solved experimentally and then confronted with the reality to get a faster progress in
their practical applications.
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 Thermal Energy: Latent heat storage

Latent heat storage uses the process of melting or crystallization of a material to

store heat. The materials selected for this purpose evidence a much higher storage
capacity within a small, defined temperature range compared to conventional
storage materials storing sensible heat. Therefore, applications that function within
a small temperature range are especially suited for latent heat storage. Many
applications exist in buildings, for example as cold storage for air-conditioning,
whereas other applications are found in industry or in the mobility sector.
For example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100
°C (212 °F) until the last drop evaporates, because all the heat being added to the
liquid is absorbed as latent heat of vaporization and carried away by the escaping
vapour molecules
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 selective surface

✓ Selective surfaces are surfaces for solar thermal absorbers that reduce re-radiation losses
and hence, increase thermal efficiency of collectors.
✓ They were first demonstrated in practical collectors in 1955.
✓ In solar thermal collectors, a selective surface or selective absorber is a means of
increasing its operation temperature and/or efficiency. The selectivity is defined as the
ratio of solar radiation-absorption (alpha) - to thermal infrared radiation-emission
(epsilon).
✓ Selective surfaces take advantage of the differing wavelengths of incident solar radiation
and the emissive radiation from the absorbing surface.
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 Chemical storage: Solar pond
✓ A solar pond is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal
energy.
✓ The layers of salt solutions increase in concentration with depth. Below a certain depth,
the solution has a uniformly high salt concentration.

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 Working Function of solar pond

Solar ponds can be naturally occurring; however, most ponds are man-made. Pond is
filled with salty water. Once the sun hits the pond the water warms and divides into
three layers. The top layer, known as the surface zone, is composed of primarily
freshwater due to the fact that salt typically settles at the bottom of water. The middle
layer is know as the insulation zone. The insulation zone has a higher salt concentration
than the surface zone. Crucial to a solar pond is the bottom layer known as the storage
zone. The storage zone is where all the hot water is held and this is what is converted
into electricity. The warm water stays at the bottom of a pond and gets hotter and hotter
with the more sunlight it receives. The bottom layer of a solar pond can reach 178
degrees Fahrenheit. What allows a solar pond to be used as an energy source is that a
pipe is placed at the bottom of the pond and draws the warm/ hot water out of the pond
by a pump and is circulated through a piping system that utilizes the heat.

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 Benefits of Hydrogen Storage Technology Over Batteries
❖Hydrogen has been known as the ‘fuel of the future’. Hydrogen is the lightest element in the
universe and has the highest energy density per unit mass of any known fuel, i.e. 142 MJ𝑘𝑔−1 .
❖Hydrogen can be used from small-scale stationary energy storage to mobile transportation to
large-scale base-load applications.
❖Once generated and stored, unlike batteries, hydrogen can generate heat through combustion or
electricity with a fuel cell and thus hydrogen is more versatile than batteries.
❖A key component to such a clean energy loop is the storage of hydrogen.
❖Hydrogen is already taken a viable option against many existing technologies.
❖The high energy density of hydrogen storage materials is an advantage over batteries, but this is
only one aspect. Solid state hydrogen storage is a game changing technology overcoming many
of the current barriers:
❖In this respect, the problem with batteries such as the lithium-ion is that the rate of discharge of
power from the battery is limited by the chemical reaction. And so, in the high power with lower
energy storage scenario, even though the amount of batteries required would be 2 units for
meeting the energy demand, an additional of 4 units of batteries would be required to meet the
power demand.
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 Design procedure of a PV system

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 A peak sun hour is defined as one hour in which the intensity of solar irradiance
(sunlight) reaches an average of 1,000 watts (W) of energy per square meter.

Example: An hour at midday that receives an average of 1,100 W/m² of sunlight is equal to 1.1
peak sun hours.
For example, if a given location receives a total of 6,650 Wh/m² of solar radiation over the course of a
day, then that location gets 6.65 peak sun hours.
Average peak sun hours by state

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 Selecting a Battery and Sizing the Battery Bank

✓ Application
✓ Battery Chemistry
✓ Voltage
✓ Storage Capacity
✓ Maximum Tolerable Depth Of Discharge (DOD), Or Minimum
Tolerable State Of Charge (SOC)
✓ Lifetime, Measured In Number 0f Complete
✓ Charge-discharge Cycles
✓ Self-discharge Rate
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 Round-trip Efficiency

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 Sizing of PV modules: PV only or hybrid?

✓ Determine the fraction of energy supplied

by PV.
✓ An example of cost analysis of a PV +
diesel hybrid system. Lowest cost may
determine the ratio of PV to diesel.
✓ Load: The daily electricity demand EL in
Wh is determined.
✓ Available solar energy at the site: It is
usually given in the form of monthly
averages of daily total global radiation on a
horizontal surface.
✓ If solar radiation data are given in MJ/m2-day, convert them into peak sun hours (PSH) for
the convenience of sizing.
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 Sizing of PV modules

✓ Obtain PV module technical data to estimate energy output at your site. Here is an example of
GEPV-100 PV module whose peak watt Pp output is 100 W.
✓ Peak watt: the max. power output of a PV module under standard test condition (Irradiance of
1 kW/m2, AM 1.5G, cell temperature 25°C).
Note: The max. power temp. coefficient -0.5%/°C. This means a drop of 0.5% in the efficiency
per °C of cell temperature.
✓ Daily electrical energy produced by a module:
✓ The peak watt Pp is given under standard cell temp. condition (Tc=25°C), but solar cells are
usually 10-30°C hotter than the daytime ambient temperature due to solar heating. If the
ambient air is 30°C, the cell temperature Tc could be expected to rise to 40-60 °C.
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 Sizing of PV modules

✓ Typical max. power temp. coefficient is -0.5%/°C. For a cell efficiency of ηc and a Tc of
60°C, the operating efficiency of the cell will reduce to

✓ We need to take into account energy losses caused by charge/discharge and self-discharge of
the batteries, power line 𝐼 2 R loss, inverter losses, etc. The overall efficiency (ηs) is typically
70%.
✓ The number of required modules considering the cell temperature (Tc) effect and overall
efficiency (ηs) is then given by

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 Reliability indices

Reliability means how reliable a system or a device can function properly. To quantify the reliability,
we need to define some reliability indices. We use different indices for different purposes. Indices
used in electric distribution systems are not suitable to a PV system. In PV systems, below indices
are used:
✓ LOLH ( loss of load hours): Over one year (8760 hrs), the cumulative time (in hours) that the
system fails to power loads because of lack of solar energy or stored energy.
✓ LOLP (loss of load probability): LOLP also means the fraction of time of one year that the system
fails to supply energy.
✓ EENS (expected energy not served): LOLH times the average load. EENS is in Wh.
✓ LOLE (loss of load events): The number of times of power failure (due to lack of solar energy)
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during one year.
 Reliability indices

✓ An LOLP of 1% means the probability of lack of energy is 0.01. Or equivalently 87.6 hours
without electricity, which means an LOLH of 87.6 hrs (3.65 days).
✓ An LOLP of 1% also means 99% of availability, which means that the system is available
over 99% of the time.
✓ Most research papers use LOLP as an index of reliability for PV systems. But LOLH is more
convenient to be translated into generator running time or energy from auxiliary power source.
✓ Selection of the level of reliability depends on the importance of your load, and also depends
on cost analysis of a hybrid system. If a diesel generator is adopted, a high LOLH design is
sometimes cheaper.
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 Reflectance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in reflecting radiant energy.
It is the fraction of incident electromagnetic power that is reflected at an interface. The
reflectance spectrum or spectral reflectance curve is the plot of the reflectance as a
function of wavelength.
Transmittance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in transmitting radiant
energy. It is the fraction of incident electromagnetic power that is transmitted through a
sample.
Absorption is the transformation of radiant power to another type of energy, usually
heat, by interaction with matter.

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 End of Segment 05

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