A Industrial Training Report on

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

An industrial Training Report Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted by
MEER MOHAMMED ABBAS (20KA1A0259)
Under the esteemed guidance of
Dr. Mrs. S. SAKUNTHALA, M.Tech, (Ph.d)
Assistant Professor (Ad-hoc)

At
ONE STOP

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELETRONICS ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING :: KALIKIRI

Annamayya (Dist)
Andhra Pradesh-517234 (2020-2024)
 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

ANANTAPUR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING: KALIKIRI

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the industrial training report entitled as “HYBRID ELECTRIC
VEHICLE “is a bonafide work of MEER MOHAMMED ABBAS (20KA1A0259) submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of “BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING” during the year
2020-2024.

Signature of the Internal guide: Signature of Head of the Department:

Mrs. S. SAKUNTHALA M.Tech, (Ph.D) Dr. K. JITHENDRA GOWD, M.Tech, Ph.D

Assistant Professor (Ad-hoc) Associate Professor & HEEED

Department of EEE Department of EEE

JNTUA College of Engineering JNTUA College of Engineering

Kalikiri -517234 Kalikiri – 517234

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
An endeavor over a long period can be successful only with a device and support of many
well-wishers. The task would be incomplete without mentioning the people who have made it
possible, because is the epitome of hard work. So with the guidance and encouragement owned our
efforts with success. It is great pleasure in expressing deep sense of gratitude and veneration for the
guidance at 1Stop.
We wish to express grateful acknowledgement to our internal guide Mrs S. SAKUNTHALA
Assistant professor (Ad-hoc), JNTUACE, Kalikiri, for her inspiring guidance and continuous
encouragement throughout the project.

We are thankful to Dr. K. JITHENDRA GOWD Professor and Head of EEE Department,
JNTUACE, Kalikiri, for his kind and timely help offered to us in projection of our studies and
execution.

Our special thanks to Prof. M. VENKATESWARA RAO, Principal of JNTUA College of

Engineering, Kalikiri, who provided us all the required facilities and helped in accomplishing the
project within time.

Finally, we would like to extend our deep sense of gratitude to all the staff members, friends
and finally we are greatly indebted to our parents who inspired us to all circumstances.
Project Associate:

MEER MOHAMMED ABBAS

(20KA1A0259)
 ABSTRACT
This internship report offers a comprehensive exploration of the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
internship conducted at 1 Stop. The program commenced with a robust theoretical foundation, providing
in-depth insights into the intricate workings of HEV technology. Through a series of structured classroom
sessions, interns were introduced to essential concepts, including the components of HEVs, operating
principles, and design considerations. The subsequent phase of the internship focused on practical
application, wherein interns engaged in hands-on projects aimed at translating theoretical knowledge into
tangible outcomes.
The projects undertaken during the internship spanned a diverse range of topics, each designed
to deepen understanding and foster skill development in specific areas of HEV technology. The first
project involved the modelling of the acceleration behaviour of a small electric car, specifically the GM
EV1 battery electric car, utilizing MATLAB. Through this project, interns gained practical experience in
data analysis, mathematical modelling, and simulation techniques, thereby enhancing proficiency in
MATLAB and its application in the context of automotive engineering. The second project centred on
the development of a Simulink model for calculating the velocity and distance travelled by an electric
vehicle based on motor torque. By implementing this model, interns gained hands-on experience in
Simulink modelling and simulation, further reinforcing their understanding of electric vehicle dynamics
and the interplay between motor torque, velocity, and distance travelled. The third project involved the
modelling of a DC motor, a critical component in hybrid electric drivetrains.
Through this endeavours, interns delved into the principles governing the operation of DC motors,
including electromechanical conversion, torque-speed characteristics, and control strategies. By
developing a detailed model of a DC motor, interns acquired a comprehensive understanding of its
behaviour and performance characteristics, laying the groundwork for the design and optimization of
efficient hybrid electric drivetrains. In conclusion, this internship report encapsulates the structure,
objectives, and outcomes of the HEV internship program at 1 Stop. It highlights the synergy between
theoretical learning and practical application, underscoring the value of hands-on projects in fostering
skill development and knowledge acquisition.
 LIST OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
CHAPTER 2 2
ELECTRIC VEHICLE
2.1 Types of Electric vehicles 2
2.2 Benefits of Electric vehicles 2
CHAPTER 3 3
INTRODUCTION TO CATIA
3.1 Overview 3
3.2 Key features of CATIA 3
CHAPTER 4 4 - 13
PROJECT 1 -Modelling the acceleration of GM EV1 battery eleetric car
using MATLAB
4.1 Mathematical equations for acceleration from torque 4-9
4.2 MATLAB code 10-11
4.3 Results 12-13
CHAPTER 5 14-21
PROJECT 2 velocity and distance Calculation of Electric Vehicle from Motor
Torque using Simulink model
5.1 Equations for motor power, Torque system 14-16
5.2 Model for velocity and distance using Simulink 17-21
CHAPTER 6 22-32
PROJECT 3 Modelling of DC Motor
6.1 Mathematical equations for DC motor 22-23
6.2 MATLAB code for DC motor speed using MATLAB 24-27
6.3 DC motor input voltage and output speed using Simulink 28-32
CONCLUSION 33
REFERENCE 34
 CHAPTER-1
INRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electric vehicles (EVs) are vehicles powered by one or more electric motors, using energy
stored in rechargeable batteries or other energy storage devices. As the automotive industry
moves towards sustainability and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, electric vehicles have
gained significant traction as an environmentally-friendly alternative to traditional internal
combustion engine vehicles. In the pursuit of sustainable mobility solutions, the automotive
industry has witnessed a paradigm shift towards Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). This
internship report encapsulates the culmination of immersive training and hands-on project
experiences, delving deep into the dynamic domain of HEVs. Over the course of the
internship, a comprehensive understanding of HEV technologies, their integration into
existing automotive platforms, and their potential impact on the future of transportation has
been cultivated.
The report reflects upon three distinct projects undertaken during the internship, each offering
unique insights and contributing to a holistic perspective on HEVs. From conceptualization
to execution, these projects have not only honed technical skills but have also fostered a sense
of innovation and problem-solving within the realm of sustainable transportation. Through
this report, the reader will embark on a journey through the intricate mechanisms of HEV
propulsion systems, the challenges encountered in their implementation, and the opportunities
they present in mitigating environmental concerns while enhancing driving performance and
efficiency. Additionally, the report aims to shed light on the importance of interdisciplinary
collaboration and continual learning in addressing the complexities of modern automotive
engineering.

1
 CHAPTER 2
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
2.1 TYPES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): BEVs are powered solely by electric batteries and do not
have an internal combustion engine. They produce zero tailpipe emissions and rely entirely
on electricity for propulsion. Examples include the Tesla Model S, Nissan Leaf, and Chevrolet
Bolt EV.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): PHEVs combine an electric motor with an internal
combustion engine and a battery. They can be charged via an external power source (plug-in)
and also have the ability to use gasoline or diesel fuel. PHEVs offer the flexibility of electric-
only operation for shorter trips and the extended range provided by the internal combustion
engine for longer journeys. Examples include the Toyota Prius Prime and BMW i3 REx.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): HEVs utilize both an internal combustion engine and an
electric motor for propulsion. However, unlike PHEVs, they cannot be charged externally and
rely on regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine to recharge the battery.
2.2 BENEFITS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Environmental Sustainability: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions when powered solely
by electricity, reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more energy-efficient than internal combustion
engines, resulting in lower energy consumption and reduced fuel costs.
Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: By utilizing electricity as a primary energy source, EVs
reduce dependence on fossil fuels and contribute to energy diversification and independence.
Lower Operating Costs: EVs have fewer moving parts and require less maintenance than
traditional vehicles, resulting in lower operating and maintenance costs over the vehicle's
lifetime.
Quiet and Smooth Operation: Electric motors operate quietly and provide smooth
acceleration, enhancing the driving experience and reducing noise pollution.
However, challenges such as limited driving range, longer recharging times compared to
refueling conventional vehicles, and the availability of charging infrastructure still exist.
Nonetheless, ongoing advancements in battery technology, increased investment in charging
infrastructure, and supportive government policies are driving the widespread adoption of
electric vehicles worldwide.

2
 CHAPTER 3
Modeling the Acceleration of GM EV1 battery electric car
using MATLAB

3.1 Mathematical Equations For Acceleration From Torque

Specifications:
1. Ultra-Low Drag Coefficient (Cd) of 0.19:
The drag coefficient (Cd) is a dimensionless number that represents the resistance of
an object to airflow. A lower Cd value indicates that the object is more aerodynamically
efficient, experiencing less drag as it moves through the air. In this case, a Cd of 0.19 suggests
that the car has a very streamlined shape, which helps reduce air resistance at high speeds.
2. Very Low Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (µrr) of 0.0048:
Rolling resistance is the force that opposes the motion of a rolling object. It is
influenced by factors such as tire construction and road surface. A low coefficient of rolling
resistance (µrr) indicates that the tires and the road surface have minimal resistance to the car's
motion, which can improve fuel efficiency and overall performance.
3. Use of Variable Frequency Induction Motors Operating at Very High Speed:
The car uses variable frequency induction motors that can operate at very high speeds,
up to nearly 12000 revolutions per minute (rpm) at maximum speed. These motors are likely
used for propulsion and can provide the necessary torque and power to drive the car efficiently.
4. Mass of the Car (m) = 1560 kg:
This is the total mass of the car, including the chassis, body, passengers, and cargo.
The mass of the car affects its acceleration, braking, and overall dynamics.
5. Gear Ratio (G) = 11:
The gear ratio represents the ratio of the number of teeth on the driving gear to the
number of teeth on the driven gear in a gear train. A higher gear ratio can provide more torque
but lower speed, while a lower gear ratio can provide higher speed but lower torque.
6. Tire Radius (r) = 0.3 m:
The tire radius is the distance from the center of the tire to the outer edge of the tread.
It is used to calculate the circumference of the tire, which is important for determining the
distance traveled per revolution of the tire.

3
7. Motor Torque (T):
The maximum torque (Tmax) of the motor is 140 Nm, and it operates at a speed of wc
= 733 radians per second (rad/s). This means that the motor can provide a maximum torque
of 140 Nm until the vehicle reaches a speed of 19.8 meters per second (71.3 km/h). Above
this speed, the motor operates at a constant power of 102 kW (kilowatts), which corresponds
to a torque of 2756/V, where V is the velocity of the car in meters per second.
Mathematical equations
Torque equation
Torque Equation for Fixed Axis Rotation
1. Introduction to Torque in Rotational Motion
Torque is a concept in rotational motion that is analogous to force in linear motion. It
is a measure of the rotational force that can cause an object to rotate around an axis. When a
force is applied to an object at a distance from the axis of rotation, it creates a torque. The
magnitude of the torque depends on the force applied, the distance from the axis of rotation
(called the moment arm or lever arm), and the angle at which the force is applied.Torque can
cause an object to start rotating (if it was at rest), stop rotating, or change its rotational speed.
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The direction of the torque
is perpendicular to the plane formed by the force vector and the moment arm, following the
right-hand rule.
2. Force Analysis on Rotating Body
When analyzing forces on a rotating body, we consider how forces affect its rotation. Two
key concepts are at play: centripetal force and torque.

 Centripetal Force
This force acts towards the center of rotation and keeps an object moving in a
circular path. Without a centripetal force, the object would move in a straight line. For
example, when a car turns, friction between the tires and the road provides the centripetal
force.
 Torque
Torque is the rotational equivalent of force. It causes an object to rotate around
an axis. For example, when you open a door, you apply torque to the door around its
hinges.

4
3. Choice of Axis and Tangential Acceleration
When dealing with rotational motion, the choice of axis is crucial for analyzing the
motion effectively. The axis of rotation is the line about which an object rotates.

 Fixed Axis
When analyzing the motion of an object rotating around a fixed axis (like a
spinning top), the choice of axis is straightforward. The axis is fixed in space and does
not move.
 Instantaneous Axis
In some cases, like when a wheel is rolling without slipping, the axis of rotation
is not fixed but changes continuously. In such cases, we can consider an "instantaneous
axis" that represents the axis of rotation at a particular instant.

Tangential acceleration, on the other hand, describes how the tangential velocity of a
rotating object changes over time. It is perpendicular to the radius of rotation and points in the
direction of the increasing tangential speed. Understanding these concepts helps in analyzing
and predicting the motion of rotating objects.

4. Torque Calculation

Torque is a measure of the rotational force applied to an object. It's calculated as the
product of the force applied and the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the
point where the force is applied.

 Force
The force must be applied to the object in a way that tends to cause it to rotate.
For example, when you turn a wrench to tighten a bolt, you apply a force to the handle
of the wrench.
 Distance
The distance is the shortest distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action
of the force. This distance is called the moment arm or lever arm. For example, if you're
turning a wrench, the moment arm is the distance from the bolt to the axis of the wrench.

5
  Direction
Torque is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane formed by the force vector and the
moment arm, following the right-hand rule.

5. Focus on z-Component of Torque

When we focus on the z-component of torque, we're considering the torque that causes
rotation around the z-axis in a three-dimensional space. This component is important in
situations where an object can rotate freely in any direction.

 Z-axis Torque
The z-component of torque is the torque that causes rotation specifically around
the z-axis. It arises when a force is applied in a direction perpendicular to the z-axis at a
distance from the z-axis. For example, if you push a door perpendicular to its surface at
a distance from its hinges, you're applying a z-component torque.
 Effect on Rotation
The z-component of torque affects the rotational motion of an object around
the z-axis. It can cause the object to start rotating, stop rotating, or change its rotational
speed around that axis.

 Direction
The direction of the z-component of torque follows the right-hand rule. If you
curl your fingers in the direction of the force, your thumb points in the direction of the z-
component of torque.

Understanding the z-component of torque is important in analyzing rotational motion in three

dimensions, where objects can rotate around multiple axes.

6. Torque Contribution and Summation

When multiple torques act on an object, each torque contributes to the overall rotational
motion. Understanding how these torques combine is crucial in analyzing rotational dynamics.

6
  Individual Torque Contributions
Each torque acting on an object produces its own rotational effect. For example,
if you apply a force to a door at a distance from its hinges, you create a torque that tends
to rotate the door around its hinges.
 Summation of Torques
The total or net torque on an object is the sum of all individual torques acting on
it. If multiple torques are acting on the same object, you can add them up to find the total
torque. This total torque determines how the object's rotation changes over time.
 Effect on Rotation
The total torque determines the rate of change of angular momentum of the
object. If the total torque is zero, the object's angular momentum is constant (no change
in rotation). If the total torque is nonzero, the object will accelerate in its rotation.

7. Total Torque Calculation

The total torque acting on an object is the sum of all individual torques acting on it.
To calculate the total torque, you consider the magnitude and direction of each torque and add
them up.

 Magnitude
For each torque, calculate its magnitude using the formula: where the distance
is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force.
 Direction
Torque is a vector quantity, so you must also consider its direction. The direction of
each torque depends on the direction of the force and the orientation of the lever arm. Use
the right-hand rule to determine the direction of each torque.

 Summation
Once you have calculated the magnitude and direction of each torque, add them
vectorially to find the total torque. If the torques are in the same direction, simply add
their magnitudes. If they are in opposite directions, subtract the smaller magnitude from
the larger one.

7
Understanding the total torque acting on an object is crucial for predicting its rotational motion
and how it responds to external forces.

Torque Equation

Acceleration Equation

1. Torque and Angular Acceleration Relationship

The relationship between torque and angular acceleration describes how the
rotational motion of an object changes in response to an applied torque.
 Torqu
Torque is the rotational equivalent of force in linear motion. It is a measure of the
rotational force applied to an object and is calculated as the product of the force applied
and the lever arm (distance from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is
applied). Torque causes an object to rotate around an axis.
 Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration is the rate at which an object's angular velocity (rate of
rotation) changes over time. It is analogous to linear acceleration in linear motion. A
positive angular acceleration means the object is speeding up its rotation, while a negative
angular acceleration means it is slowing down.
 Relationship
The relationship between torque and angular acceleration is described by
Newton's second law for rotational motion, which states that the torque applied to an
object is equal to the product of the object's moment of inertia and its angular
acceleration. In simpler terms, the torque applied to an object determines how quickly its
rotation changes.
 Effect of Torque
When a torque is applied to an object, it causes the object to accelerate in its
rotation. The direction of the angular acceleration is determined by the direction of the
torque relative to the object's rotation. If the torque is in the same direction as the rotation,

8
 it causes the object to speed up. If it is in the opposite direction, it causes the object to
slow down.
 Inertia and Torque
The moment of inertia of an object (which depends on its mass distribution) also
plays a role in the relationship between torque and angular acceleration. Objects with
larger moments of inertia require more torque to achieve the same angular acceleration
as objects with smaller moments of inertia.

2. Units

 Torque (τ
Torque is a measure of the rotational force applied to an object. It represents the
strength of the force that causes the object to rotate around an axis. In everyday terms,
you can think of torque as the "twisting force" applied to an object, such as when you use
a wrench to tighten a bolt or turn a steering wheel.
 Moment of Inertia (I
The moment of inertia is a measure of how the mass of an object is distributed
relative to the axis of rotation. It indicates how difficult it is to change the rotational
motion of an object. Objects with more mass distributed farther from the axis of rotation
have a greater moment of inertia and require more torque to rotate at the same rate as
objects with less mass or mass distributed closer to the axis.
 Angular Acceleration (α
Angular acceleration describes how quickly the angular velocity of an object
changes. Angular velocity is the rate at which an object rotates around an axis. Angular
acceleration can be positive, indicating an increase in rotational speed, or negative,
indicating a decrease in rotational speed.

These three quantities—torque, moment of inertia, and angular acceleration—are fundamental

in understanding and describing the rotational motion of objects. They helps to analyze how
forces cause objects to rotate and how their rotation changes over time.

3. Interpretation

 The equation shows that torque is directly proportional to angular acceleration.

9
  Objects with higher moments of inertia require more torque to achieve the same angular
acceleration compared to objects with lower moments of inertia.

4. Applications

 Engineers and physicists use this equation to calculate the torque required to accelerate
or decelerate rotating objects.
 It is essential in designing systems involving rotational motion, such as motors, gears,
and flywheels, to ensure they operate efficiently and safely.

3.2 MATLAB CODE

Code:
%acceleration simulation for EV car
t = linspace(0,15,151);
v = zeros(1,151);
dT = 0.1;
for n = 1:150
if v(n) < 19.8
v(n+1) = v(n)+dT*(3.11+(0.000137*(v(n)^2)));
else
v(n) >= 19.8;
v(n+1)=v(n)+dT*((62.1/v(n))0.046(0.000137*(v(n)^2)));
end
end
v = v * 3.6;
plot(t,v);
xlabel('Time/ seconds');
ylabel(' Velocity/kph');

10
 Fig 4.1 acceleration simulation of EV Car
Code Explanation:
 Time Vector Creation:
The `t = linspace(0,15,151);` line creates a time vector `t` with 151 evenly spaced
points from 0 to 15 seconds. These points represent the times at which the velocity of the
EV will be calculated.
 Velocity Initialization:

The `v = zeros(1,151);` line initializes a velocity vector `v` with 151 elements, all
set to zero. This vector will store the velocity of the EV at each time step.
 Time Step Size:
The variable `dT = 0.1;` represents the time step size, which is set to 0.1 seconds.
This small time step allows for a more accurate simulation of the vehicle's acceleration
over time.
 Simulation Loop:The `for n = 1:150` loop iterates from 1 to 150 (inclusive) to simulate the
velocity at each time step. The loop goes up to 150 because the velocity at the last time step
(151) is not needed.

11
  Acceleration Mode
Inside the loop, an if-else statement checks the current velocity `v(n)` against a
threshold velocity of 19.8 m/s to determine which acceleration model to use:
 Below 19.8 m/s
If `v(n)` is less than 19.8 m/s, the acceleration model used is `v(n+1) =
v(n)+dT*(3.11+(0.000137*(v(n)^2)));`. This model includes a constant term (3.11) and
a velocity-dependent term (0.000137*(v(n)^2)) to calculate the velocity at the next time
step.
 At or Above 19.8 m/
If `v(n)` is greater than or equal to 19.8 m/s, the acceleration model used is `v(n+1)
= v(n)+dT*((62.1/v(n))-0.046-(0.000137*(v(n)^2)));`. This model includes a term that
decreases with increasing velocity, simulating air resistance, in addition to a term that
increases with decreasing velocity, representing a diminishing acceleration at higher
speeds.
 Velocity Conversio
After the loop, the velocity vector `v` is multiplied by 3.6 to convert the velocities
from m/s to km/h, as the initial velocity model seems to be in m/s.
 Plotting

Finally, the code plots the velocity (`v`) against time (`t`) using the `plot` function,
with appropriate labels for the x-axis (`Time/seconds`) and y-axis (`Velocity/kph`).

3.3 RESULT(GRAPH)
The graph generated by the code represents the velocity of an electric vehicle (EV)
over time, as simulated by the provided acceleration model.
 Initial Acceleratio
At the beginning of the simulation (around time = 0), the velocity of the EV starts
from zero and quickly increases. This initial acceleration is likely due to the EV
accelerating from rest.

12
Fig 3.2 Constant Acceleration (Low Speeds)

Fig 3.3 Output Plot

13
 For the first part of the graph (where the velocity is below approximately 71 km/h or
19.8 m/s), the acceleration remains relatively constant. This is represented by a roughly
linear increase in velocity over time.
 Transition Point
At around 71 km/h (19.8 m/s), there is a noticeable change in the acceleration
behavior. This is where the acceleration model changes from the first condition (`v(n) <
19.8`) to the second condition (`v(n) >= 19.8`)Variable Acceleration (High Speeds):
After the transition point, the acceleration model changes, resulting in a different acceleration
behavior. The velocity still increases, but at a slower rate compared to the initial constant
acceleration phase. This is represented by a curved section of the graph after the transition point
 Asymptotic Approach to Maximum Speed
As time progresses, the rate of acceleration decreases further. The curve
approaches an asymptote, indicating that the EV is approaching its maximum speed. In
this simulation, the maximum speed is likely determined by the acceleration model's
parameters and is not explicitly defined in the code.

Overall, the graph shows how the acceleration of the EV changes over time, starting with a
rapid acceleration phase, transitioning to a slower acceleration phase, and eventually reaching
a maximum speed.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study demonstrates the importance of acceleration as a key performance
metric for electric vehicles (EVs) and highlights the factors influencing it, such as motor
speed, torque, and environmental conditions. The comprehensive simulation using MATLAB
provides valuable insights into EV dynamics and offers optimal acceleration strategies to
enhance efficiency and performance. The findings contribute to the advancement of EV design
and operation, supporting their adoption as a sustainable transportation solution.

14
 CHAPTER 4
PROJECT 3
Velocity and Distance Calculation of Electric Vehicle from Motor
Torque using Simulink Model

4.1 Mathematical equations for motor power, Torque

Velocity:
Velocity is a fundamental concept in physics and engineering that describes the rate of
change of an object's position with respect to time. In the context of an electric vehicle,
velocity refers to the speed at which the vehicle is traveling along a certain direction, typically
measured in meters per second (m/s) or kilometers per hour (km/h).
Understanding Velocity
Speed vs. Velocity: While speed refers to the magnitude of the velocity (how fast an object is
moving), velocity also includes the direction of motion. For example, a car traveling at 60
km/h north has a velocity of 60 km/h north, while a car traveling at 60 km/h south has a
velocity of 60 km/h south.
Instantaneous Velocity: Instantaneous velocity refers to the velocity of an object at a specific
point in time. It is calculated by determining the object's displacement over a very small time
interval.
Average Velocity: Average velocity is the total displacement of an object divided by the total
time taken. It gives a rough estimate of the object's overall motion.
Calculating Velocity
Velocity can be calculated using the formula:
Velocity = Displacement/Time
Displacement: Displacement is the change in position of an object. It is a vector quantity that
includes both magnitude and direction.
Time: Time is the duration over which the displacement occurs. It is typically measured in
seconds (s).
Example: If a car travels a distance of 100 meters in 20 seconds, its velocity can be calculated
as:

Velocity = 100 meters/20 seconds= 5 meters per second (m/s).

15
Factors Affecting Velocity of an Electric Vehicle

Motor Torque: The torque produced by the electric motor directly affects the acceleration
and, consequently, the velocity of the vehicle.
Vehicle Mass: Heavier vehicles require more force to accelerate, which can affect their
velocity.
Aerodynamic Drag: Air resistance can limit the maximum velocity of a vehicle, especially
at higher speeds.
Road Conditions: The friction between the tires and the road surface can affect the vehicle's
acceleration and velocity.
Understanding and calculating velocity is crucial for analyzing the performance of electric
vehicles and optimizing their design for efficiency and performance.
Torque
Torque is a fundamental concept in physics and engineering that describes the
rotational force applied to an object around an axis. In the context of electric vehicles, torque
refers to the force that the electric motor applies to the wheels to make the vehicle move.
Here's a detailed explanation of torque:
Understanding Torque
Definition: Torque (τ) is defined as the product of the force (F) applied to an object and the
distance (r) from the axis of rotation at which the force is applied. Mathematically, it is
expressed as: τ=F×r
Direction: Torque is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of the torque is perpendicular to both the force and the distance vector, following the
right-hand rule.
Units: The SI unit of torque is the Newton-meter (N·m). In the context of electric vehicles,
torque is often expressed in Newton-meters or pound-feet (lb-ft).
Moment Arm: The distance r in the torque equation is often referred to as the moment arm
or lever arm. It represents the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the point
where the force is applied.
Torque in Electric Vehicles
Motor Torque: In electric vehicles, torque is generated by the electric motor. The motor
applies a torque to the wheels, causing them to rotate and propel the vehicle forward.

16
Types of Torque
Static Torque: The torque required to overcome static friction and start the vehicle moving
from a standstill.
Dynamic Torque: The torque required to maintain the vehicle's speed and overcome various
resistances such as air drag and rolling resistance.
Peak Torque: The maximum torque that the motor can produce under certain conditions. It is
important for accelerating the vehicle quickly or climbing steep inclines.
Torque Curve: The torque produced by an electric motor can vary with speed. Electric motors
typically produce maximum torque at low speeds, with torque decreasing as speed increases.
This torque-speed relationship is often represented by a torque curve.
Calculating Torque
Formula: The torque produced by an electric motor can be calculated using the formula:
τ=I×α
Where
I is the moment of inertia of the rotating parts
α is the angular acceleration.
Motor Torque Output: The actual torque output of an electric motor depends on various
factors, including the motor's design, the current flowing through it, and the load it is driving.
Benefits of Torque in Electric Vehicles
Acceleration: Higher torque allows electric vehicles to accelerate quickly, providing better
performance compared to internal combustion engine vehicles.
Efficiency: Electric motors can deliver high torque at low speeds, making them efficient in
stop-and-go city driving.
Regenerative Braking: Electric motors can also act as generators during braking, converting
the vehicle's kinetic energy back into electrical energy and reducing wear on the brakes.

Design Calculations:
Design requirements
Weight 2000N
Speed 50 kmph
Power required
P=FxV
F= Total Force
V= Velocity of the vehicle
F= F total = F gradient+ F rolling + F aerodynamic drag
Force due to climbing hills ( F gradient )

17
Fh = W sin Φ (Angle of incline Φ is 2.5)
= Mg sin Φ = W sin Φ
= 2000x sin 2.5
= 87.23 N

F r = C rW cosΦ (for asphalt roads Cr =0.004)

= 0.004 x2000 x cos 2.5
= 7.99 N

Fd = 0.5 ρ Cd A V2
(Cd value is 0.5 for frontal area A=0.7 m2 , ρ density of air 1.2 kg/ m3 )
= 0.5 x (1.2) x 0.5 x 0.7x 13.88x13.88
=40.457 N

Total force on the vehicle

F = Fh + F r + Fd
= 87.23+7.99+40.45
= 135.67N
Effective force on the vehicle=Force due to motor-Total force

TORQUE
Torque of the motor=Force x radius of the wheel
Acceleration = Effective Force/mass of vehicle
d/dt(velocity)=acceleration
d/dt(distace)=velocity

4.2 Model for velocity and distance using Simulink

Fig 4.1 Simulink explanation

18
 Fig 4.2 Simulink Diagram

To calculate the velocity and distance traveled by an electric vehicle based on motor torque
using a Simulink model, we can follow these steps:

1. Modeling the Electric Vehicle Dynamics:

- Create a Simulink model to represent the dynamics of the electric vehicle.
- Include components such as the motor, vehicle body, wheels, and the environment
(e.g., road conditions, air drag).

2. Defining the Motor Torque Input:

- Add a block to represent the motor torque input to the system.
- This block can be a simple input signal or a more complex function that simulates
real-world driving conditions.

3. Calculating the Vehicle Speed:

- Use the motor torque input and the vehicle dynamics to calculate the vehicle speed.
- This calculation can be based on the vehicle's mass, the motor torque, wheel radius,
and other relevant parameters.

4. Integrating to Calculate Distance Traveled:

- Integrate the vehicle speed over time to calculate the distance traveled by the
electric vehicle.
- This integration can be done using the 'Integrator' block in Simulink.

5. Simulation and Analysis:

- Run the simulation to analyze how the vehicle speed and distance traveled vary
with the motor torque input.
19
6. Parameter Tuning and Optimization:
- Fine-tune the parameters of the model (e.g., vehicle mass, wheel radius) to match
real-world performance.
- Optimize the model to improve the accuracy of the velocity and distance
calculations.

7. Validation and Verification:

- Validate the Simulink model by comparing its results with real-world data from an
actual electric vehicle.
- Verify that the model accurately predicts the vehicle's behavior under different
motor torque inputs.

8. Further Enhancements:
- Add additional features to the model, such as regenerative braking, to make it more
realistic and useful for analyzing electric vehicle performance.

Overall, using a Simulink model to calculate the velocity and distance traveled by an
electric vehicle based on motor torque can provide valuable insights into the vehicle's
performance and help optimize its design for efficiency and reliability.

4.3 Model for velocity and distance using Simulink

Fig 4.2 Model for velocity and distance using simulink

In Simulink, when you provide inputs such as the angle of inclination, weight of the
vehicle, torque, density of air, and maximum velocity, the simulation block will utilize these
inputs to calculate the values of velocity and distance based on relevant formulas. The output

20
values will be presented in kilometers per hour for velocity and kilometers for distance. You
can conveniently visualize these output values using a display block.
In addition, Simulink allows you to calculate the output values based on different
parameters, such as changes in the angle of inclination, torque, and other factors. By
modifying these input parameters, you can observe how the output values for velocity and
distance change accordingly. This flexibility enables you to analyze the effects of various
factors on the vehicle's performance in a dynamic and interactive manner.

Angle of Inclination: "The angle of inclination of the road is [angle] degrees."

Weight of the Vehicle: "The weight of the vehicle is [weight] kg."
Torque: "The motor torque input is [torque] Nm."
Density of Air: "The density of air is [density] kg/m^3."
Maximum Velocity: "The maximum velocity of the vehicle is [max_velocity] km/h."
Output Values: "The vehicle's velocity is [velocity] km/h and the distance traveled is
[distance] km."

Conclusion
In conclusion, electric vehicles (EVs) represent a promising solution for reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and decreasing reliance on fossil fuels in the transportation sector.
Understanding and predicting the impact of factors such as vehicle weight, maximum velocity,
and air drag on EV performance are crucial for optimizing their operation.

The Simulink model developed in this study provides a valuable tool for simulating EV
performance and analyzing the effects of various parameters. By inputting parameters such as
motor torque, researchers and engineers can simulate different scenarios and gain insights into
how these parameters influence the vehicle's speed and distance traveled.

Overall, the use of Simulink in electric vehicle simulation offers a comprehensive

platform for designing and analyzing EVs, contributing to the development of more
efficient and sustainable transportation solutions.

21
 CHAPTER 5
PROJECT 3
Modeling of DC Motor
5.1 Mathematical equations for DC motor
DC Motor
A DC (direct current) motor is a type of electric motor that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy. It operates based on the principle of Lorentz force, where a current-
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. DC motors are widely used
in various applications due to their simplicity, controllability, and reliability.

Components of a DC Motor:
1. Stator: The stationary part of the motor that houses the field windings.
2. Rotor: The rotating part of the motor that includes the armature winding.
3. Armature: The winding to which the DC supply is connected, producing the motor's
electromagnetic field.
4. Commutator: A segmented cylindrical ring that periodically reverses the direction of
current in the armature windings, ensuring continuous rotation.
5. Brushes: Carbon or graphite contacts that deliver current to the commutator segments from
the external circuit.
Working Principle:
1. Electromagnetic Induction: When current flows through the armature winding, it creates
an electromagnetic field. This field interacts with the magnetic field produced by the stator,
generating a torque that causes the rotor to rotate.

22
2. Commutator Action: As the rotor turns, the commutator segments switch the direction of
current in the armature windings, ensuring that the torque is always in the same direction,
leading to continuous rotation.
3. Torque Production: The torque produced by the motor is proportional to the product of
the magnetic field strength, armature current, and the length of the conductor in the magnetic
field.
Types of DC Motors:
1.Series Wound: The field and armature windings are connected in series. These motors
provide high starting torque but may run at dangerously high speeds if the load is suddenly
removed.
2. Shunt Wound: The field and armature windings are connected in parallel. These motors
offer relatively constant speed characteristics and are suitable for applications requiring
constant speed.
3. Compound Wound: Combines the characteristics of series and shunt wound motors,
providing both high starting torque and relatively constant speed.
Advantages of DC Motors:
1. Simple construction and control.
2. High starting torque.
3. Speed can be easily controlled over a wide range.
4. Reversing the direction of rotation is straightforward.
Applications of DC Motors:
1. Industrial machinery (e.g., conveyor belts, pumps, and compressors).
2. Electric vehicles.
3. Robotics and automation.
4. Household appliances (e.g., fans, blowers, and mixers).
In conclusion, DC motors are versatile and widely used in various applications due to their
reliable performance, controllability, and ease of maintenance. Understanding the working
principles and characteristics of DC motors is crucial for designing efficient and effective
motor control systems.

Electrical Equation:
The electrical equation describes how the armature voltage (V), back electromotive force
(EMF) (E), armature resistance ( R ), and armature current ( I ) are related. It states that the

23
armature voltage is equal to the sum of the back EMF and the voltage drop across the armature
due to the armature current flowing through the armature resistance.
Mechanical Equation:
The mechanical equation relates the torque ( T ) produced by the motor, the motor's armature
current ( I ), and its speed omega). It states that the torque produced by the motor is directly
proportional to the armature current.
Equation of Motion:
The equation of motion relates the motor's torque, load torque ( T ), moment of inertia of the
motor and load ( J ), and angular acceleration ( alpha ). It states that the net torque applied to
the motor is equal to the difference between the torque produced by the motor and the load
torque.
Speed Equation:
The speed equation describes how the motor's speed ( omega ) is related to the armature
voltage, armature current, armature resistance, and back EMF constant. It shows how changes
in these parameters affect the motor's speed.
Transfer Function:
The transfer function of a DC motor describes the relationship between the input voltage and
the output speed of the motor. It provides insights into the motor's dynamic response to
changes in the input voltage.
These equations are fundamental for understanding the behavior of a DC motor and are used
in designing control systems for optimal performance.
5.2 MATLAB code for DC motor speed using MATLAB
Physical Parameters:
(J) moment of Inertia of the rotor 0.01 kg.m^2
(b) motor viscous friction constant 0.1 N.m.s
(Ke) electromotive force constant 0.01 V/rad/sec
(Kt) motor torque constant 0.01 N.m/Amp
(R) electric resistance 1 ohm
(L) electric Inductance 0.5 N
Matlab Code:
J=0.01;
b=0.1;
K=0.01;

24
R=1;
L=0.5;
s=tf('s');
P_motor=K/((J*s+b)*(L*s+R)+K^2);
linearSystemAnalyzer('step', P_motor, 0:0.01:5)

Fig 5.1 Matlab Code

Code explanation:
Certainly! Here's a detailed explanation without equations:
1. Parameters Definition:
`J`: Moment of inertia, representing the motor's resistance to changes in its angular velocity.
`b`: Viscous friction coefficient, indicating the frictional forces opposing the motor's motion.
`K`: Motor torque constant, relating the motor's torque output to the current input.
`R`: Armature resistance, representing the electrical resistance of the motor's winding.
`L`: Armature inductance, indicating the motor's ability to store energy in a magnetic field.
2. Transfer Function Modeling:
The transfer function describes how the motor responds to changes in the input.
It considers the motor's inertia, friction, electrical resistance, and inductance.
This mathematical model helps predict the motor's behavior under different conditions.
3. Step Response Analysis:
The step response shows how the motor's speed or position changes when a step change in
input is applied.
25
It helps assess the motor's performance, such as how quickly it reaches a stable speed and
how much it overshoots or oscillates.
Engineers use this analysis to tune control systems for optimal motor performance in various
applications.
4. Interpretation of Results:
The step response graph provides insights into the motor's dynamic behavior.
The rise time indicates how quickly the motor reaches its final speed.
Overshoot shows how much the speed exceeds the final value before stabilizing.
Settling time indicates how long it takes for the speed to settle within a specified range of the
final
value.
5. Practical Implications:
Understanding the motor's transfer function and step response helps engineers design control
systems to achieve desired performance.By adjusting parameters such as inertia, friction, and
electrical properties, engineers can optimize the motor's efficiency, speed, and torque for
specific applications.This analysis is crucial for designing efficient and reliable systems using
DC motors in robotics, manufacturing, and other industries.In summary, the MATLAB code
and analysis provide valuable insights into the behaviour of a DC motor, aiding engineers in
designing and optimizing control systems for various applications.

Fig 5.2Compiling the Project

26
 Fig 5.3 Output Wave Form
The graph obtained from the code represents the step response of the DC motor's speed or
angular position. Here's a detailed explanation of the graph:
1. Time Axis (x-axis):
The x-axis represents time in seconds.
It starts from 0 seconds and extends to 5 seconds, as specified in the code with a step size
of 0.01 seconds.
2. Motor Speed/Position Axis (y-axis):
The y-axis represents the motor's speed or angular position.
The units depend on the specific application and the motor's characteristics (e.g.,
revolutions per minute, radians per second).
3. Step Input Response:
Initially, the motor is at rest (speed or position is 0).
At time 0, a step input is applied, causing an abrupt change in the input signal (e.g., voltage
or current).
The motor responds to this step input by starting to move or changing its position.
4. Response Characteristics:
Rise Time: The time taken by the motor's speed or position to rise from 0 to its final value.
Overshoot: The amount by which the speed or position exceeds its final value before
settling.

27
 Settling Time: The time taken by the speed or position to settle within a specified range
(e.g., 2% or 5%) of the final value.
Steady-State: The final stable speed or position reached by the motor after the transient
response settles.
5. Interpretation of the Graph:
The shape of the curve indicates how quickly the motor responds to the step input and how
smoothly it reaches its final speed or position.The slope of the curve at different points
represents the motor's acceleration or deceleration.The peak of the curve (if there is overshoot)
indicates the maximum speed or position reached before settling.
6. Analysis and Optimization:
Engineers use the step response graph to analyze the motor's performance
characteristics.They can adjust parameters such as inertia, friction, and electrical properties to
optimize the motor's speed, torque, and efficiency for specific applications.The goal is to
achieve a fast, stable response with minimal overshoot and settling time.
5.3 Model DC motor input voltage and output speed using Simulink

Fig 5.4 Model DC motor input voltage and output Speed using simulink

In Simulink, the following blocks are commonly used for modeling and simulating dynamic
systems:
1. Sum Block:
The Sum block is used to sum or subtract signals.

28
 It can have two or more inputs, and the operation (sum or difference) is determined by the
block's parameters.The Sum block is often used to create error signals for control systems by
subtracting feedback signal from a reference signal.
2. Gain Block:
The Gain block is used to scale a signal by a constant factor.
It multiplies the input signal by the value specified in the block's parameters.
Gain blocks are used to adjust the amplitude or magnitude of signals in a system.
3. Integration Block:
The Integration block performs numerical integration on the input signal.
It computes the integral of the input signal with respect to time.
Integration blocks are used to model systems with dynamics that involve integration, such
as velocity
or position from acceleration.
4. Display Block:
The Display block is used to visualize and monitor signals during simulation.
It displays the input signal as a plot or a numerical value.
Display blocks are useful for debugging and understanding the behavior of the system during
simulation.
5. Input Block:
The Input block is used to provide external signals to the model.
It can generate constant signals, step signals, sine waves, etc., depending on the block's
parameters.
Input blocks are used to simulate external inputs to the system, such as setpoints or
disturbances.
6. Output Block:
The Output block is used to extract signals from the model for analysis or visualization.
It allows you to monitor and record specific signals during simulation.
Output blocks are used to extract important signals for analysis, such as system responses
or outputs.

29
 Fig 5.5 Formation of Motor Block by combining All Blocks

In Simulink, you can create a block diagram by connecting various blocks to model a dynamic
system. One common scenario is to connect the following blocks together:
1. Input Block: This block generates a step response signal, which represents a sudden change
in the input to the system.
2. Gain Block: The gain block scales the input signal by a constant factor. This factor can be
adjusted to change the magnitude of the input signal.
3. Integration Block: The integration block performs numerical integration on the input
signal, computing the integral of the signal with respect to time.
4. Sum Block: The sum block subtracts the output of the integration block from the input
signal. This creates an error signal that represents the difference between the desired response
(step input) and the actual response (integrated signal).
5. Output Block: The output block extracts the output signal from the system for analysis. In
this case, we connect it to a Scope block.
Scope Block:
The Scope block is used to visualize and monitor signals during simulation. When connected
to the output of the system, the Scope block displays the output signal as a graph. This graph
represents how the system responds to the step input over time.

30
Explanation
1. Step Input: The step response signal represents a sudden change in the input to the system.
It is typically used to test and analyze the response of a system to a change in its input.
2. Gain Adjustment: The gain block allows you to adjust the magnitude of the input signal.
By changing the gain value, you can observe how the system's response changes.
3. Integration: The integration block simulates the integration of the input signal. This is
useful for modeling systems with dynamics that involve integration, such as velocity or
position from acceleration.
4. Error Calculation: The sum block calculates the error signal by subtracting the integrated
signal from the input signal. This error signal represents the deviation of the system's response
from the desired response.
5. Output Visualization: The output block extracts the output signal from the system for
analysis. By connecting it to a Scope block, you can visualize the system's response as a graph.

Fig 5.6 Matlab Code

1. Time Axis (x-axis): Represents the simulation time in seconds.

2. Motor Speed Axis (y-axis): Represents the angular velocity of the motor in radians per
second.
3. Step Input Response: At the beginning of the simulation (time = 0), a step input is applied
to the motor, causing an abrupt change in the input signal. This represents a sudden change in
the motor's operating conditions, such as a change in the voltage or load.
4. Speed Response Curve: The graph shows how the motor's speed changes over time in
response to the step input. It illustrates the dynamic behavior of the motor, including its
acceleration, deceleration, and settling to a new steady-state speed.
31
5. Rise Time: The time it takes for the motor's speed to rise from 0 to its final steady-state
value. A shorter rise time indicates a faster response.

Fig 5.7 Output wave forms

6. Overshoot: The extent to which the motor's speed exceeds its final steady-state value before
settling. It is represented by any peak above the final value on the graph.
7. Settling Time: The time it takes for the motor's speed to settle within a specified range
(e.g., 2% or 5%) of the final steady-state value. A shorter settling time indicates a faster
response and better system performance.
8. Steady-State Speed: The final stable speed reached by the motor after the transient
response settles. This represents the motor's new operating speed under the new conditions.

32
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the internship experience within the realm of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs) has been both enlightening and rewarding. Through three distinct projects, we delved
into various facets of HEV technology, ranging from powertrain optimization to battery
management systems. This hands-on experience not only deepened our understanding of HEV
principles but also honed our practical skills in designing, implementing, and analyzing hybrid
systems.
Throughout the internship, we encountered challenges that tested our problem-solving
abilities and encouraged innovative thinking. From addressing efficiency concerns to
optimizing control algorithms, each obstacle presented an opportunity for growth and
learning. Moreover, collaborating with experienced professionals and engaging in cross-
disciplinary teamwork enriched our perspective and fostered a collaborative spirit essential
for success in the ever-evolving field of HEVs.
As we conclude this internship report, we recognize that the journey towards
sustainable transportation solutions is ongoing. Our contributions, albeit small in scale, align
with the broader mission of advancing HEV technology and reducing environmental impact.
We depart with newfound knowledge, skills, and a renewed passion to continue our pursuit of
excellence in the realm of Hybrid Electric Vehicles.

33
 REFERENCES
1. Y. Hua, J. Lin, M. Chen, and Y. Chen, "Modeling and Simulation of DC Motor Drive
System Based on MATLAB/Simulink," in *2017 IEEE International Conference on
Computational Science and Engineering (CSE)*, 2017, pp. 107-111
2. A. S. Sarwar, K. S. Islam, and M. H. Rashid, "Modeling and Simulation of DC Motor
Using Matlab and LabVIEW," in *2017 International Conference on Electrical,
Computer and Communication Engineering (ECCE)*, 2017, pp. 176-179.
3. M. Zhang, G. Yuan, and C. Liu, "Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Permanent
Magnet DC Motor Based on MATLAB/Simulink," in *2019 IEEE International
Conference on Electrical Engineering and Control (ICEEC)*, 2019, pp. 240-243.
4. X. Wu, W. Li, and L. Zhang, "Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Electric Vehicle
Based on MATLAB/Simulink," in *2018 IEEE International Conference on
Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA)*, 2018, pp. 1719-1724.
5. X. Li, Z. Jiang, and J. Zhang, "Dynamic Modeling and Simulation of Electric Vehicles
with DC Motor Based on MATLAB/Simulink," in *2020 IEEE International Conference
on Electrical and Electronics Engineering (EEE)*, 2020, pp. 269-274.

34