Aleja C.

Quiambao
11 – B (ABM)
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
LESSON: BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
Biological macromolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes,
such as respiration and metabolism. As the term implies, these are “large” molecules because
they are made of long chains of three of the most common elements on the earth’s surface –
oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.
TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Lipids
4. Nucleic Acid

CARBOHYDRATES
These are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general
formula of (CH2O)n. They can be grouped depending on the number of their monomer units
called saccharides. The main function of carbohydrates is to store and provide energy. Also, it
serves as the framework of cellular structures. It can be divided into three major groups:
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharide (‘sacchar’ means sweet). It is the simplest form of carbohydrates. It is
composed of about three to seven carbon atoms. The most common of which is glucose. It is a
monosaccharide because it has one carbon chain or carbon ring. In humans, glucose is the
simplest molecule that could be absorbed by the cells. It is sweet, colorless, solid at room
temperature and extremely soluble in water. Examples are glucose, fructose, and galactose.
STRUCTURE OF MONOSACCHARIDES
Glucose — Glucose (dextrose) is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. It is the
most abundant monosaccharide. It is mainly made by plants and most algae during
photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight.
Fructose — Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple sugar found in many plants, where it is often
bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary
monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into blood during
digestion.
Galactose — Galactose (milk sugar), also known as Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is around
as sweet as glucose and 65 percent sweeter than sucrose. Sources of galactose include dairy
items, avocados, sugar beets, and other gums.

Disaccharides
As the name implies, this carbohydrate is made up of two rings of carbon resulting from the
combination of monosaccharides in a process known as dehydration synthesis. The process is
dehydration because a molecule of water is removed and synthesis because two
monosaccharides are put together. Examples are sucrose, lactose, maltose.
Guide:
MONOSACCHARIDE MONOSACCHARIDE DISACCHARIDE

glucose glucose maltose

fructose glucose sucrose

galactose glucose lactose

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units. They are also called complex
carbohydrates. Common examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
Starch — Starch is produced mostly by green plants to store energy. It is comprised solely of
glucose subunits.
Glycogen — Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of
energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria.
Cellulose — Cellulose is found in plant cells and is abundantly present in their cell walls. Cellulose
plays an important role in the structure and strength of plants.
 Structure of Polysaccharides

Did you know that?

Marathon runners, tri-athletes, and other runners eat carbohydrates for weeks leading up to a big event.
They call it “carbo-loading”.

What’s the point?

As the athletes consume massive amounts of starch and pasta, the energy begins to store up in their body,
saving itself for use during the event.

PROTEINS
Proteins are polymers, meaning they are large molecules made up of many smaller molecules.
The small molecules that make up proteins are called amino acids. Each amino acid contains a
carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain (also known as an R group).
Structure of Amino Acid
Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds, which form between the amino group of one
molecule and the carboxyl group of another. Two amino acids joined together is called
a dipeptide; a chain made of multiple amino acids is known as a polypeptide.
Peptide Bonding

Four Levels of Protein Structure

1. Primary Protein Structure – a simple chain of amino acids (AKA a polypeptide chain).

2. Secondary Protein Structure – is made by folding of the

polypeptide chain. The polypeptide chain folds up
and hydrogen bonds form between the atoms of the
polypeptide chain, holding the secondary structure in
place.
3. Tertiary Protein Structure – Protein isn’t fully functional until it has a
3D shape. The 3D structure of a protein is referred to as its tertiary
structure and is made by further folding of secondary proteins.
Interactions between the side chains of amino acids lead to the
formation of the tertiary structure, and bonds form between them as
the protein folds. These include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds,
and disulfide bonds. Disulfide bonds are covalent bonds that form between sulfur-
containing side chains and are much stronger than other types of bonds. The disulfide
bonds are what hold the tertiary structure of the protein in place.
 4. Quaternary Protein Structure – Many proteins are made
of a single polypeptide chain and don’t become any more
complex than their tertiary structure. However, some
proteins are made up of multiple polypeptide chains.
When several polypeptide chains (AKA subunits) come
together, they can form a structure known as a quaternary
protein. One example of a quaternary protein structure is
hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made up of four polypeptide
chains, and is specially adapted to bind oxygen in the
blood.

Examples of Protein:
1. Keratin – is a structural protein found in hair, skin, and nails.
2. Fibroin/Silk Protein – is found in silk. Silk has a smooth and soft texture. It is one of the
strongest natural fibers that have high resistance to deformation. It is also a good
insulating material.
3. Collagen – is a major insoluble fibrous protein found in connective tissues such as
tendons, ligaments, skin, cartilage and the cornea of the eye. It comprises as much as 30%
of proteins in animals.
4. Enzymes – function to catalyze chemical reactions. They either speed up a reaction, lower
the needed energy for a reaction to take place, or bind substances to their specific
partners.
a) Lipase – help in digestion of fats
b) Pepsin – help in breaking down proteins into peptides (smaller units)
c) Sucrase – also called invertase; help in the digestion of sugars and starches
5. Myoglobin – is a polypeptide that stores oxygen in muscles. It contains a heme group
which has an iron where the oxygen is stored.

LIPIDS
Lipids, usually called fats, are a family of organic compounds mostly insoluble in water. Fatty
acids are the building blocks of the lipids (fats). They are produced when digestion breaks down
fats. Fatty acid is the basic structure of fat, which can then be absorbed into the blood.
2 Classes of Fatty Acids
 1. Saturated Fats – are fatty acids where the four
arms of carbon are all bonded to hydrogen. The
C-H bond is stronger bond compared to C-C bond.
This is the reason why saturated fat in butter,
cheese and red meat are solid at room temperature.
2. Unsaturated Fats – Unsaturated fat, on the other
hand, is composed of fatty acids with two carbon
atoms connected by a double bond, which is
considered a weak bond compared to a purely C-H
bond. This is why unsaturated fats, such as
vegetable oil is liquid at room temperature.

3 Main Types of Lipids

1. Triacylglycerols – Triacylglycerol is also known as triglyceride. It is composed of glycerol
and fatty acids. Glycerol is a molecule with three carbons, each containing a hydroxyl (OH)
group while fatty acid is a long chain of carboxylic acid.

2. Phospholipids – Phospholipid is a type of lipid molecule that is the main component of

the cell membrane. As a major component of the cell membrane, it is a bilayer whose
“head” or upper layer is hydrophilic. On the other hand, its “tail” or lower layer is
hydrophobic.
Because of this
property,
phospholipids are
effective barrier to
the passage of ions
and molecules into
and out of the cell.
This means that practically all molecules in a water solution, but because of the
 hydrophobic layer, not all of these molecules can enter the cell with the aid of
membrane proteins embedded in the bilayer.

3. Sterols – are lipids appear as tetrameric (4-sided) rings comprising about 50% of the
membrane lipid content in cells, thus altering the membrane fluidity and structure. The
most common sterol in animal membrane is cholesterol. Cholesterol is manufactured by
the human body, so there is a need to eat food rich in cholesterol (such as animal fats,
sausages, and butter) in moderation. Egosterol are found in membranes of fungi and
protists, while phytosterols are found in plants.
Structure of Cholesterol

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of nucleotides. Nucleotides
are monomers with three components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. The nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bonds.

2 Types of Nucleic Acids:

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – This is a double helix molecule composed of the sugar
deoxyribose, a phosphate and the nitrogen-containing bases cytosine, guanine, adenine,
and thymine. It is found in the nucleus of the cell.
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) – This is a single strand molecule whose sugar is ribose. It is found
in the nucleolus. It also uses the same nucleotides but with the exception of thymine
because this is replaced by uracil in RNA. It is found in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Functions of Nucleic Acids: The function of nucleic acid is that DNA contains the genetic
instructions for the development and functioning of organisms. This genetic information is
converted by the RNA into amino acid sequences of proteins.

3 Types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) – The mRNA carries the
genetic sequence information between the DNA and
ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are synthesized.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – The rRNA catalyzes the
peptide bond formation
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) – The tRNA serve as the carrier
molecules of the amino acids that make up the
protein.