GENETICS

This is the study of heredity and variation

Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to another, through genes during
reproduction
It occurs in all organisms
However some features are not heritable e.g enlarged muscles as a result of exercise e.g weight
lifting.
Such features that develop during an individual’s lifetime are called acquired characteristics
and are not heritable since they are not based on genes.
Heredity results in offspring which closely resemble their parents, e.g human offspring all have
major characteristics of humans, while maize offspring have the major characteristics of maize.
However, offspring are never exactly similar to one another (except clones) or to their parents,
they have certain differences in characteristics. These differences amongst members of a species
are called variations.
VARIATIONS
Variations are the observed differences among members of the same species.
Individuals in a species generally show small observable differences in characteristics like
height, mass, body form or colour
There are 2 types of variations: i) Continous
ii) Discontinous
Continuous Variation
These are the kind of variations where the differences are not clear cut but show a wide range of
intermediates between two extremes.
They can’t be separated to 2 or a few distinct alternate forms. Examples of continuous variations
include: colour of skin and hair, height of individual, number of flowers in an inflorescence,
length of internodes, size of fruits, number of seeds in a pod, body mass, intelligence, milk
production in cows, and number of leaves in a plant etc.
Continuous variation in a group of individuals can be represented by a normal distribution curve
e.g if number of individual (frequency) is plotted against height of individuals, a normal
distribution curve is obtained. It shows that only a few individuals are extremely short or
extremely tall, the majority being of intermediate heigh`t.-

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Characteristics showing continuous variation are controlled by many genes/polygenes
They are also affected by environmental factors such as light, nutrients and water.
Discontinuous Variation
Are distinct and clear cut different within a species
There are no intermediates
They are determined by genes that show clear dominance or co-dominance
The physical expression of these genes is not influenced by environmental conditions
Examples are:
 The ABO blood groups
 Rhesus factor (presence/absence)
 Tongue rolling and Non-tongue rolling
 Finger-print pattern (loop, double, whorl, Arch)
 Male or female sex
 Albinism or normal skin pigmentation
 Tall or short varieties in plants
 Flower colour (fully green or variegated)
 Colour of seeds in pea plants
 Colour of pod in pea plants
 Position of flower (terminal or axile) in pea plants
 Ability to roll the tongue into a U-shape-some people can roll their tongues while others
cannot
 The presence of long hair in the nose and in the ear pinna
 Some people have a free ear-lobe while in others it’s attached.\

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  Ability to taste a chemical substance called phenylthiocarbamide (PTC).Some individuals
are able to taste (tasters) while others are unable (non-tasters)

Differences between continuous and discontinuous variation

Continuous Discontinuous
1. There is a wide range of intermediates There are clear cut/ distinctions differences/no
from one extreme to another intermediates
2. Controlled by many genes/poygenes Controlled by a pair of genes which show
dominance/co-dominance
3. Genes show additive effects e.g the Genes don’t show additive effect
more the genes for dark skin colour, the
darker the skin
4. Influenced by environmental conditions Not influenced by environmental conditions

Causes of variations
i. Mutation
This is the main source of variation in nature. A mutation is a spontaneous change in
the genetic make-up of an organism

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 ii. Independent assortment and segregation of homologous chromosomes during
metaphase I and anaphase I of the first meiotic division. This produces a wide variety
of gametes
iii. Crossing over during prophase I of the first meiotic division
iv. Fusion of gametes/fertilization during sexual reproduction. This leads to new
combination of genes in offspring
v. Presence of many genes/polygenes
vi. Environmental factors such as nutrition, climate, edaphic factors, altitude etc
Importance of variation
It enables members of a species to adapt themselves better to changing environmental conditions.
CHROMOSOMES, DNA AND GENES
Hereditary characteristics are passed from parents to offspring through distinct units called
genes.
Genes are found in chromosomes
Chromosomes are found in the nuclei of all cells including gametes
In non-dividing cells, chromosomes occur as a diffuse tangle of threads called chromatin
During cell division chromatin shortens and thicken and appear as distinct rods
All the cells of a particular species except gametes contain a specific number of chromosomes
which occur in pairs
The members of each pair are identical in size and shape and are called homologous
chromosomes.
A cell containing chromosomes that all occur in homologous pairs is said to be diploid. Normal
body cells/somatic cells are diploid.
Gametes contain only one member of each of the homologous pairs and are said to be haploid.

Species Common No. of Gamete(n)

name Chromosomes
Somatic Cells (2n)

Ovis auries Sheep 56 (28 pairs) 28

Bos Taurus Cow 60 (30 pairs) 30

Drosophila Fruit fly 8 (4 pairs) 4

melanogaster

Zea mays Maize 20 (10 pairs) 10

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 Pisum sativum Garden 14 (7 pairs) 7
pea

Mus musculus Mouse 40 (20 pairs) 20

Homo sapiens Human 46 (23 pairs) 23

Within each chromosome are hundreds of genes that control the inheritance of characteristics.
Each gene is located at a particular position on the chromosome, called gene locus
Homologous chromosomes contain genes for a particular characteristic at the same locus e.g if
the gene for height appears at a particular locus on one homolog, it also occurs at the same locus
on the other homolog.

Genes are in form of nucleic acid molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
STRUCTURE OF DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
DNA is made up of structural units called nucleotides

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Each nucleotide consists of three components as shown below:
i) Inorganic phosphate
ii) A 5-caborn (pentose) sugar called deoxyribose
iii) A nitrogenous organic base
The organic bases are of four types ie:
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
Structure of a nucleotide

The bases are attached to the sugar

Nucleotides are joined one to another by covalent bonds to form long polynucleotide chains
called DNA strands
The DNA molecule consists of 2 strands which twist on one another forming a double helix
In the double helix, adenine always binds with thymine while guanine binds with cytosine
This is supported by the fact that quantities of adenine and thymine are always equal while those
of cytosine and guanine are equal.

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A gene
A particular strand of DNA or part of a DNA strand, is responsible for the synthesis of a
particular protein. That part of the DNA strand responsible for the formation of a particular
protein is called a gene.

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Hence a gene can be defined as the section of a DNA strand that is responsible for the formation
of a particular protein.
Role of DNA
1. Responsible for protein synthesis therefore translates genetic information into
characteristics of organisms
2. It store genetic information in coded form
3. It enables transfer of genetic information unchanged to daughter cells through replication,
ROLE OF DNA IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The sequences of the bases along the DNA strands are important. It acts as the as a template or
code that spells out the sequence of the amino acids that join up to form protein polypeptide
chains.
A set of three bases or a base triplet is known as a codon and is said to code for a particular
amino acid e.g.
AAA-Codes for amino acid Phenylalanine
TTT- Codes for amino acid Lysine
A special molecule mediates between the DNA which is in the nucleus and the cytoplasm. This
molecule is also a nucleic acid known as Ribonucleic acid (RNA). Since its role is to carry
genetic information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm, it is referred
to as Messenger RNA (m-RNA) and is formed from the DNA strands.
In the formation m-RNA an appropriate section of the DNA strand serves as a template. The
double helix of the DNA unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the template. The
base sequence of the template is copied onto a new strand which then becomes an RNA strand.
In the RNA, Thymine is replaced by the base Uracil (U). The transfer of DNA base sequence
onto the m-RNA strands is described as transcription.
After its formation, m-RNA leaves the nucleus with the full instructions from the DNA about the
kind of Protein to be synthesized by the cell. This instruction is in the form of base triplets or
codons which are used to assemble the amino acids on the protein polypeptide chains

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Differences between DNA and RNA
RNA DNA
Has the sugar ribose Has the sugar deoxyribose
Has a single strand Is double stranded
Has the base uracil(U) Has the base thymine(T)

First law of heredity: The law of segregation

The idea of heredity was first established by an Austrian scientist/monk called Gregory Mendel
Mendel carried out many breeding experiments from which he formulated the first law of
heredity
It states that, “An organism’s characteristics are determined by internal factors which occur in
pairs and only one member of such a pair of factors can be represented in a single gamete.”
In modern times, this law states as follows, “the characteristics of organisms are controlled by
genes which occur in pairs. Only one member of the pair of genes can be carried in a single
gamete.”
This law is also called the law of segregation.
Segregation occurs during gamete formation in meiosis when members of a pair of genes
separate from each other as homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis 1.
Mendel’s experiments
Monohybrid inheritance
Gregor Mendel carried out many breeding experiments
He worked with both plants and animals but concentrated on the Garden Pea plant of species
Pisum sativa
He chose the garden pea plant for the following reasons
i) It grows and matures very fast hence provides data within a very short time.
ii) It has many contrasting traits or characteristic which are easily distinguished eg

Trait variation
Length of stem Tall or short (dwarf)
Flower position Axial or Terminal
Seed shape Round or Wrinkled
Seed colour Yellow or Green
Flower colour Purple or White
Pod shape Inflated or constricted

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 iii) Peas are usually self-pollinating but can easily be cross-pollinated
iv) Pea plants are easy to cultivate and they produce very many seeds

Mendel chose to study each of the characteristics of the pea plant at a time
i.e he investigated a pair of contrasting characteristics at a time such as tallness and
shortness/dwarfness for height, purple and white for flower colour e.t.c
The experiments Mendel carried out can be presented in the following stages:
Stage 1: Establishing pure breeds
Pure breeds are organisms which when self-bred or self-pollinated will only produce offspring
that are identical to themselves e.g if a tall-plant was self-pollinated and it produces tall offspring
only then it is called a pure breed or a true breed.
Mendel established pure breeds of tall plant by selecting tall plants and self-pollinating them by
dusting their own pollen grains on the stigma of the same flower.
After planting the resulting seeds, he noted that they grew into a mixture of short/dwarf and tall
plants
He selected the tall plants only from this group and self-pollinated them and repeated the
experiments for many generations until he obtained tall plants only

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This way he had established pure breeds of tall plants
Mendel then selected dwarf plants and self-pollinated them, then planted the resulting seeds and
he noted that they grew into dwarf plants only.
He obtained the same results after repeating the experiment for many generations hence he
concluded that dwarf plants were always pure breeds
Stage 2: Crossing pure breeding tall plants with dwarf plants
He planted the resulting seeds and noted that the offspring were all tall

These offspring resulting from the above cross are called the first filial generation (F1)
Filial means offspring, F1 means first offspring.
Stage 3: Mendel allowed F1 generation plants to self-pollinate
He planted the resulting seeds to get the 2nd filial generation (F2)
Mendel noted that F2 plants were composed of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants
On counting, he noted that the tall plants were approximately ¾ while the dwarf plants were ¼
i.e a ratio of 3Tall:1Dwarf.

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The above experiments carried out by Mendel involved the inheritance of a single characteristics
controlled by a single pair of genes.
This is called monohybrid inheritance.
It involves the transmission of just one pair of contrasting characteristics or traits such as tallness
or dwarfism for height or smooth and wrinkled for shape of seed coat, purple and white for
flower colour etc. A single pair of genes controls inheritance of such a trait.
Genes that determine a particular characteristic/trait occur in pairs and are called alleles
Alleles determine variation in the same characteristic and are found in the same locus/position on
homologous chromosomes.
Alleles can be defined as the alternate or variant forms of a gene
In Mendel’s experiments if a pure breeding tall plant is crossed with a pure breed dwarf plant,
the F1 generation plants are all tall
This means that in F1 the allele for dwarfism is masked by the allele for tallness
The allele for tallness is said to be dominant while that for dwarfism is said to be recessive
The outward appearance of an organism/observable characteristic e.g tallness or dwarfism is
referred to as its phenotype
The genetic constitution of an organism is known as genotype
A pair of letters is used to represent the alleles that make up the genotype of an organism, as far
as a particular characteristic is concerned
A dominant allele is usually represented by a capital letter e.g capital T (to represent allele for
tallness)
A recessive allele is represented by a small letter e.g small t (to represent allele for dwarfism)

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.
COMPONENTS OF A GENETIC CROSS
i. Parental phenotypes
ii. Parental genotypes which must have a cross sign (X) between them.
iii. Gametes which must be circled
iv. Fusion process/fertilization
v. Offspring genotype and phenotype
Inheritance of dwarfism can be represented diagrammatically using a genetic cross as shown
below:

Crossing a pure breeding Tall plant and a dwarf plant

The offspring or progeny of the above cross are hybrids.

SelfingF1 plants (hybrid)

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The offspring from the above cross are a mixture of tall and dwarf plants in the ratio 3Tall: 1
dwarf. The 3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2, indicates monohybrid inheritance where one allele is
completely dominant over the other.
A punnet square or cheker Board
A punnet square can be used in making genetic crosses as follows

When the allelic genes (alleles representing a particular characteristic) are identical as in TT or tt,
the condition is known as homozygous.
An individual with such a condition is called the homozygote.
When the allelic genes are not identical as in Tt, the condition is called heterozygous, and the
individual, heterozygote.
A dominant gene expresses itself phenotypically both in the heterozygous and homozygous
conditions
A recessive allele will express itself phenotypically only in homozygous condition

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Since the dominant gene suppresses the recessive gene, the condition TT is called homozygous
dominant while tt is called homozygous recessive
The 3:1 phenotypic ratio in F2 generation is a characteristic of monohybrid inheritance
where one allele is completely dominant over the other i.e one allele completely masks or
suppresses the other phenotypically. The condition where one allele completely masks the other
when in heterozygous condition, is called complete dominance.
Ratios can be represented in form of probability or fractions.
MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE AND COMPLETE DOMINANCE IN OTHER
ORGANISMS
Similar results as those of Mendel are also seen in other organisms e.g in humans and the fruit
fly Drosophila melanogaster.
The fruit fly has been used in many genetic studies. It has many observable characteristics which
show discontinuous variation e.g
i. Wing length (long wings dominant over vestigial wings)
ii. Eye colour (red eyes dominant over white eyes)
iii. Body colour (grey dominant over black)
iv. Size of abdomen (broad abdomen dominant over narrow abdomen)
A pure breed long-winged fly crossed with vestigial-winged fly results in all the offspring in F1,
being long-winged
When F1 are selfed, they produce a mixture of long-winged and vestigial winged flies in the F2
generation in the ration 3 long winged: 1 vestigial winged (phenotypic ratio).
Using capital (L) to represent the allele for long wings and small (l) to represent the allele for
vestigial wings, carry out the above two crosses using schematic diagrams.

Cross between pure breeding long-winged fly and vestigial-winged fly

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Selfing the F1 offspring

A cross showing the selfing of F1

The Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) is a suitable organism for genetic study due to the
following reasons:
1. The female lays many eggs resulting to a larger number of off spring. This increases the
sample size for study. The larger the sample the more reliable the results.
2. They have many observable characteristics that are distinguishable and contrasting.
3. They are easily bred in laboratory with minimum requirements
4. It has a short generation time (10-14) days, hence many generations can be studied within
a short time.
5. Offspring can be crossed with their parents at will (back-crossing)
6. The flies are safe to handle. They don’t transmit any known human diseases

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Incomplete dominance/partial dominance
A condition where neither allele is dominant or recessive over the other
In this case when in heterozygous condition, both alleles express themselves phenotypically
resulting in an intermediate characteristic e.g in inheritance of flower colour in snapdragons.
A cross between a red flowered plant and a white flowered plant results in offspring with pink
flowers in the F1 generation.
The effects of the allele for red and white colour seem to blend to produce on intermediate
phenotype which is pink.
In genetic crosses involving incomplete dominance 2 capital letters may be used to represent the
2 alleles.
Let R represent gene for Red flower colour, W represent gene for white flower colour. Work out
a cross between a red flowered plant and a white flowered plant in snap dragon.

When the resultant F1 generation plants are selfed, the resultant F2 generation has a mixture of
red, pink and white flowered plants in the ratio 1red:2pink:1white. Work out this cross in the
table below

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Inheritance of coat colour in short horn cattle
A homozygous red bull crossed with a homozygous white cow yields on the F1 generation
offspring which are roan in colour. This means that neither of the alleles for red colour or white
colour is dominant over the other hence incomplete/partial dominance.
Inheritance of AB0 blood group

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In many kinds of inheritance in organisms, each phenotypic characteristic is determined by 2
alleles (a pair of alleles) located on the same specific loci on homologous chromosomes.
However, some characteristics are determined by more than two alleles. This is known as
multiple allelism and the alleles involved are called multiple alleles i.e if a gene exists with more
than 2 alleles it is said to have multiple alleles.
Since alleles for the same characteristic occupy the same loci on homologous chromosomes, only
2 of the multiple alleles can be found in an individual. However in a given population there will
be more than 2 alleles.
The inheritance of ABO blood groups is determined by 3 alleles (multiple alleles) that influence
the formation of antigens on red blood cells.
The alleles are: allele A, allele B and allele O. Allele A determines the formation of antigens A,
allele B determine the formation of antigen B, and allele O prevents formation of either A or B
on the red blood cell membrane.
Allele A and B are said to be co-dominant to each other
However, allele A and B are dominant to O (ie O is recessive to both A and B)
The alleles can occur in the following combinations: AA, AO, BB, BO, AB and OO.

Possible genotype Antigens on red blood cell Blood group

AA A A
AO A A
BB B B
BO B B
AB A and B AB
OO None O

A woman whose blood group is A, married a man with blood group B. Using a genetic cross,
explain how it is possible for the couple to have a child with blood group O.

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CODOMINANCE.
It is a phenomenon or condition seen in inheritance of certain traits such as AB blood group in
which neither of the 2 alleles is dominant or partially dominant.
Instead, both alleles are expressed equally phenotypically, when in heterozygous condition.
There is no blending and no intermediate phenotype.
In inheritance of ABO blood groups allele A and allele B are codominant and are expressed
equally when the genotype is AB hence the blood group of the individual is AB since both
antigen A and antigen B are formed in the persons’ red blood cells.

Inheritance of Rhesus factor

In man, presence of rhesus antigens on a person’s red blood cells makes one rhesus + ve and
absence of rhesus antigens makes one rhesus –ve
The rhesus factor system is determined by a single pair of alleles, one of which is completely
dominant over the other.
The dominant allele(R) causes the formation of rhesus antigen on a person’s red blood cells
The recessive allele (r) doesn’t cause antigen formation.
The genotype for a rhesus +ve person is either RR or Rr, while that of a rhesus –ve person is rr
Question
1. When a pure breeding male guinea pig with a black coat was mated with a pure
breeding female guinea pig with a white coat, all the F1 offspring had a coat with
black and white patches.
Using letter B for black coat and letter W for white coat, work out:

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 a) The genotypic ratio of F2

b) The phenotypic ratio of F2

What is the name given to describe the condition in which two alleles are fully
expressed phenotypically in the heterozygous state.

c) State (i) one natural characteristic of humans in which the characteristic you
have named above is applicable.
DETERMINING UNKNOWN GENOTYPES
a) Test cross and back cross.
Organisms that show dominant characteristics or traits in the case of complete dominance can
either be homozygous or heterozygous for the condition e.g a tall garden pea plants can either be
homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt)
As such, it is not possible to tell the genotype of such a plant just by looking at it.
To determine the genotype of an organism showing the dominant trait, one must do a test cross.
This is done by crossing the individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive
individual.
If the offspring resulting from this cross include some showing the recessive trait, then the
individual of the unknown genotype is concluded to be heterozygous. If no offspring with
homozygous recessive traits are produced then it can be concluded that the individual of
unknown genotype is homozygous.
A test cross is defined as, a cross between an individual of unknown genotype with a
homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype.

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Back cross
This is a test cross involving crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous
recessive parent and grandparent.
b) Selfing

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When an individual of unknown genotype but showing dominant characteristics is selfed, the
offspring may
i) all show the dominant trait, in which case it can be concluded that the individual of
unknown genotype was homozygous for the condition
ii) be a mixture of those with dominant trait and those with recessive trait, in the ratio 3
dominant trait : 1 recessive trait. In this case it can be concluded that the individual of
unknown genotype is heterozygous for the condition.
SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS
Like many other characteristics, the sex of an organism is also determined by genes
The genes that determine sex are located on a pair of homologous chromosomes called sex
chromosomes.
In humans out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs determine other body characteristics that
aren’t associated with sexual characteristics
These 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes
The other 2 chromosomes that form the 23rd pair carry genes that determine the sex of an
individual and are known as sex chromosomes.
There 2 types of sex chromosomes in humans:
i. The X chromosomes, so called because it roughly appears like letter X
ii. The Y chromosome, shorter than the X and appears like the letter Y
In humans, the XX genotype is found in all the cells of the female body while the XY genotype
is found in all the cells male body.
The human sperm may have either X or Y chromosomes in its nucleus hence males are said to be
heterogametic.
The human ovum always has an X chromosome in it’s nucleus hence females are homogametic
After the fertilization a zygote may acquire either XX or XY chromosomes as shown below.

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 +

NB
It is the sperm that actually determines the sex of the offspring. Fertilization of the egg by a
sperm carrying the X chromosomes results in a female offspring.
Fertilization of the ovum by a sperm carrying the Y chromosome results in a male offspring
X and Y bearing sperms are produced in equal number hence there is an equal chance of
producing male or female offspring.
LINKAGE
Each chromosome has many genes in it
These genes that exist on the same chromosome are inherited together by offspring and are said
to be linked to each other.
Linkage can be described as the location of genes on the same chromosomes such that they are
inherited together e.g.
The genes ABC are linked and the genes DEF are also linked .Therefore genes ABC will be
inherited together.

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In Drosophila melanogaster the genes for wing length, abdomen size and body colour are
located on the same chromosome, so therefore they are said to be linked and are inherited
together.
All genes that are linked together constitute a linkage group.
Note: Crossing over during Prophase 1 and mutation can change linkage, hence change the genes
that are linked.
SEX LINKAGE
Sex linked genes
Sex chromosomes contain many genes in addition to those that determine sex

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These genes that exist on the sex chromosomes X and Y are inherited along with those that
determine the sex of an organism hence they are called sex linked genes.
The traits controlled by those genes are called sex linked characteristics
Characteristics linked to the Y chromosomes can only be inherited by males since males alone
have the Y chromosomes
Characteristics that are linked to the X-chromosomes (X-linked) can be inherited by both males
and females.
Most of the sex linked genes are located on the X chromosomes are referred to as X-linked genes
e.g genes of haemophilia or colour blindness.
The X chromosome bears genes that have no corresponding allele on the Y chromosome because
X-chromosome is longer than Y chromosome.
A few genes that are located on the Y chromosome but are absent on the X chromosome.
These are called Y-linked genes e.g genes of hairy pinna and nose, and genes for premature
baldness
Some of the sex linked genes bring about serious genetic disorders e.g colour blindness,
haemophilia and Duchene muscular dysentery.

Inheritance of red-green colour blindness

This is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation
It is the inability to distinguish between red and green colours by some people
The alleles for colour vision are sex-linked. They are found on the X-chromosome and are absent
on the Y
The allele that determines normal colour vision is dominant over that of colour blindness which
is recessive.

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The dominant allele is expressed as C and the allele for colour blindness is c. Since the gene for
colour vision is X-linked, it is shown as a superscript on the X-chromosomes.
The possible genotypes of colour blindness are as follows

Possible genetype Phenotype

XCXC Normal female
XCXc Normal female (but carrier)
XcXc Colour-blind female
XCY Normal male
XcY Colour-blind male

Heterozygous females are called carriers because they carry the genes for the defect but they
don’t show it phenotypically because the allele (gene) for colour blindness is suppressed by the
gene for normal colour vision.
The allele for colour blindness is passed from mother to son because the only X chromosome the
male offspring inherits is from the mother.
If this chromosome happens to carry the gene for the colour blindness, then this allele will be
expressed phenotypically since the Y chromosome doesn’t carry any allele for colour vision.
A marriage between a colour blind man and a woman homozygous for normal colour vision
results in all their daughters being carriers but with normal vision and all their sons being of
normal colour vision. Do this cross on the table below

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If a carrier daughter from the above parents married a normal man, some of their sons (chances
are half) will suffer from colour blindness while the daughters will either be carriers or be
homozygous for normal colour vision. Do this cross on the table below

A pedrigree charts may be used to illustrate inheritance of certain traits such as hemophilia or
colorblindness e.g for the above 2 generations of colorblindness a pedigree chart may be drawn
as shown above.
A pedigree chart is a diagram showing several generations of a family and how a relevant genetic
trait is passed through generations. In a pedigree chart, circles usually represent females, while
squares represent males. Shading shows an individual with the defect.

Note: X-linked genetic defects are more common in males than in females. This is because
males have only one X chromosome and if this chromosome happens to carry the defective
allele then it will be expressed phenotypically since the corresponding allele on the Y
chromosome is absent.

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Females on the other hand will only express the trait phenotypically if they are homozygous
for the condition.
Haemophilia
It is another sex linked genetic disorder that results from a gene mutation
The blood of a person suffering from haemophilia takes an abnormally long time to clot upon an
injury of a blood vessel hence there is prolonged bleeding.
The clotting of blood after an injury is influenced by a number of factors, one of which is a
protein called clotting factor (VIII).
The inheritance of this clotting factor is determined by 2 alleles
1. One allele which is completely dominant over the other and determines the production
(formation) of normal clotting factor (VIII)
2. The other is recessive and influences the formation of a defective clotting factor.
When the normal clotting factor is present blood clots normally but when the defective clotting
factor blood is slow to clot or doesn’t clot at all.
The dominant allele is expressed as H, and the recessive h. The alleles are located on the X
chromosome but absent on the Y chromosomes.

Possible genotype Resultant phenotype Clotting factor

XHXH Normal female Normal clotting factor VIII
XHXh Normal female (but carrier) Normal clotting factor
XhXh Haemophilic female Defective clotting factor
XHY Normal male Normal clotting factor VIII
XhY Haemophilic male Defective

If a haemophilic man marries a carrier woman,

a) Use a genetic cross to work out the genotype and phenotype of their offspring

b) What is the probability that their daughter will be haemophilic?

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c) The above condition is more common in males than females. Explain.
Tuft of hair on the nose and/or ear pinna
The above condition occurs in males and not in females
It is a condition whereby a male is found to have long tufts of hair growing on the pinna of the
ear. Hair may also sprout from the inner part of the nose.
The allele that causes this is believed to be linked to Y chromosomes and absent on the X
chromosome hence can only be transmitted by the father to the sons.

Premature Baldness.
The allele that causes premature baldness is also believed to be linked to Y chromosomes hence
transmitted from father to sons.
MUTATION
The DNA of chromosomes is relatively stable and the information it carries is transmitted with
little change from one generation to the next.
However, changes do occur in the structure of DNA and chromosomes from time to time.
These changes are called mutations.
Mutation- a sudden change in structure of chromosomes or a change in the sequence of basis of
DNA
Characteristics of mutations
1. They are spontaneous
2. They rare in a population
3. They are a major source of variations e.g colour blindness
4. Can be permanent and can be transmitted from one generation to the next in the normal
Mendelian manner.
5. Most of them are harmful

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 They may cause diseases e.g cancer a disorder in the growth of cells where initially
normal cells multiply uncontrollably and rapidly resulting in invasion and destruction of
surrounding healthy tissue by abnormal cells.
6. Some mutations are beneficial
Causes of mutation
Occurrence of mutation is greatly enhanced by the presence certain agents in the environment
called Mutagents. They include:
1. Radiations e.g x-rays, uv rays, Gamma rays, Beta rays
2. Some chemical substance e.g mustard gas, colchicine and some hydrocarbons
3. Heavy metals e.g mercury
4. Some viruses e.g human papilloma viruses (HPV) and HIV
Types of mutations
There are 2 main types of mutations
1. Chromosomal mutations
2. Gene mutation
Chromosomal mutations
Involves changes in the structure of a chromosome or a change in number of chromosomes in the
cells of a given individual
a) Mutations that involve change in Chromosomal Structure
Deletion
 Occurs when a section of a chromatid breaks off and fails to reconnect to any of the
chromatids such that the genes the section contains are completely lost
 Most deletions are fatal as the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of a
certain vital protein.
Duplication
 In this case a section of a chromatid replicates and adds an extra length to itself
 In doing so, the chromatid section duplicates itself and a set of genes is added.
 The characteristics controlled by these genes are over-emphasized
Inversion
 This happens when a middle piece of a chromatid breaks off and rotates through 1800 and
then rejoins the chromatid.
 This reverses the gene sequence
Translocation

31
  This is where a portion of a chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another
chromatid but of a non homologous pair. This involves movement of genes from one
chromosome to another chromosome that is not homologous to it.

(draw diagrams of all the above mutations from KLB pg 29-30)

b) Mutations that affect number of chromosomes

Non-disjunction
Is a failure of homologous chromosomes to segregate or separate during anaphase of the
first meiotic division.
In this case both the chromosomes in a homologous pair move into the same cell.
This results in half of the gametes having two of the same chromosomes while the other half
have none of this chromosome.

32
When such gametes are involved in fertilization, the zygote formed has either an extra
chromosome or one chromosome less in the nucleus.

Draw cell showing non disjunction and summary of normal meiosis

Polyploidy
Refers to the presence of more than 2 sets of chromosomes in a cell.
It can occur during meiosis when all the chromosome pairs in the cell undergo non disjunction
simultaneously

33
This results in half of the gametes having diploid number of chromosomes, while the other half,
have no chromosomes.
If a diploid gametes fuses with a normal haploid gamete then a triploid zygote is formed.
Fusion of 2 diploid gametes results in formation of a tetraploid individual.
Such individual are called polyploids
Polyploidy is common in plants where it is often associated with advantageous characteristics e.g
increased yield, early maturity, resistance to drought, pest and diseases.
Polyploidy can be artificially induced in plants using colchicine a chemical that prevents spindle
formation during cell division, leading to cells with double the number of chromosomes.
Consequences of chromosomal mutation
1. Failure of development of some vital body part or protein due to deletion, this leads to
fatality.
2. May result in overemphasis of some characteristics of an individual when a portion of a
chromosome is duplicated.
3. Non-disjunction may result in additional or reduced chromosomes in the cell which may
lead to the following disorders
i. Down’s syndrome
ii. Turner’s syndrome
iii. Klinefelter’s syndrome
iv. XYY
v. XXX

Down’s syndrome (Mongolism)

People with Down’s syndrome have an extra chromosome number 21, hence have a total of 47
chromosomes in their cells instead of the normal 46.
Such individuals have
i. Slit-eyed appearance
ii. Reduced resistance to infections
iii. Are mentally deficient
iv. Have a thick tongue (hence slurry speech)
v. Cardiac malfunctions
vi. Short body with stubby fingers
vii. Flat nasal bridge
Higher incidence has been noted among children of older mothers above 40 years old
and may be due to depletion of nutrients in the eggs.
Fathers aged 55 years old and above also have increased risk of producing offspring
with Down’s syndrome.

34
35
Turner’s syndrome (XO)
Results when a gamete that lacks an X or Y chromosome fuses with a normal gamete with an X
chromosome
The resulting zygote has only 1 X-chromosome genotype XO, with a total of 45 chromosomes in
each of the body cells, instead of the normal 46.
Such a zygote develops into a female but with poorly developed sexual characteristics and is
sterile
i. The ovaries are poorly developed and non-functional
ii. Small underdeveloped uterus
iii. Don’t go through puberty
iv. Don’t menstruate
v. Have no breasts.
Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY or XXXY
36
An individual that has 1 or 2 extra X chromosome with genotype XXY or XXXY, these
individuals have 47 or 48 chromosomes in all their body cells instead of the normal 46.
The individual is male but sterile due to underdeveloped testis and produce very few or no
sperms
Reduced facial hair
Taller than average with signs of obesity
He also has some marked feminine features like breasts a condition known as gnaecomastia
XYY
Such an individual is an apparently normal, fertile male who may however have some
tendency /propensity to violence.
XXX or Metafemale
Female who is apparently normal but with some physical abnormalities, menstrual irregularities
and early menopause.
Mutations occurring on somatic cells may increase the rate of cell division and growth.
High rate of cell division results in tumors which are either benign or malignant.
Malignant tumors are those that spread rapidly to neighboring tissues or organs and are therefore
cancerous.
Benign tumors are harmless.
GENE MUTATIONS
It can be defined as a change in the base sequence of DNA of a gene
A gene consists of a length of DNA carrying bases that determine the formation of a particular
protein.
A gene that has undergone mutations is called a mutant gene.
Types of gene mutations
1. Insertion:- addition of a base onto an existing DNA strand, this changes the sequence of
bases after this point.

37
 2. Deletion:- removal of a base from a DNA strand, this changes the base sequence after
this point.

3. Substitution:- replacement of a base on a DNA strand with another base, the base
sequence is altered at this particular portion only.

4. Inversion:- a portion of DNA cuts off from the rest rotates through 180 and then rejoins
the main one in a reversed position. The inversion results in the alteration of the base
sequence at this point

The following are short messages (SMS) on a cell phone communication and can be used as
analogies of gene mutation.

Intended message Actual message Type of gene mutation

Buy me a skirt Buy me a shirt

Mary went shopping Mary went hopping

This is my team This is my mate

Auntie is staying Auntie is straying

38
  (a) For each of these messages identify the type of gene mutation illustrated
 (b) In the messages above show the changes that cause the distortion in the intended
message

Human Disorders that result from gene mutations

i. Haemophilia
ii. Colour blindness
iii. Sickle cell anaemia
iv. Albinism
v. Dwarfism
ALBINISM
This is a hereditary disorder where the cells of the skin fail to produce melanin the pigment that
gives the skin, hair and eyes their colour. As a result the individual, known as an albino, has
white skin, white hair and pink eyes. The gene that causes albinism results from a gene mutation,
specifically a deletion on the normal gene. The mutant gene is recessive and prevents formation
of melanin on the skin. Since this gene for albinism is recessive (designated a), it is only
expressed phenotypically, in the homozygous condition, aa. The normal gene is designated A is
dominant. Phenotypically normal individuals have the genotype AA or Aa. Heterozygous
individuals (Aa) are phenotypically normal but can transmit the gene for albinism to the
offspring hence they are carriers.
In a family of normal parents, one of their three children is an albino. What were the parental
genotypes? Work out a cross to show the genotypes of the offspring.

SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

This is disorder of the Red Blood Cells caused by a mutation on the gene which determines
haemoglobin production.
The mutant gene causes the production of an abnormal haemoglobin known as haemoglobin S
(HBS)
Normal humans have haemoglobin A (HBA) in their RBCs and have genotype HbAHbA
Sickle cell anaemia patients have haemoglobin S (HBS) in their RBCs and genotype HbSHbS
Haemoglobin S crystallizes at low oxygen concentrations causing the RBCs to form sickle
shapes

39
Sickled RBCs transport Oxygen very poorly causing anaemia
They can also tangle up forming blood clots that may block small capillaries which may lead to
death if vital organs are affected.
In addition sickled RBCs haemolyse easily resulting in anemia
Differences between Haemoglobin A and Haemoglobin S
Normal haemoglobin (HBA) Defective haemoglobin (HBS)
A position in each polypeptide chain is occupied A similar position in each polypeptide
by amino acid glutamic acid chain is occupied by amino acid valine
Does not easily crystallize in low O2 Easily crystallizes in low O2
concentration concentration
The haemoglobin is efficient in O2 loading and The haemoglobin is not efficient in O2
transportation loading and transport
Red blood cells carrying them have the normal Red blood cells carrying them have a
biconcave shape crescent or sickle shaped.

Patients with the disease often feel dizzy or short of breathe and have high heartbeat.
Such people have a short life span
Heterozygotes who are carries of the sickle-cell gene with genotype HbAHbS are said to have a
condition called sickle cell trait where 30-40% of RBCs have haemoglobin S
The rest have haemoglobin A
People with sickle cell trait are phenotypically normal under normal conditions and may live
normal lives
However under severe physical exertions or under very low oxygen concentration, their RBC’s
become sickled leading to anaemia
Note: It appears that mosquito in infested regions, sickle cell trait individuals have a certain
degree of resistance to malaria since the protozoan parasite-plasmodium survives very poorly in
sickled RBCs because they carry low amounts of oxygen.
NB inheritance of sickle-cell anaemia is a case incomplete dominance.

40
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON HEREDITY
The phenotype of an organism depends on its genetic constitution (genotype) as well as the
environment in which that organism lives.
The interaction between the genotype of an organism and the environment will modify the
phnenotype of an organism.
The degree of modification or influence of gene expression by the environmental factors such as
disease and food can be observed and measured e.g. the effects of protein and vitamins in the
development of young children has been observed.
Mental development and performance depends on both the inherited patterns and the total effect
of the environmental influences.
In plants and animals genetically identical individuals reared in different sets of environment will
appear more different than those reared in the same environment. In human beings identical
twins who have been separated early in life and brought up in different environments until they
mature, show many observable differences as compared to those brought up together. This

41
indicates that factors of the environment such as diet, disease and climate, influence the
phenotype of the individual.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF GENETICS
Knowledge of genetics has been put to practical use in many areas of human life including the
following:
a) Blood transfusion
Successful blood transfusion is based on patients being given the right type of blood. This is
possible by correctly determining the blood group of the donor and recipient through blood
typing. Correct blood typing is based on genetic knowledge of blood groups.
Knowledge of human blood typing and matching has also been used in solving disputed
parentage.
b) Selective breeding of Animals and plants
Various breeding techniques have been used to produce animal and plants that have the desired
qualities e.g higher yields, early maturity or fast growth, drought and disease resistance etc.
The process by which a breeder selects organisms of desired qualities as parents of the next
generation is called artificial selection or selective breeding.
Basic knowledge of genetics allows selective breeding.
Some of the techniques include
i. Inbreeding
Pure breeding animals with desired qualities are allowed to interbreed i.e mating amongst closely
related animals so that they can pass on the desired characteristics to their offspring. In Plants
self pollination of plants with the desired qualities is done. Inbreeding is however discouraged
because it increases chances of harmful\negative recessive alleles expressing themselves.
ii. Cross breeding (Hybridization)
Involves cross pollination of plant varieties having desired qualities.
Their offspring acquire great variation which may lead to greater drought resistance, high yields
and disease resistance.
In animals it involves cross breeding of individuals of different breeds with desired qualities to
produce hybrids which have the good/desired qualities of both parents e.g cross breeding a Boran
cow, which is drought resistant ( can feed and grow on dry pasture) and also disease resistant
with an English Hereford bull which is early maturing with high beef yield.
The resulting hybrid has the good qualities of both parents and is said to have hybrid vigour or
heterosis.
Hybrid vigor or heterosis is the enhanced or good qualities that a hybrid inherits from both its
parents.

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Polyploidy has been used in plant breeding. Polyploids are common in plants such as wheat and
rice, and is associated with good qualities such as high yields. For instance the original wheat
had 14 chromosomes (diploid, 2N), commercial wheat however, has either 28 (4N, tetraploid) or
42 chromosomes (6N, hexaploid).
Phynotypic characteristics that have been selected for agriculture include:
 Early maturity
 Resistance to disease
 Increased length of productive season.
 Adaptations to local conditions
 Colour, shape and aroma in flowers
 Higher yields
 Ease of harvesting e.g. in coffee and mango

c) Genetic counseling

This is the use of genetic information to advice couples who have hereditary diseases
about the chances of their offspring inheriting the diseases to enable them make informed
choices. Hereditary diseases include;
-Albinism, Sickle-cell anaemia, Haemophilia.
Example:
A woman about to be married had a brother who died of sickle-cell anaemia. When
samples of her blood were taken and placed in low oxygen concentration, her red blood
cells became sickled. This means she is heterozygous, with sickle cell trait. However, her

43
 prospective husband’s blood remains normal. What would you advise her about her
children?
Answer:
Some children will be normal while others will be affected in low oxygen concentration,
because they will have sickle cell trait.
It’s advisable for people to go for medical tests for blood groups, hereditary diseases and
defects to avoid complications in future.

d) Genetic engineering
This is the modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating their genetic
material.
It mainly involves the identification of a desirable gene, altering, isolating and transferring it
from one organism to another.
In recombinant DNA technology a gene of an organism (the donor) is removed and inserted into
the chromosome of a different organism of a different species. The inserted gene then carries out
its normal functions in the new organism e.g the synthesis of certain protein.
Genetically modified organisms are called transgenics
Genetic engineering has been applied in the following:
i. Medicine
a) A bacterium Escherichia coli has been used in the production of insulin. The gene in man
that codes for insulin is transferred to the bacterium which then produces insulin in large
quantities. Insulin is then extracted from the bacteria, purified and used in treatment of
diabetics.
b) Human somatotrophin hormone (human growth hormone) for treatment of dwarfism is
now extracted from genetically modified strain of Escherichia coli.
c) Sheep have been genetically modified to produce milk which contains medicinal proteins
used to relieve Haemophilia and emphysema patients.
d) Effective vaccines for viral diseases can be made which contain only outer coats of
viruses instead of weakened viruses. Viral coats are mass produced using genetically
modified yeast and used in the development of vaccines that do not pose a danger of
causing the disease. E.g vaccine for hepatitis B.
e) Some genetically modified plants e.g. bananas are being targeted for the production of
orally administered vaccines against rabies and cholera.
f) Gene therapy –This is treatment of genetic diseases by replacing defective genes in
patients with copies of normal genes. I
In somatical gene therapy, genetically modified organisms e.g. viruses are used to carry
the normal gene and introduce it into the affected tissue cells. The defective gene in the
tissue cell is thereby corrected by the genes in the carrier. This is being used in the
treatment of lung cystic fibrosis.
ii. In Farming/ Agriculture
Genetically modified maize and Soya beans have been produced which have
resistance against insect pests.
Attempts have been made to transfer the gene for nitrogen fixation from bacteria into
cereal crops to increase yields without use of fertilizers.
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 Bovine somatotrophin is a hormone that increases milk production in cows. The gene
for the hormone has been transferred to bacteria which produce the hormone very
rapidly. The hormone is then injected to cows to interact with milk producing
proteins.
iii. Environment
Genetically modified bacteria have been developed to decompose hydrocarbon in petrol
hence help in controlling pollution due to oil spillage.

iv. DNA finger printing /profiling

Through a series of genetic techniques it is possible to prepare and produce the DNA
base sequence of an individual on a film.
This DNA base sequence is called a DNA fingerprint or profile and is unique to every
individual
It then becomes possible to compare various types of DNA finger prints
This can then be used:
i) in crime detection and
ii) to solve disputed parentage
e) Human Genome
Genome is the total genetic content of any cell in an organism. It comprises of all genes on all
the chromosomes. In humans, there are up to 100,000 genes.
The human genome project is aimed at
i. Gene Mapping
This is identifying specific positions occupied by specific genes on a chromosome e.g cystic
fibrosis is located on Y chromosome, haemophilia on x-chromosome.
ii. Sequencing of Gene
The process involves analyzing DNA to reveal the bases in all chromosomes
This human genome project is important in.
a) Identification of defective genes, hence facilitating their correction
b) Identification of genes that are susceptible to certain diseases so that individual can take
preventive measures.
c) Predicting the protein that a gene produces. Some are advantageous. This provides an
opportunity to produce drugs to enhance or inhibit the activity of such proteins.

CLONING
Is a type of reproduction whereby a group of cells arise from a single individual cell resulting to
a new individual without fertilization. It is therefore a form of asexual reproduction.
The offspring are called clones and are genetically identical.
Cloning has been carried out in sheep producing the celebrated sheep “Dolly”

45
In this process, a nucleus from a fertilized ovum was removed and replaced with a diploid
nucleus of a cell from the mammary glands of another sheep.
The ovum was then implanted into the sheep’s uterus
The lamb, Dolly was a clone from the sheep which donated mammary gland cell.
Note: Cloning of plants is more common and more successful. It has resulted in tissue culture
techniques through which new varieties of plants like pyrethrum and bananas have been
produced.
Ethical issue and fear of the unknown.
The field of genetics evokes great dread on the dangers of the unknown.
1. Transgenic rice has the gene for virus protein coat introduced which gives the plant
resistance to virus. Today, scientists lack knowledge about interactive behavior of viruses
used as carriers.
2. The bacteria used to transfer genes for antibiotic resistance gain entry into the transformed
plants with desired genes. Food made from the transgenic plant when eaten will introduce
genes for antibiotic into gut bacteria e.g E coli such E coli may become resistant to
antibiotic drugs. This gene for resistance to antibiotics can spread through faeces to other
bacteria in the environment.
3. The early death of sheep “Dolly” has cast doubt on the future of cloning. Should cloning be
done on human beings?
4. Gene therapy has the ultimate aim of improving the human race by replacing the defective
genes. This field is called eugenics which evokes strong ethical issues.
Despite the many advantages of genetic knowledge, strong regulation should be put in place
to control all research on genetic material.
EVOLUTION
The word “Evolution” refers to the concept of organic revolution
Evolution/ organic evolution is the gradual change of living organisms from simple life forms to
more complex forms over a long period of time.
Evolution offers scientific explanation for the great diversity observed in organisms but also in
their similarity in structure and function.
The origin of life.
Various theories have been put forward, that seek to explain the origin of life. They include the
following:
I. Special creation theory
Religious writings such as the Bible and Quran teach that the whole universe and all it contains
was created by the action of a Supreme Being (God).To create means to bring into existence out
of nothing.
The belief is called special creation. It holds the following views on the origin and nature of life.
a) That life was brought into existence by a supreme being.

46
 b) That life forms were created in perfect form and have remained unchanged over time
c) That this knowledge is based on faith and cannot be disputed.
Special creation theory cannot be contradicted by science because it is not scientifically testable.
II. Chemical evaluation theory
Scientists believe that life could have started by itself from inorganic chemicals found on earth
14 billion years ago. This is the 1st stage of organic evolution when chemicals combined to form
the 1st simple organisms and is called chemical evolution.
14 billion years ago, the atmosphere contained no oxygen but was made up of a mixture of
Carbon(IV)oxide, Nitrogen, Ammonia and Methane. Energy from lightning or volcanic activity
could have produce a catalytic effect that made the various atmospheric gases react to from
simple organic compounds. Some of these organic compounds were able to self-replicate. These
gave rise to the earliest simple life forms which could have resembled the present day viruses
and bacteria
From these simple life forms, complex life forms have emerged gradually over time.
American scientist, S.L Miller in 1953 set up an experiment to try to simulate the primitive
conditions in which the first simple organic molecules could have arisen.
He succeeded in producing 4 amino acids by basically passing a spark through a mixture of
hydrogen, methane, water vapour and ammonia. The high temperature and pressure conditions
used by Miller to synthesize these amino acids were possibly similar to those existing in the
universe when life started.
The theory of chemical evolution holds that
i. Life came into existence through combinations of chemicals
ii. Scientific evidence in form of fossils support this theory
Chemical evolution is the theory of how very simple chemical substances in the earth’s
atmosphere reacted with each other gradually over millions of years to form simple organic
compounds, which may have combined further to form more complex organic compound which
finally formed the simplest life forms.
EVIDENCE FOR ORGANIC EVOLUTION
The theory of organic evolution suggests that new life forms arose from pre-existing life over a
long period of time.
It also suggests that species of organisms have undergone change gradually over a long period of
time giving rise to new species. Scientists have found evidence to support this theory. They
include:
1. Fossil records
2. Geographical distribution of organisms
3. Comparative embryology

47
4. Comparative anatomy
5. Cell biology
6. Comparative serology

1. Fossil records
Fossils are remains of dead organisms which lived millions of year ago and have been
accidentally preserved in some naturally occurring material e.g sedimentary rocks and plant
resins.
Study of fossils is called paleontology
There are 3 main ways in which fossils are formed. There are
a) Petrification
b) Preservation of entire organism
c) Impression

i. Petrification
It means changing into rock
It is usually possible for hard body parts e.g bones, teeth, shells and woody parts of plants.
The soft parts decay and the hard parts are left behind
They become covered in sediments that build up forming sedimentary rock.
The rock may later be eroded exposing the fossil
ii. Preservation of entire organism
Preservation of the entire organism happens when the organism does not decay because it is in a
medium that does not allow action of micro-organisms e.g ice or amber
Some insects and leaves have been preserved in amber –a plant resin that hardens into stone.
iii. As impressions
e.g impression of fish skeleton found on some rock surfaces.
Impressions are in form of casts and moulds
Importance of fossils
Using information from fossils, paleontologists are able to construct fossil records of related
organisms which are important in the following ways
i. They give direct evidence of types of animals and plants which existed a long-time ago
or at a certain geological age.

48
ii. They also show that different organisms arose at different times on earth e.g carbon
dating that shows the earliest fossils are those of monera, followed by protoctista and
then fungi. Plant and animals appeared much later. Among the vetebrates, the oldest
fossils are those of fish, followed by amphibians, reptiles, birds then mammals
iii. By comparing fossil records of different organisms, it is possible to tell the
phylogenetic/ ancestral relationships between organisms.
iv. They show the gradual changes that have occurred in organisms over time
v. The show extinction of organisms due to presence of fossil of organisms which no
longer exist.
vi. They show the existence of transitional forms between groups of organisms’ e.g
Archaeopteryx (flying reptiles) a transitional form between reptiles and birds,
Therapsids, mammal like reptiles, transitional forms between mammals and reptiles.
The age of the fossils can be determined through radioactive dating. For recent fossils carbon 14
(C14) is used. Carbon is a component of all living organisms and it therefore occurs in their
remains (fossils). The process is referred to as radioactive carbon dating.
The age of very old fossils is obtained by determining the age of the rocks where the fossils are
found using the potassium-argon method.

Limitations fossil records

1. There are several missing fossil records (missing links).These gaps have come about because
some parts or the whole organism have decomposed; some organisms were scavenged upon;
and not all conditions are suitable for fossilization.
2. Distortion of part during sedimentation which may give wrong impression of structures
3. Destruction of fossils by geological activities e.e earthquakes, faulting, uplifting, mass
movement.
Evolution of man
Both man and apes are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor called Proconsul .It
lived about 20 million years ago in the forests of Africa and Asia.
Proconsul had a long projecting face and a quadrupedal posture i.e it moved on all fours
About 14 million years ago, there was climate change in most parts of the world. Most of the
tropical forest disappeared and were replaced by the woodlands. A few of the proconsul stayed in
the remaining forests evolved into pongidae family and resulted into morden day gorrillas and
Chimpanzee. These retained their quedrupedal posture.
A few of the proconsul moved to the woodlands and evolved into Ramapithecus which are
believed to be ancestors of modern man.
Ramapithecus evolved to modern man through the following intermediates.
1. Australopithecus
Bi-pedal

49
Had an almost upright posture
Emerged 4 million years ago in forests of East and South Africa.
Brain capacity of between 400-600cm3, larger than that of modern gorilla and chimpamzee
Height of between 0.9-1.5m
Its representatives that have been discovered by archeologists include:
 A. anamesis from Lake Turkana, A. dated 3.9 m years ago
 A. africanus from South Africa dated 3m years ago
 A. robustus from S. Africa dated 2m years ago
 A. boisei from Olduvai gorge in in Tanzania dated 1.3 million years ago
The genus Homo seems to have arisen 2.5m years ago.
2. Homo Habilis ( Early man)
Discovered in Olduvai Gorge
About 2 million years ago
Skeleton is smaller than that of modern man
Brain capacity of about 700cm3
Had abilities to make and use tools hence Homo habilis
The earliest stone and wooden tools were found together with fossils of Homo habilis
Became extinct 1.5m years ago.
3. Homo erectus (erect man)
Arose from Homo habilis about 2m years ago
Lived between 1.5 million and 300,000 years ago
Brain capacity of about 800-1100cm3
Small stature
Had a prominent eye brow-ridge
Found in many parts of the world including Asia, Africa and Europe.
Used more sophisticated tools made of stone
Had skills and hunting techniques and made fire
Had some mode of communal life and work

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4. Homo sapiens
First form of humans that may be called Homo sapiens appeared about 200,000 yrs ago
Had a big brain, even bigger than that of modern man
Had heavy brow ridges
Little chin and sloping forehead.
Made excellent tools
Buried their dead with elaborate ceremonies
Fossils of early forms of man called Homo heidelburgensis dated 700,000 years ago and Homo
neanderthalensis dated 300,000 years ago have also been discovered in Germany.
Neanderthal man disappeared 40,000 years ago and replaced by Cro-magnon man whose fossils
were discovered in Europe.
This man had a thoroughly modern appearance
Modern man is thought to have arisen 10,000 years.
Characteristics of Homo sapiens
 High intellectual capacity
 Ability to vocalize sound/ communicate through language
 Ability to rationalize

Structural differences between apes and humans

Ape Human

Cranium enlarged; brain size Cranium greatly expanded; brain size

500cm3; low intellectual capacity 1350cm3; high intellectual capacity

51
 Large incisor and canine teeth useful Small incisor and canine teeth
in defense and killing prey; unsuitable for self-defense or for
omnivorous killing prey; omnivorous

Locomotion quadrupedal (on 4 Locomotion bipedal (on 2 limbs)

limbs)

Forelimbs used for arboreal Forelimbs (hands) used for

locomotion and walking; opposable manipulation e.g. tool making;
thumb opposable thumb

Hind foot has opposable toe for Non-opposable toe in foot; used
grasping branches mainly for stability on the ground

Pelvis narrow and elongated Pelvis broad and flattened

2. Geographical Distribution of organisms

Study of geographical distribution of organisms on earth is called biogeography
The theory of continental drift explains that at one time there was only one continent or land
mass known as Pangea. Animals migrated freely all over the land mass. The land mass later
split up into 2 main continents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland. These 2 later broke up
into the present day continents which then drifted apart.
It is believed that before the split, areas with similar climates were inhabited by similar
species of animals.
After the split members of the same species became separated and isolated
Each of the isolated groups then evolved independently of the others, adapting to different
sets of environment conditions
Eventually each group became different species. This occurred over a very long period of
time. Examples
i) The Camels of Africa and Llamas of South America are closely related and are thought
to have had a common ancestor before continental drift.
ii) The panthers and jaguars in South American Amazon represent the cat family, while in
Africa we have the Leopards and cheetahs, in Asia, there are tigers. It is believed that
from their common points of origin they migrated into different continents after
continental drift, became isolated and evolved into different species.
iii) Australia is thought to have been the first continent to drift before the evolution of the
placental mammals, hence it has unique Animals that include the poached mammals
(marsupials) that lack a true placenta eg Kangaroos, koala bears and spiny ant-eaters and
egg laying mammal (platypus).
iv) Geographically isolated oceanic islands probably evolved their own characteristic plants
and animals which must have originally migrated from other islands or the main land.
Charles Darwin brought attention to this phenomenon. He found that 23 out of the 26
land birds called finches were unique to the Galapagos Islands (an Archipelago) yet they
were all obviously related to the birds found in the South American main land of
Ecuador. Darwin argued that the different species of finches in the Galapagos islands
had arisen from a few ancestral forms that had managed to reach the different islands

52
from the mainland. On occupying the different islands, each finch evolved differently to
adapt itself to the prevailing environmental conditions.

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3. Comparative anatomy
Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms. Comparative anatomy is the study of
structural similarities and differences between organisms.
Comparative anatomy is the study of the structural similarities and difference between organisms
Some groups of organisms show basic structural similarities such similarities suggest that the
organisms have a common or related ancestral origin.
Some groups show many differences between them, they have less evolutionary relationship i.e
no common ancestry.
Homologous structures: Are structures with the same basic form and a common embryonic
origin but have been modified to be superficially different to enable them perform different
functions. The presence of homologous structures implies a common ancestral origin.
Examples
i) The pentadactyl (five digit) forelimb of various mammals. The forelimb of various
mammals has the basic pentadactyl (5 digit) structure, with the same number and
type of bones, and same nerves. They also have a common embryonic origin.
However externally, the the pentadactyl fore limb of these animals has been modified
differently to enable them perform different functions or exploit different habitats eg
in whales the forelimb is modified to form a flipper , wing in bats, hand in humans
and hoof in horses.
ii) Beak structure in birds
Beaks in birds have a common embryonic origin and basic structure. However
depending on the type of food and mode of feeding this basic structure is modified in
length, shape and size e.g.
-Short stout beaks are common in seed eaters e.g. weaver birds.
-Long slender beaks for nectar feeders e.g. sunbirds.
-Strong hooked beaks for carnivorous birds e.g. eagles
iii) Foot structure in birds

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 They are modified for various functions and habitats although they have a common
internal structure and embryonic origin e.g.
a. -The webbed feet of ducks are used for wading.
b. -Heavy clawed feet of eagles are used for grasping and tearing prey.
It is believed that those organisms sharing homologous structures are descendants of the same
ancestral stock that become adapted to different modes of life.The various structures became
modified to suit conditions in different habitats this is called adaptive radiation. Hence
Adaptive radiation is the modification of a common basic structure in different organisms
from a common ancestral origin to enable it adapt to different habitats
The kind of evolution where organisms that evolved from a common ancestor have undergone
adaptive radiation to enable them to exploit different habitats is called divergent evolution.
Analogous structures: These are structures with different embryonic origins but have modified
to look outwardly similar because they exploit the same environmental conditions. Examples: i)
wings of birds and those of insects are used for flight and are similar outwardly, however, they
have different basic structure and embryonic origin. Wings of birds have pentadactyl structures
while those of insects are membranous with toughened veins composed of cuticle. ii) e.g eyes of
man and octopus.
The modification of different structures with different ancestral origin, to look superficially
similar to enable them exploit similar habitat/ perform the same function is called convergent
evolution. Convergent evolution gives rise to Analogous structures.
Vestigial organs
They are those structures that have in the course of time ceased to be functional and therefore
have become reduced in size or rudimentary It is believed that the organs were present and fully
functional in the ancestral forms, but as the environment changed and modes of life changed they
became unnecessary and nonfunctional therefore became reduced in size e.g
 Vestigial tail bone/coccyx in man
 Vestigial appendix in man
 Vestigial limbs in whales evidenced by the presence of a rudimentary pelvic girdle
 Vestigial wings in flightless birds
 Vestigial nictitating membrane in mammalian eyes

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v) Comparative embryology

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Embryology is the study of formation and development of embryos
The embryos of different vertebrates have been found to be morphologically similar during the
early stages of their development.
The similarity suggests a common ancestry e.g the embryos of fish, turtle, chicken and human
(all vertebrates) are remarkably similar, they all possess gill clefts in the pharynx, all have a tail
and a two-chambered heart. However these organisms are very different when fully developed.
The existence of these similarities in embryos is evidence for organic evolution, it suggests that
these organisms have evolved from a common ancestor. The closer the resemblance between the
early stage embryos, the closer is the evolutionary relationship between these organisms.
Ernst Haeckel studied the developmental stages of different vertebrates and come up with his
recapitulation theory which states that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. Meaning
embryological development repeats ancestral origin.

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vi) Cell biology
The study of cells
The cells of all higher organisms show basic similarities in their structure and function
All cells of higher animals and plants contain cell membranes, organelles e.g ribosomes golgi
bodies, mitochondria, Rough ER and common biological chemicals common e.g ATP and DNA
This strongly indicates that all cell types have a common ancestral origin.
However major differences occur in structure and chemical content between animals and plants
cells e.g plants cells contain cellulose cell wall, sap ,chloroplast, starch and chlorophyll, all of
which are absent in animals cells.
Among animals blood pigments are of universal occurrence.These include
haemoglobin,haemocynin and chlorocruoin.
Haemoglobin widely distributed in both verterbrates and inverterbrates
Haemocynin occurs mainly in molluses and crustaceans
Chlorocruonin –annelids
The differences occurring in plant and animal cells indicate that from the common ancestral
stock plants and animals separated and evolved along different lines

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vii) Comparative serology.
Experiments with serum (serological tests) are used to show phylogenetic relationships
e.g.
-If human serum is injected into a rabbit, the proteins in the serum act as antigens. The rabbit
produces antibodies against the human proteins. When blood with antibodies is drawn from the
rabbit and mixed with serum from different animals, an immunological reaction occurs forming a
precipitate. The amount of precipitate formed varies from one animal to the other. The greater
the amount of precipitate, the closer the phylogenetic relationship between the animal and the
human being eg A chimpanzee produces a lot of precipitate showing a close relationship unlike
dogs
MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
Several theories have been put forward to explain how evolution may have occurred including.
i. Lamarck’s theory
ii. Darwin’s theory of natural selection

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 i. Lamarck’s theory (Lamarckism)
Jean Baptist De Lamarck was a French zoologist who proposed one of the earliest known
hypotheses to account for evolutionary change.
This theory can be explained using the following 3 principles:
i. Need or demand by environment
Lamarck proposed that when the environment demands the need or use of a particular structure
in an organism, the organism develops it in response to the demands or need.
ii. Use and disuse
He also proposed that, the development of organs has a direct relationship to their use or
employment i.e the size of an organ is proportional to its use or disuse.
If an organ is used, it remains active and strong.
If it is not used its becomes weak and reduces in size
iii. Acquired characteristics can be inherited
Lamarck further proposed that these changes or structures that were acquired during the lifetime
of an individual are transmitted to the next generation.
Based on these propositions, Lamarck explained the long neck of modern giraffes as follows-
That ancient giraffes were fewer in number and had short necks. He argued that as the number of
giraffes increased there was competition for food in form of tree leaves. This compelled the
giraffes to stretch their necks so as to reach the leaves on higher branches.
This resulted in elongation of necks. The longer neck trait so developed was passed onto the
successive generations giving them an advantage over the shorter necked species. The process
was repeated until the present long necked were developed.
Example 2
Appearance of flightless birds such as ostrich, emus and kiwi .Their reduced and functionless
wings probably resulted from their disuse in an environment not requiring flight.
Lamarck’s explanation of the role of the environment in influencing phenotypic changes in an
individual is valid e.g a body builder will have huge muscles due to continuous use of muscles.
However his propositions the acquired characteristic are inherited (transmitted to the next
generation) has been proved totally wrong by overwhelming scientific evidence.
Reason why Lamarck’s theory was rejected:

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Phenotypically acquired characteristics, which are not based on the genotype of an individual,

cannot inherited thus this theory has been rejected.

ii. Darwin’s theory of natural selection

In his book, The Origin of Species (1859) Charles Darwin put forward his explanation for the
mechanism of evolution by natural selection.
The theory can be stated in 5 main principals:
i) Reproductive potential
All organisms produce more offspring than can possibly survive i.e offspring far out-
number the parental generation e.g a fern plant may produce 50 million spores in a
year. However only a fraction survive to adulthood.
ii) Struggle for existence
Every organism faces a constant struggle to survive. Since organisms overproduce
offspring, they are constantly competing with each other for food, water and space
etc. Aside from this, organism also struggle against environmental pressures e.g
presence of diseases, and unfavorable environmental condition e.g drought, flooding,
predation etc .Darwin describe this as struggle for existence.
iii) Variation

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 Variations that are based on genes occur within members of a species (a population),
except for identical twins or clones produced by asexual reproduction every
individual differs in some way from all the other members of the same species. Some
individuals possesses advantageous characteristic while others possess those that are
disadvantageous. Organisms with advantageous characteristic are able to exploit
environment better or adapt better to changing environmental conditions.
iv) Survival for the fittest
Those individuals that are best adapted to the environment survive ie individuals that
have advantageous variations are able to exploit the environment and survive to
reproductive maturity .Thus they are able to give rise to the next generation and pass
on their good qualities to them. Those with disadvantageous variations are poorly
adapted, they perish when young and are unable to transmit their characteristic to the
next generations, this phenomenon is called survival for the fittest. Note: variations
are passed to the next generation through genes.
v) Thus, nature selects those organisms with good qualities (advantageous variations) to
be parents of the next generation, while weeding out those with poor qualities. This is
generally described as natural selection.
What is natural selection? (3mks)
Natural selection can be described as the process where nature selects the organisms that are
well adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions, enabling them survive to
reproductive maturity and pass on their good qualities to the next generation, while weeding
out those with disadvantageous characteristics hence do not survive to adulthood and do not
pass their weak characteristics to future generations.
Note: Natural selection is a chance occurrence
Darwin regarded variations as raw material for evolution
Sources of variation
-Mutation
-Recombination during sexual reproduction and gamete formation (meosis)
Evolution of giraffes long neck as explained by Darwin
The ancestral giraffes necks had varying lengths
As their numbers increased, food became scarce, the long necked giraffes were able to reach
leaves on higher branches and survive.
The short necked giraffes died off due to starvation and become extinct
Since the long neck trait was heritable (based on genes) it was passed on to the next
generation resulting in descendants that were long necked.

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 NATURAL SELECTION IN ACTION
If evolution is occurring continuously, it should be possible to see evidence of it in
contemporary times. Natural selection has been observed in a few cases which include.
i. Industrial melanism
ii. Resistance to drug, pesticides and antibiotics
iii. Sickle cell trait
Industrial melanism
The peppered moth, Biston betularia, occurs in Britain in 2 forms
a) Speckled white form
b) A black melanic form
Before industrial revolution in Britain, which started about 1848, the lighter speckled variety was
more abundant because they were well camouflaged on light colored, lichen covered tree trunks.
This meant they were less likely to be eaten by preying birds. However, around 1848 during
industrial revolution, there was a lot of pollution and the tree trunks were darkened by soot,
which also killed the lichens.

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In polluted industrial areas the black variety become more abundant as they could now
camouflage against the darkened tree trunks and the speckled form became rare. However, the
speckled white form is more abundant in the pollution free countryside.
Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics
Drugs, antibiotics and pesticides are chemical substances used to kill disease causing
microorganism and pest respectively. Antibiotics and pesticides are rarely 100% effective. Some
pathogens and pests usually survive and reproduce even when they are exposed to the antibiotics
and pesticides repeatedly.
These instances show that within the population some individuals posses the gene for resistance
or acquire it through mutation hence survive the chemical.
Those that survive transfer these characteristics to their offspring thus establishing a new
population of resistant forms e.g malaria parasites have become resistant to chloroquine.
Mosquitoes and houseflies are resistant to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), while some
bacteria are resistant to penicillin antibiotic.
Thus human attempts to eradicate various species of disease causing organisms or different
species of pests have resulted in their evolution.
The sickle-cell trait
It is known that there is high frequency of this mutant gene in places where malaria incidence is
high.
This is because those who are heterozygous HbAHbS have immunity to malaria a situation
called heterozygous advantage.
Discuss the various evidences which show that evolution has taken place (20mks)
What is natural selection?
Compare and contrast Charles darwins theory and lamarcks theory of evolution.

Charles Darwin’s theory Lamarck theory

Evolutionary change comes about due to Evolutionary change comes about due to
natural selection of those organisms with development of structures by organisms due
advantageous traits to be the parents of the to demand by the environment.
next generations

Variations among members of a species are

the raw materials of evolution
Only those variations based on genes are the Acquired characteristics can be inherited
ones inherited
Variations occur naturally in organisms and Organisms develop variations due to demand
are the raw materials of evolution. by the environment

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 c) In what ways does lamarck’s theory fail to agree with modern scientific evidence?
(1mks)
Lamarck’s theory suggests the acquired characteristics can be inherited which has been proved
wrong by modern scientific evidence.
RECEPTION RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION
In order to survive in the environment, all living organisms need to be able to detect/perceive
external and internal changes in their environment and respond or react appropriately to them.
The ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment is called sensitivity or irritability
e.g the ability of individual to hear a knock at a door (sound) and move to open the door
constitutes sensitivity/irritability. The sound from the knock constitutes a stimulus while the
movement to open the door is a response.
Terminologies
STIMULUS (PL- Stimuli) a particular CHANGE in the internal or external environment of an
organism that leads to a change in activity of organism.
Common external stimuli-temp, light, pH, humidity, mineral salt concentration in a habitat,
population density, absence or presence of predators
Common internal stimuli: Accumulation of wastes e.g urea, Concentration of gases O2 and CO2,
Presence of parasites, Changes in temp, Concentration of glucose, Osmotic pressure of body
fluids
RESPONSE- a CHANGE in the ACTIVITY of part or the whole organism in reaction to a
stimulus
RECEPTORS-those parts of the body of an organism which receive/perceive stimuli i.e are
involved with reception (skin, nose, ear, tongue)
EFFECTORS –parts that bring about a response (muscles and glands)
CO-ORDINATION-working together of different body parts in an orderly and organized
manner

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RESPONSES TO A VARIETY OF STIMULI
Responses are grouped according to the type of stimulus that causes them. Most responses
involve the movement or growth of the organisms towards the stimulus or away from it.
Responses towards the stimulus are known as positive responses, while those away from the
stimulus are known as negative responses.
Responses that involve locomotion of the organism towards or away from the stimulus are called
Taxes (singular Taxis), while those responses that involve growth of the organism are called
Tropisms. Tropisms mainly occur in plants.
TAXES AND THEIR SURVIVAL VALUES
Taxes (singular, taxis) may be referred to as taxic responses or tactic movements
Taxis can be defined as the movement of the whole organism in response to a stimulus from one
direction (unidirectional stimulus), or A locomotory response of an organism to a stimulus
coming from one direction.
Organisms that move towards a stimulus exhibit positive taxis while those that move away from
stimulus exhibit negative taxis
Taxes are grouped according to stimuli which cause them.
i. Phototaxis
Movement of whole organism in response to light stimulus coming from one direction.
Euglena and Chlamydomonas respond to light by moving towards it thus they are positively
phototaxic
If there are varying light intensities, the organisms will congregate at the region with optimum
light intensities, this enables them to trap maximum light for photosynthesis
Maggots and termites move away from light (negative phototaxis) to avoid desiccation and
exposure to predators.

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 ii. Chemotaxis
Movement of whole organism or part of it in response to chemical substances e.g sperm of Ferns,
mosses and liverworts exhibit positive chemotaxis.
The ova of these plants release chemical substances to which the sperm responds. The
movements of the sperm increase chances of survival of plant species by improving chances
fertilization.
Mosquitoes move/fly away from insecticides.
iii. Rheotaxis
This is the movement of the whole organism in response to variation in direction of water or air
currents. Many types of fish e.g such as trout move against current in water to easily obtain
floating food such as worms and insects. Butterflies and moths fly into wind currents in order to
detect scent of flowers.

iv. Aerotaxis
Movement of whole organism in response to variation in Oxygen concentration. Aerobic bacteria
move towards oxygen for respiration hence they exhibit positive aerotaxis.
v. Thermotaxis
Movement of the whole organism in response to temperature change e.g acquatic parasitc
organisms move towards homoiotherms. The parasites exhibit positive Thermotaxis so as to
move towards the skin of the homoiotherms to suck blood from them.
vi. Osmotaxis
Movement of whole organism in response to change in osmotic pressure. This is
shown by marine crabs burrowing in sand to avoid dilution of body fluids.

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RECEPTION, RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS
The internal and external environments of plants change constantly
The changes in the environment affect activities such as growth, reproduction and photosynthesis
Plants respond to a variety of stimuli in the environment
Plants exhibit their responses through growth and limited movement. These responses allow
plants to survive in their environment.
All these responses are co-ordinated by hormones produced in plant tissues
Response to a variety of external stimuli by plants
Plants perceive stimuli that are important to their survival in the environment
The various external stimuli that plants respond to include;
i. Light
ii. Water
iii. Gravity
iv. Chemicals
v. Temperature
vi. Contact
Plants respond to these stimuli by growing or moving towards or away from them
A response towards the stimulus is called positive response
If the response is away from stimulus, is called a negative response
Responses that involve growth are called tropisms while those that involve movement
(locomotion) are called taxis (pl taxes)
Tropisms and their survival values
Higher plants are rooted in the ground and are unable to move from place to place. However,
such plants respond by growing towards or away a stimulus
Such growth responses to uni-directional stimuli are called tropisms
A tropism can be defined as a growth response toward/ away from a stimulus coming form one
direction (unidirectional stimulus).
Growth response towards the stimulus is called +ve tropism and growth response away from the
stimulus is called –ve tropism
Types of tropisms
1. Phototropism
2. Geotropism

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3. Hydrotropism
4. Thigmotropism
5. Chemotropism

PHOTOTROPISM
A growth response of a plant to uni-directional light stimulus
The direction of growth/movement depend on the direction from which light comes from e.g
plant shoots grow and bend towards the direction of light if supplied with unidirectional light
hence they are positively phototrophic.
Plant roots on the other hand grow away from light hence they are negatively phototrophic.
Positive phototropism is of survival value to plants growing in dark, shaded or crowded areas as
this response enables shoots of such plants to access sufficient light for photosynthesis.
GEOTROPISM
Refers to growth curvature in response to gravity
Roots are positively geotropic while shoots are negatively geotropic
Enables shoots to grow upwards for leaves to access light energy for photosynthesis, and enables
plant roots to grow into the soil so that the plants are anchored firmly

HYDROTROPISM
Refers to growth curvature in response to moisture/water by plant roots
Plant roots are positively hydrotropic
Roots are able to obtain water from the soil for plant growth
CHEMOTROPISM
 Growth curvature in response to gradient of chemicals
 Developing pollen tubes which grow towards chemicals secreted by the embryo sac in the
ovary
 Survival value:- enables pollen tube to grow to the embryo sac to convey male nuclei to
fertilize the female gametes
THIGMOTROPISMHAPTOTROPISM
Growth response due to contact with a solid object e.g tendrils or climbing stems which twine
around objects or a woody stem are positively geotropic

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It enables plants with weak stems to gain support from other plants with woody stems, thereby
enabling them to obtain light for photosynthesis, expose their flowers for pollination, and fruits
for dispersal
Roots show negative thigmotropism/haptotropism when they grow avoiding obstacles such as
rocks
Survival values of Tropic Responses
1. Phototropism enables plant shoots to expose their leaves to light to maximize light
absorption hence enhance photosynthesis.
2. Hydrotropism enables the roots of plants to access water needed for growth and
photosynthesis
3. Haptotropism/thigmotropism enables the plants with weak stems to obtain mechanical
support and expose their leaves to light for photosynthesis, flowers to pollinating agents,
and fruits to dispersal agents.
4. Geotropism enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil thus offer firm anchorage to the
plant and also to obtain water and minerals salts
5. Chemotropism enables the pollen tube to grow towards the embryo sac facilitating
fertilization
Role of Auxins in Tropisms
Auxins are a group of plant growth hormones, the most common of which is Indole Acetic
Acid (IAA)
They are produced in very small concentrations, mainly at the apical meristems of shoots or
roots. Auxins then move back to the region of cell elongation where they exert their influence
Movement of auxins is by diffusion from cell to cell in one direction. Auxins are also
translocated in large amounts in the phloem from the shoot towards the roots.
Though auxins (IAA) are produced in very small amounts, shoots produce higher
concentrations than roots
IAA stimulates growth in both shoots and roots at the region of cell elongation. Very small
quantities of the hormone are required.
Roots are more sensitive to auxins than shoots/stems i.e roots require much smaller
concentration to stimulate growth as compared to shoots. Higher concentrations of auxins
that stimulate shoot growth inhibit root growth ie higher concentrations of auxins inhibit
growth of shoots.

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Normal seedling (normal environment) Seedings (dark environment)
Thick stem Thin stem
Big leaves Small leaves
Green leave (with chlorophyll) Yellow leaves
Normal elongated stem Abnormal elongated stem
Green stem Yellow stem dark chlorophyll
Strong and upright stem Weak and bending stem
Auxins and Phototropism
Under uniform light distribution, auxins produced from the shoot apex are distributed
evenly at the shoot tip, hence there is equal growth rate in the zone of cell elongation
leading to normal increase in height of the shoot.
However, when the shoot is exposed to unidirectional light the shoot bends towards the
light source. This is because light causes lateral migration of auxins from the lit side to
the darker side.
The higher concentration of auxins on the darker side, stimulates rapid cell elongation on
this side and hence faster growth on the darker side than on the lit Side. Due to this
unequal growth the shoot curves towards the source of light.

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ETIOLATION
Plants that are grown in dark, shaded or overcrowded areas have abnormally elongated stems
which are weak and pale yellow due to lack of chlorophyll. The plant is said to be etiolated.
Since chlorophyll does not develop the only source of food is that which is found in cotyledons.
Etiolation can be defined as the rapid increase in height of seedlings grown in insufficient light,
in an effort to reach light for photosynthesis before the food in the cotyledon is exhausted.
Importance
Etiolation allows maximum growth with minimum nutrients in absence of light, the shoot grows
rapidly in an attempt to access light for photosynthesis before food is exhausted in the cotyledon.

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Auxins and Geotropism
Roots of plants grow towards gravity and are said to be positively geotropic shoots of plants
grow away from gravity and are said to be negatively geotropic
When a seedling is placed in a horizontal position and left in place for 3 days shoot curves and
grows vertically upwards while the root curves and grows downwards
These responses are due to unequal distribution of auxins
Gravity causes auxins to move and accumulate on the lower side of the plant. This inhibits cell
elongation on the lower side of the root (since high concentration of auxins inhibits
growth/elongation in roots) but stimulates cell elongation on the upper side of the root (since low
concentrations stimulate root growth/elongation). Due to this unequal growth the root bends and
grows downwards.
The shoot bends upwards because higher concentrations of auxins on the lower side stimulate
faster growth than on the upper side where auxin concentration is low.

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A clinostat can be used to demonstrate that bending of the shoot and root as observed above
(geotropism) is due to the force of gravity.
A clinostat may consist of a cork disc pinned to an electric motor rotating slowly at about 1
rotation per hour.
A pad of moist cotton wool is pinned into the disc to provide moisture. Bean seedlings are
pinned to the cork disc lying in horizontal positions.

NB the rotation speed can be varied. When the speed is very slow the root and shoot growth is
way. But if fast like one rotation per hour, both the stem and root grow straight.
The slow rotation of the clinostat expose all sides of the seedling to the force of gravity The
effect is that there is equal distribution of auxins an all sides the seedling
The result is that both shoot and root continue growing horizontally, no bending upward or
downwards.

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Auxins and thigmotropism/Haptotropism
Thigmotropism is seen in tendrils or stems of climbing plants which bend/coil around any solid
object that it comes into contact with.
This results from a reduction of growth rate on the side of the tendril in contact with a solid
object.
The reduced growth rate comes about due to a fall in auxin concentration on the side
experiencing contact with a solid object.
The other side that is not in contact with a solid object, experiences faster growth as auxin
concentration is high.
Contact with a solid object causes lateral migration of auxins away from the side of contact

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This enables plants with weak stem to gain support from other plants with woody stems
increasing access to light for photosynthesis.

Differences between taxes and tropisms

Tropisms Taxes
Growth responses Locomotory responses
Responses are more permanent Responses are more temporary
Responses are slow Responses are fast
Are brought about by influence of growth Are not brought about by influence of special
hormones cells (nerve cells)

Similarities between tropism and tactic response

i. Both are responses to unilateral/unidirectional stimuli e.g light, water, temperature
ii. Both are adaptive responses that enables organism to survive better in the
environment.
Nastic Responses
These are non-directional movements of parts of plants in response to diffuse stimuli.
Examples
a) Folding of leaves in hot weather
b) Opening and closing of some flowers in response to changes in light intensity e.g. the
four o’clock plant
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 c) Closing of leaves of Mimosa pudica when touched
Such responses observed in plants result from change in turgor pressure at the leaf and flower
bases of some plants.
The bases have swellings known as pulvini, which can gain or lose turgidity to bring about the
observed nastic responses.
Types of Nastisms
Grouped according to the type of stimuli that evokes the response.
a) Nyctinasty: (sleep movements)
These are movements in response to variation in light intensity and temperature between day
time and night time.
Response to light is called photonasty
Response to temperature changes is called thermonasty.

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 Haptonasty: This is the response to touch. The touch reaction is clearly seen in Mimosa
pudica whose leaves close rapidly when the leaves or stem is touched. A sudden change in
temperature will also initiate a similar response. Experiments with Mimosa pudica suggest
that a chemical agent is involved in these responses.
Haptonasty is also seen in venus flytrap. This is an insectivorous plant that grows in soil with little
nitrogen, so the plant gets its nitrogen by trapping and digesting insects. When the sensitive hairs on the
leaves are touched by a landing insect, the mid-rib cells lose water rapidly by osmosis, hence lose their
turgor. This causes the trap to close with spines interlocking and the insect trapped inside.

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(c) Chemonasty: This is the response to the presence of specific chemical substances of
nitrogenous compounds such as urea and ammonium compounds found in insectivorous plants
such as Sundew (Drosera). When an insect is trapped by the tentacles of (Drosera), the insect
provides the chemical stimulus for the release of digestive enzymes by the plant.

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(d) Hydronasty: This is a response to changes in humidity. This type of response is seen in some
flowers such as those of the Dandelion genus which close when the air is moist.

Survival Value of Nastism

Protection of the inner delicate parts of the flowers.

Reduction of transpiration.

Regulation of temperature.

A way of obtaining some limited mineral nutrients.

Co-ordination in Plants

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Plant growth responses are co-ordinated by hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins
and florigens. Tropisms are growth responses which are mostly influenced by the hormone
auxin.

Reception, Response and Co-ordination in animals

Animals are much more complex than plants and are in constant interaction with the external
environment.
Like plants, animals are able to detect changes in their internal or external environment
They detect these changes or stimuli through special cells or organs called receptors
The process of detection or perceiving/perception of the stimuli is known as reception
Muscles and glands that bring about responses are called effectors. Receptors and effectors are
linked together by a co-ordinating system composed of nervous system and endocrine system
The endocrine system is made up of ductless/enndocrine glands which release hormones
The nervous system detects stimuli and generates impulses that are transmitted within the body
through nerve cells.
These two 2 systems work together and co-ordinate different types of responses

Components of the nervous system of mammals

The nervous system is responsible for detecting changes in the external environment of animals
and responding to them.
It consists of nerve cells/neurons which are linked to one another and to various receptor and
effectors in different parts of the body.
The nervous system is divided into 2
i) Central nervous system (CNS)
ii) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The CNS is divided into the brain and spinal cord
The PNS consist of nerves which link the CNS to the various receptors and effectors in the body.
Some of the nerves emerge from the brain and are called cranial nerves. Others emerge from the
spinal cord and are called spinal nerves.
Structure and function of neurons
The neuron or nerve cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the Nervous system. There
are about 100 billion neurons in the body.
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Motor neuron
Neurons or nerve cells are specialized cells that carry impulses from one part of the body to
another, they consist of the following structures.
i. A cell body or a centron which is composed of a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm. It
controls neuron’s activities.
ii. Arm- like processes called dendrons which extend from the cell body and terminate
as dendrites. Dendrons carry impulse towards the cell body.
iii. Axon/nerve fibre. Is the elongated part of the neuron. Arises from the cell body and
transmits impulses away from the cell body.The axon also branches at its free end to
form dendrites
The cytoplasm of the cell body consist of Niessel’s granules which are rich in RNA and are
concerned with protein synthesis. It also consists of mitochondria that produce energy for the cell
body’s metabolic activities.

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The axon is filled with axoplasm which is continuous with the cytoplasm of the cell body, and is
bounded by a thin membrane that is continuous with plasma membrane of the cell body.
The axon is enclosed by a fatty sheath called myelin sheath /medullated sheath
The myelin sheath is surrounded by a membrane called neurilemma.
Functions of the myelin sheath are:
i) protects and insulates the axon against loss of impulse
ii) Speeds up transmission of nerve impulse
The myelin sheath is constricted at intervals of 1mm
The constrictions are called nodes of Ranvier
The nodes help speed up transmission of a nerve impulse
The myelin sheath is formed by Schwann cells which occur at the outer region of neurilemma
Impulses are transmitted from the axon of one neuron to the dendrons of another neuron across a
tiny space called a synapse.
Types of Neurons/Nerve cells
There are 3 types of neurons grouped according to the direction of impulse conduction
i. Sensory neuron
ii. Motor neuron
iii. Relay neuron /intermediate/connector neuron
SENSORY NEURONE
 They conduct impulse from receptors in the body e.g eyes, ears, nose, taste-buds, skin
e.t.c to the Central Nervous System.
 Sensory neurons which transmit impulses from internal organs such as the heart or lungs
are called visceral sensory neurons.
 The Sensory neurons which transmit impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints and
bones are referred to as somatic sensory neurons.
 Sensory neurons have their cell bodies located off the axon (to the side of axon)
 The cell body is situated outside the central nervous system
 Most of the sensory neuron is located in a peripheral nerve. Only the terminal dendrites
are located in the Central Nervous System and the receptor dendrites are located in a
sensory organ

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RELAY/INTERMEDIATE NEURON
 They link sensory and motor neurons to one another
 The entire neuron is located in the CNS ie brain or spinal cord. They transmit impulses
from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
 They are non-myelinated
 Relay neuron from different parts of the CNS differ in their strucure

They have a short axon which extends towards the motor neuron
MOTOR NEURONE
 Transmits impulses from the CNS to the effectors
 Its cell body is at one end of the axon and located in the CNS. The rest of the axon enters
a peripheral nerve and terminates in an effector e.g a muscle or a gland
 Motor neurons are also known as efferent neurons

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NOTE: Neurons can also be classified as unipolar, bipolar or multipolar according to the no of
dendrons or axons arising from its cell body. (draw from KLB)

NERVES
 Nerve cell fibres or axons run together in bundles. These bundles are called nerves
 Nerves are white cord-like structures that consist of hundreds or even thousands of axons
of motor neurons and sensory neurons
 The axons are bound in a tight sheet of connective tissue called a nerve sheath just like an
electrical cable made up of smaller wires bound together with an insulator.
 At certain points, the nerves are swollen with bodies of sensory neurons. This point is
called a nerve ganglion.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consist of the brain and the spinal cord
Co-ordinates the body activities by receiving impulses from sensory cells from different parts of
the body and sending impulses to appropriate effectors.

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THE BRAIN
Is a delicate nervous organ which is the most highly developed organ so far in evolution
It is encased and protected in a bony structure called the cranium
It is enveloped by a system of membranes called meninges namely
1. PIA MATTER
Is the inner –most membrane covering the brain and spinal cord
Has very many blood capillaries and lymph vessels
2. DURA MATTER
The tough outer membrane covering the brain and spinal cord
Is composed of connective tissues and a rich network of blood capillaries
3. ARACHNOID LAYER
Middle layer consisting of a narrow space between dura matter and pia matter
Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which :
 Supply oxygen and nutrients into the brain cells and into which waste products from the
brain cells diffuse.
 Also acts as a shock absorber that protects the brain from mechanical damage.
 Also contain lymphocytes which protect brain tissue against infection
Within the brain are spaces/cavities called ventricles which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid/
CSF that provides nourishment to the brain tissue and absorbs mechanical shock.
The brain co-ordinates and regulates the different activities of the body
The mammalian brain can be divided into three major regions
i. Forebrain
-cerebrum
-hypothalamus
-thalamus
-Pituitary gland
ii. Mid brain
-optic lobe/corpra quadrigemia (gemina)
iii. Hindbrain
-medulla oblongata
-cerebellum
Functions of parts of Humans Brain
A. FOREBRAIN

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 1. Hypothalamus
Its functions are related maintaining a constant internal environment of the body (homeostasis)
 controls body temperature
 Regulate heartbeat rate.
 Regulates blood pressure.
 Regulates osmotic pressure of body fluids.
 Stimulates hunger, thirst and sleep.
 Controls the activities of the pituitary gland.
2. Thalamus
 Contains specialized centers that integrate sensory impulses from the sense organs i.e
eyes, ears and skin and sends them to the sensory cortex of the cerebrum.
 Also contains ascending and descending nerve tracts that connect the spinal cord to the
cerebrum.
 NB Integrate is to combine many so that they work together.
3. Cerebrum
 Largest part of the brain
 Divided into two parts, right and left cerebral hemispheres.
 The 2 hemispheres are interconnected by a group of nerve call corpus callosum.
 The right hemisphere receives and sends impulses from and to the left side of the body.
The left hemisphere sends and receives impulses from and to the right side of the body.
 The outer part of the Cerebrum consists of a thin layer of grey matter known as cerebral
cortex.
 It is about 3mm thick and plays a very important role.
 It is highly folded to increase Surface Area for packaging of many neurons.
 Cerebral cortex can be divided into sensory, motor and association areas.
Sensory area
Receives impulses from various sense organs e.g eye, ear, tongue, and olfactory organs (located
in nose) from various parts of the body. It coordinates vision, hearing, taste and smell.
Association area
Receives impulses from sensory area, interprets them and sends the appropriate impulses to the
motor areas.
It also stores information.
Motor area
Sends out impulses to voluntary muscles in various parts of the body.
Below the grey cerebral cortex is the white matter of cerebrum, it forms the internal mass of
cerebrum that contains nerves that transmit impulse to and from various parts of cerebral cortex.
General functions of cerebrum

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 1. Controls most of the voluntary activities of the body including skeletal muscle
movement, eye movement and speech.
2. Responsible for conscious awareness of various senses e.g sight, touch, hearing, smell,
taste and pain.
3. Responsible for memory, learning, reasoning, personality and intelligence

B. MIDBRAIN
 Connecting stalk between fore-brain and hind-brain.
 Relays impulses from the spinal cord to the fore-brain through nerves,
 Made of corpora quadrigemina tissue
 Relay Centre for audio and visual information
 Also responsible for movement of head and trunk
C. HINDBRAIN
Cerebellum
 Located at the back of the head just below the cerebrum
 Its surface is highly folded and is grey due to presence of non-myelinated nerve cells
Functions
1. Controls body balance and posture (balance is physical stability of the body) (posture is
position of body in space i.e sitting , bending)
2. Control complex muscular movements e.g standing, swimming , riding and running
3. Ensures dexterity/precision in fine movements’ e.g sewing, playing the guitar, typing and
writing.
4. Responsible for instinctive reaction
Generally it is important for co-ordination of body movements
Medulla oblongata
Joined to the upper part of the spinal cord, and located at the lower region at the back of the
skull.
Main function-controls involuntary/unconscious responses
i. Controls unconscious actions such as breathing , heartbeat rate and peristalsis
ii. Controls other involuntary actions e.g swallowing, sneezing, vomiting
iii. Controls dilation of blood vessels hence controlling blood pressure.

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THE SPINAL CORD
 Part of the CNS that extends posterity from brain towards the tail
 It is enclosed by the meninges and protected by the vertebral column.
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  It passes through the neural canal of various vertebra along the column.
 It is made up of grey matter and white matter.
Grey Matter
 It takes an H-shape.
 It surrounds the central canal which runs through the centre of the spinal cord,
 Central canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
 Grey matter consists of cell bodies of motor neurons and dendrites of sensory neurons
and the entire relay neurons.
 It is grey because it is made up of non-myelinated parts of neurons.
 Grey matter relays information between sensory and motor neurons.
White matter
 The outer part of the spinal cord. It consist of axons (nerve fibres) of sensory and motor
neurons.

 The spinal cord has a dorsal root which carries sensory nerve and ventral root which
carries motor nerve fibres (axons).
 The two roots then join up to form a spinal nerve which is a mixed nerve because it
contains a axons of both sensory and motor neurons.

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Functions of the spinal cord
1. Responsible for reflex action, which is an instinctive rapid response that removes the
organism from danger
2. It help the body to attain an upright posture through maintenance of muscle tone
3. Provides a pathway for transmission of both sensory and motor impulses between the
brain and other parts of the body
NB
If the spinal cord is out at any point, all conscious awareness and voluntary actions below the
point of cutting cease. However reflex action will still take place.

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THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Consist of a system of nerves that connect the spinal cord and brain (CNS) to the body’s
receptors and effectors.
Nerves that arise from the brain are called cranial nerves
Those that arise from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.
Cranial nerves
Arise from the brain.
Are associated with receptors and effectors in the head and neck.
Examples: optic nerve, auditory nerve, olfactory nerve and the paired vagus nerve which is
associated with the heart, lungs and diaphragm.
Spinal nerves
- Arise from spinal cord.
- Emerge between 2 adjacent vertebrae at inter-vertebral foramen.
- Innervate various skeleton muscles in the body.
- Each has 2 roots i.e dorsal root containing sensory neurons and ventral containing motor
nerve fibres.
- The two roots join to form a fixed nerve before passing through the intervertebral
foramen.
- Cell bodies of sensory neuron lie in a ganglion on dorsal root.

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Peripheral Nervous System can also be divided into
1. Voluntary N/S
2. Autonomic/involuntary N/S

Voluntary N/S

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Comprises of cranial and spinal nerves that control voluntary activities of the body e.g nodding
of the head.
Autonomic N/S
Comprises of cranial and spinal nerve that control involuntary activities of the body e.g
Heart beat rate and Secretions from glands.
REFLEX ACTION
Rapid involuntary or automatic response to a particular stimulus by an organ or a group of
organs. Examples
i. Withdrawal of the hand from a hot object
ii. Blinking of the eyelid when an object comes close to the eye
iii. Sneezing and coughing
iv. Kneejerk reflex when patella tendon is tapped
v. Salivation at the sight and smell of food
Importance of Reflex Action-A protective instinctive action
Reflex arc- Is a simple nervous pathway which impulses follow during a reflex action
Components of a reflex arc
i. A sensory receptor
ii. A sensory neuron
iii. An intermediated neuron (may or may not be present)
iv. A motor neuron
v. An effector
The various neurons link the receptor and effector through spinal cord.
A reflex action can be simple or conditioned.

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SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION
An involuntary response to a stimulus without conscious thought e.g sneezing, coughing,
salivation, removal of the hand from a hot object.
Example of simple reflex action is withdrawal reflex e.g removal of the hand when it
accidentally comes in contact with a hot object.
When one touches a hot object, pain receptors in the skin are stimulated. This generates an
impulse which is conducted by a sensory neuron to the spinal cord for interpretation.
Here the impulse is passed to an intermediate neuron then to an outgoing motor neuron. The
motor neuron transmits the impulse to the effector which is the biceps/flexor muscle of the arm
which then contracts resulting in withdrawal of hand from the hot object.
NB
Sensory neuron is also connected to an ascending neuron which transmits impulse to the brain.
This makes one become aware of the pain a fraction of a second after withdrawal of the hand
from the hot object.

In this example, the spinal cord is acting as the reflex centre, the spinal cord being part of CNS
initiates a response i.e withdrawal of the hand from flame.
CONDITIONED REFLEX ACTION

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This is an automatic response which can be evoked from an animal by unrelated stimulus
substitution for the one which normally elicits the response.
It is learned and develops over long period of time e.g in a simple reflex action, a dog normally
salivates when it is presented with food i.e sight and smell of food elicits salivation. But if a bell
is rang just before food is presented to the dog and the procedure repeated several times, then the
dog will learn to associate bell-ringing with food and will salivate as soon as it hears the sound of
the bell whether food is presented or not. This experiment was investigated by the Russian
Scientist Ivan Pavlov in 1902.
Conditioned reflex results from past experiences and involves modification of behavior through
learning. However, it weakens with time and must be reinforced by repeating the stimulus.
Examples of conditioned responses
i. Learning process
ii. Walking
iii. Playing
iv. Cycling
v. Writing
vi. Swimming
vii. Driving
viii. Training animals
Difference between Simple R.A and Conditioned R.A

Simple RA Conditioned RA
1. Single stimulus brings about a response Repeated stimulus brings about the response
2. Simplest form of behavior and is Involves modification of behavior and
independent of experience depends on experience
3. Sensory and motor components are the Primary sensory component is replaced by a
same at all time secondary sensory component but motor
component remains the same
4. The response elicited is always related to Response is elicited by neutral stimulus that
the stimulus e.g salivation is always is unrelated to the response
related to sight and smell of food
5. The response has a survival value to the The response has no survival value to the
stimulus neural stimulus
6. It is always constant Must be reinforced otherwise weaken with
time
7. It is in-born It is learned
Synapse/neuro-junction
This is a junction between dendrites of two adjacent neurons.
It’s function is to allow impulse transmission from neurone to neurone. At this point, a dendrite
from one of the nerve cells forms a synaptic knob.
This is an enlargement which makes contact with cell body or dendrite of the other neurone.
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A single neurone may form synaptic connections with many other neurons through their
dendrites.
The transmission of nerve impulses across a synapse is a chemical process mediated by a
chemical substance called neurotransmitter substance e.g acetylcholine and noradrenaline
The synaptic knob contains numerous synaptic vesicles and mitochondria. The synaptic vesicles
contain neurotransmitter substance.
Mitochondria supply the energy needed for continuous synthesis of neurotransmitter substance.
When an impulse reaches a synaptic knob it causes one or more synaptic vesicles to discharge
neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft (space between two synaptic knobs).
Neurotransmitter diffuses across the cleft and binds to specific receptors on the post synaptic
membrane. This results in the generation of a nerve impulse in the post-synaptic neurone.
Once neurotransmitter has caused generation of a nerve impulse in the post synaptic neuron, it is
broken down by a specific enzyme such as cholinesterase. This prevents the post synaptic
neuron from continuous stimulation.
The products of the breakdown are absorbed back into the pre-synaptic knob and are
reconstituted back to neurotransmitter. Energy for this process is supplied by the mitochondria.

Nerve impulse transmission

The impulse transmitted by a nerve fibre is electrical in nature. At rest, a nerve cell maintains an electric
gradient between the outer and inner surfaces of its membrane. The inner surface is negatively charged
while the outer surface is positively charged. This is known as resting potential and the membrane is then
said to be polarized.

When a nerve cell is stimulated, the electrical properties of the membrane are momentarily reversed. The
inside of the membrane becomes positively charged while the outside becomes negatively charged. Under

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these conditions the membrane is said to be depolarized. This is followed within a short time by a return
to the polarized state. These sudden changes in the electrical properties of the nerve cell membrane
constitute an action potential which is short lived lasting about a millisecond.

The changes in electrical properties of the nerve cell membrane that accompany the transmission
of an impulse are generated by movement of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions(K+) in and
out of the cell.

At rest, the outer surface of the nerve cell membrane has a high concentration of Na and chloride
ions (C1). The axoplasm has a high concentration of K+ and negatively charged organic ions.
The concentration of organic ions in the inner surface is much higher than that of K+ making the
inner surface of the membrane negatively charged. The polarity is maintained by the fact that
membrane has a very low permeability to charged ions.

When the nerve cell is stimulated, the membrane suddenly becomes highly permeable to Na+.
These diffuse rapidly across the membrane into the axoplasm due to the concentration gradient.
This reverses the electrical properties of the membrane with the inner surface becoming
positively charged and the outer surface negatively charged. The membrane is then said to be
depolarized.

Entry of Na+ is immediately followed by an increase in the permeability of the membrane to K+.
These diffuse rapidly to the outside due to the concentration gradient. Being positively charged,
the K+ reverses the polarity of the membrane making the outside positive. This marks the
beginning of repolarization.

Complete repolarization is achieved by the sodium pump (also called the sodium-potassium
pump) found in the membrane. This actively pumps all the Na+ to the outside and all the K+ to
the inside. The pump requires energy in the form of ATP and is inhibited by metabolic poisons.

These changes constitute the action potential. The events on one part of the nerve cell membrane
stimulates the adjacent part whose permeability properties also change leading to generation of
an action potential.

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102
Role of hormones in co-ordination in Mammals
 Hormones are chemical substances produced in one part of the body and bring about
responses in another part of the body.
 They are produced by endocrine glands, also known as ductless glands
 Endocrine glands are glands that release substances directly into the blood hence they
lack ducts
 On production, hormones are released into the blood circulatory system
 As the blood circulates in the body the hormones stimulate responses in specific organs
called target organs.
 Some endocrine glands are usually stimulated to release hormones by the nervous
system.
 Other endocrine glands release their hormones as a result of stimulation by hormones
from other glands.
 Hormones are produced in very small quantities and stay for a while in the blood hence
their effects are felt for a longer time.
 Endocrine system, like the nervous system is a means of co-ordination within the body.
ADRENALINE HORMONE
 Is produced from the adrenal gland found on the upper surface of the kidneys
 The adrenal gland is made up of 2 distinct regions
i) The outer adrenal cortex
ii) Inner adrenal medulla
 Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal medulla
 Its production is stimulated by the nervous system

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  Adrenaline prepares the body for an emergency
 Adrenaline is produced as a response to:
i. danger
ii. anxiety
iii. anger
iv. excitement
v. emergency
It is often referred to as the fight or flight hormone
Effects of Adrenaline
1. Stimulates increase metabolism
2. Stimulates increases heart beat rate
3. Stimulates increase rate of breathing
4. Stimulates increased conversion of glycogen to glucose
5. Stimulates constriction of blood vessels to non-vital organs
6. Stimulates dilation of blood vessels to vital organs e.g brain and the heart to increase
blood supply to them.
7. Stimulates increase rate of muscle contraction
8. Stimulates dilation of pupils
Note
 Stress may also cause secretion of adrenaline. People with stressful lifestyles are
continually secreting adrenaline thus their bodies are constantly being prepared for
action.
 This is harmful as it causes effects such high blood pressure, fatigue, tense and painful
muscle and headache.


Effects of over secretion/hyper-secretion of Adrenaline
 May be caused by the growth of a tumor in the medulla in the adrenal gland
 Over secretion may result in HBP/hypertension, severe headaches, racing heart, sweating
and faintness
 The resultant effects are aging of body organs e.g heart, kidneys and liver.
Effects of under secretion of Adrenaline
May be caused by reduced activity of adrenal gland, Symptoms are:
1. Low blood pressure
2. Inability to withstand stress
3. Fatigue
4. Muscular weakness
5. Fainting
6. Indigestion

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THYROXIN HORMONE
Produced by the thyroid glands found at the neck region on either side of the trachea close to its
junction with larynx
It is a complex protein that contains lodine
Is released by the thyroid gland upon stimulation by another hormone known as thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH)
TSH is produced by the pituitary gland which is itself under the influence of hypothalamus.

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Role of Thyroxin
1. Control metabolic rate in the body. This is done due to its ability to stimulate the
formation of enzymes for respiration
2. Enhances the effect of growth hormone somatotrophin, this ensures normal growth and
mental development
3. Works with adrenaline to enhance involuntary activities such as increased heart beat rate.
Effect of under secretion of thyroxin (Hypothyroidism)
Hypothyroidism may be caused by:
i) Insufficient iodine in the diet
ii) Ineffective enzymatic reactions concerned with its production
Symptoms
1. Cretinism in children, which is characterized by:
i. Deformed legs
ii. Large tongue
iii. Dry leathery skin
iv. General body sluggishness
v. Poor growth
vi. Mental retardation
Condition can be rectified if treated early
2. Myxoedema in adults, which is characterized by:
- Slow physical and mental activity is adults
- Thyroid gland swells due to overworking in an attempt to synthesize more thyroxin a
condition called goiter
Due to low thyroxin concentration individuals have:
 A low metabolic rate
 Heart beat reduces
 Breathing reduces
 Body temp reduces
- Low physical activity results in weight gain or obesity
- Oedema also results due to retention of excess fluid hence swollen feet and puffly face
hence Myxoedema, hair loss
The condition can be rectified by

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 i. Swallowing thyroxin tablets
ii. Taking a balanced diet with iodised table salt
Effects of over production of thyroxin (hyperthyroidism)
1. Leads to increased metabolic rate in the body which results in
- High body temperature
- Increase in breathing rate
- Increase in rate of breakdown of glucose and fats leading to loss of body fats
2. Excess energy production resulting to physical and mental restlessness
3. Such people become nervous and irritable and their hands shake when held out
Comparison between endocrine and nervous system
Similarities
1. Both provide a means of communication within the body of an organism
2. Both involve transmission of an impulse triggered by a stimulus and followed by a
response
3. Target organs of hormones are like effector organs
4. Both involve some chemical transmission
5. Both bring out survival response
Differences between endocrine and Nervous system
Endocrine system Nervous system
-Use chemical substances i.e hormones to -Uses electrical charges to relay impulses
relay impulse
-Hormones are transmitted through the blood -Impulses are transmitted through nerve cells
-Hormonal effect are wide ranging since -Nerve impulses affect specific part of the
hormones reach a large part of the body body
through blood
-Hormones stay longer in the blood hence -Impulses are short lived. Hence their effects
their effects are long-lasting last for short period of time.
-Responses are usually slow -Responses are fast
-Their production and effects are involuntary -Take place both voluntarily and involuntarily

THE EYE

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- This is a complex sensory organ whose function is to receive light by which an animal
perceives and distinguishes objects in its immediate environment.
- The eye is located in a socket in the skull called an orbit which offers it protection against
physical damage.
- The orbit has a fatty layer which acts as a shock absorber against mechanical injury.

Structure and function of the eye

The eye is suspended in the socket by sets of muscles namely:
i. Inferior and superior oblique
- Steady the eye in its up and down movement
ii. Superior and inferior rectus muscle
- Move the eye up and down
iii. Lateral rectus muscle
- Move the eye left and right
Eyelid
- A fold of skin in front of the eyeball
- It protects the eye
Eye lashes - hairs on the edge of eyelids
- Prevent entry of small foreign particles into the eye
Eyebrows
- Raised portions of skin above the eye
- Thickly covered with hair
- Prevent sweat and dust from entering the eye
Tear gland/Lachrymal gland
The lachrymal gland in mammals is beneath the upper eyelid
Secrete tears that keep the eye moist and wash away dust particles
Tears drain away into the nasal cavity through tear duct or lachrymal duct

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109
 Internal structure of the Eye

The mammalian eye is a spherical fluid-filled structure whose wall consist of 3 distinct layers
i. Outer layer called sclera/sclerotic layer
ii. Middle layer called choroid
iii. Inner layer called retina
i. Sclera
- Tough, white fibrous layer also known as white of the eye ball

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 - Protects the delicate inner parts of the eyeball
- Also helps in maintaining its spherical shape
- At the front of the eye, the sclera forms the cornea a transparent curved layer which
allows light to enter the eye.

Cornea
Refracts light entering eye due to it’s curved nature
Its front portion is covered and protected by a tough thin transparent layer of tissue called
conjunctiva.
ii. Choroid
- Membranous layer
- Pigmented with melanin hence appears black
- Contains numerous blood vessels that nourish the eye
- Function-Absorbs stray light and prevents reflection within the eye because of its dark
colour
- It extends to form the CILLIARY BODY and IRIS in front of the eye.
Iris
 A thin sheet of muscular tissue with a round opening at the centre called Pupil
 Contains 2 sets of muscles i.e circular and radial muscles which control diameter of pupil
 Pigmented giving eye its colour e.g black, brown or blue
Pupil
 An opening in the Iris
 Allows light to enter the eye in sufficient amounts
Cilliary body
 Also an extension of CHOROID
 The IRIS and suspended ligaments are attached to it
Functions
 Contains circular smooth muscles which contract and relax to alter shape of lens
 Also secrete AQUEOUS HUMOUR
LENS
 Transparent biconvex structure
 Located immediately behind the pupil of the eye
 Held in position by suspensory ligaments which became taut/tight or loose to alter the
shape of the lens.
 Divides eyeball into anterior and posterior chambers
 ANTERIOR- Right behind the cornea, filled with aqueous humour
 POSTERIOR- Between lens and retina, filled with a denser jelly like transparent fluid
called vitreous humour.
 Both vitreous and aqueous humour help maintain the spherical shape of the eyeball
 Both also refract incoming light towards the retina.

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 iii. Retina
 The inner-light sensitive layer made up of light sensitive cells (photoreceptor cells) and
sensory neurons.
 The sensory neurons join to form the optic nerve which transmits impulses to the brain
 Light-sensitive cells/photoreceptor cells are of two types.
Cones
 Contains photochemical pigment iodopsin which perceives light of high intensities
 In presence of light, iodopsin breaks down to iodine and opsin. This brings about
initiation/generation of nerve impulse which is transmitted along a sensory neuron to the
optic nerve.
 Optic nerve carries impulses to the brain for interpretation
 A greater concentration of cons occurs in a region of the retina called fovea centralis or
yellow spot.
 Most light rays refracted into the eye fall on the fovea centralis this is where images are
normally focused.
 Cones are also responsible for colour vision.
 Each cone has its own bipolar neuron which links it with the optic nerve hence cones are
said to lack retinal convergence. This enables them to have high visual acuity i.e they can
distinguish objects clearly.

Rods
 Responsible for vision in dim light/low light intensity
 Contain photochemical pigment rhodopsin (visual purple) which perceives light of low
intensity
 Are not sensitive to colour

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  Have retinal convergence i.e more than one rod are linked to one bipolar neuron that links
them to optic nerve, hence they lack visual acuity and cannot distinguish fine detail
 Under low light intensities rhodopsin breakdown to opsin and retinite ( derivative of
vitamin A)
 Breakdown of rhodopsin triggers off a nerve impulse that is transmitted through the optic
nerve to the brain.
 Amount of rhodopsin increases in the dark for greater sensitivity to dim light
 More rods are found at the periphery of the retina and absent at fovea centralis
 Rhodopsin is continually synthesized in the dark. Nocturnal animals have more rods than
cons in their retina.
Blind spot
 The area on the retina where the optic nerve enters the eyeball
 Has no rods or cons hence images falling on this spot are not perceived

IMAGE FORMATION
When light passes from one medium to another of different densities it is bend or refracted
When light from an object enters the eye it passes through the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous
humour, lens, and vitreous humour before reaching the retina.

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All these structures have different densities and refract light focusing it on the fovea centralis
Cornea accounts for the greatest refraction of light rays because of its curved shape.
The image is recorded on the retina as a real, inverted, laterally reversed and small.
The image stimulates photoreceptor cells which generate a nerve impulse that is then transmitted
to the cerebrum of the brain through the optic nerve.
In the visual cortex of the cerebrum, the image is interpreted as real, upright and normal sized
colour of image is also determined.
Impulses from the right are transmitted to the left side of the cerebrum while those from the left
eye are transmitted to the right side of the cerebrum.

ACCOMODATION
Refers to the ability of the eye to focus for both far and near objects clearly at the retina
Accomplished through change in shape of the lens
Lens curvature is altered by the action of cilliary muscles acting on the suspensory ligaments

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Accomodation of the eye to near objects

- Cilliary muscles contract

- tension on suspensory ligaments reduces
- Curvature of the lens increases
- Light from the near object is greatly refracted by the lens

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Accommodation of the eye to far (distant) objects
o Ciliary muscle relax
o This increases tension on suspensory ligaments
o This stretches the lens reducing the curvature i.e lens becomes thinner and less
bulging.
o Light rays from far objects are less refracted hence are focused on the retina.

RESPONSE OF THE EYE TO BRIGHT AND DIM LIGHT

The amount of light entering the eye is determined by the size of the pupil. The size of the pupil
is controlled by the iris.
The iris contains circular and radial muscles.

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RESPONSE TO BRIGHT LIGHT
 Circular muscles of the iris contract
 Radial muscles relax
 This reduces the size of the pupil and limiting amount of light entering the eye.

RESPONSE TO DIM LIGHT

 Radial muscles contract
 Circular muscles relax
 This increases size of pupil

These changes are reflex actions that serve to protect the retina from damage by excessive light
and improve visibility in dim light.

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DEFECTS OF THE EYE

- These are structural changes in the eye which makes the focusing mechanism of the eye
difficult.
- Such defects of the eye can be corrected after careful diagnosis by an optician
- Common eye defects include
a) Short sightedness /Myopia

- Is a condition in which light rays from a distant object are brought to focus in front of
retina while those from a near object are clearly focused on it.
- This is caused mainly by:
 longer than normal eyeball
 Too much refractive power of the lens

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- Short sightedness is corrected by wearing concave or diverging lenses. The concave lens
diverges light rays before reaching the eye lens which then focuses the light rays clearly
on the retina
-

b) Long sightedness/ Hypermetropia

This is a condition in which light rays from a near object are brought to focus at a point
behind the retina, hence near objects appear blurred. However, distant objects are focused
normally on the retina. It is caused by:
 a shorter than normal eye ball
 weak lens
This defect is corrected by wearing glasses with convex or converging lenses.
The lenses refract the light rays inwards before they reach the eye lens which then focuses
them accurately on the retina.

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120
c) Astigmatism
Under normal circumstances, the surface of the cornea is usually smooth and even. However
in some cases it may be rough and uneven i.e have unequal curvature.
Light rays passing through it are bent at different angles, and are scattered, hence not all of
them are focused on the retina.
This causes the image to be distorted.
The defect is corrected using a special cylindrical lens which corrects the focus of defective
planes

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d) Squintedness
Is an eye defect in which the extrinsic muscles of the eye that control the turning of the
eyeball do not co-ordinate accordingly on stimulation.
The defect affects the superior and inferior rectus muscle which turn the eye up and down
and the lateral rectus muscles which move the eye left and right.
The eyeballs face different directions hence focusing and accommodation is achieved with
difficulty.
The defect is difficult to correct, and may require surgery

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e) Old sight/presbyopia
With aging, the lens of the eye loses its elasticity and cilliary muscles may weaken

- As a result the ability of the lens to change its curvature during accommodation in order
to view objects reduces, hence light rays from near objects are brought to focus behind
the retina while rays from distant objects are sharply focused.
- The defect is corrected by wearing
 Convex lenses
 Glasses with 2 different lenses called bifocals (bifocal lenses)
f) Cataracts
 Eye defect associated with old age
 May also be caused by eye injury due to a blow or by complications of diabetes
mellitus or too much exposure to bright light or ultra violet light.
 The eye lens becomes CLOUDY/OPAQUE hence blocking transmission of LIGHT
RAYS
 The TRASNPARENT PROTEIN FIBRES in the lens are DENATRURED and CO-
AGGULATED forming the opaqueness in the lens.
 Cataracts can be corrected, surgically by replacing the defective lens with a good one
from a donor or artificial lens.
 Binocular vision/Stereoscopic vision
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  Binocular vision refers to the ability of the eyes to provide a three dimensional view
and a depth perception of an object under observation. It is seen in humans and other
primates as well as predators like lions, cats and hawks. All these have their two eyes
placed towards the front of the head and directed forwards. This way, both eyes can
be focused on the same object.
 Each eye forms its own image of the object under observation. Both images are sent
to the brain which combines them to give a single impression of the object. Since
each eye "sees" a slightly different aspect of the same object, a combination of the
two images provides a three-dimensional view and a depth perception.



Advantage of S.V (over monocular V)

- Damage to one eye being compensated for by the other

- Cancel the effects of the blind spot
- Provides much more accurate assessment of the distance, depth, height and width of the
object.
THE HUMAN EAR
A complex sense organ whose function is to perceive sound and maintain body balance and
posture.
Structure of the ear consist of outer, middle and inner ear

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THE OUTER EAR
Consists of the pinna and the external auditory meatus/canal
Pinna
 A flap of skin and cartilage that partially covers the opening to the external auditory
meatus
 Helps in detection and collection of sound waves and channels them to the external
auditory meatus
 Also provide protection for the ear.
External auditory canal/meatus

- A tube/passage in the outer ear leading from the exterior to the ear drum/ tympanic
membrane.
- The tube is lined with hairs which trap solid particles that may enter the ear.
- Also lined by wax secreting cells which secrete wax that traps dust and prevents entry of
small animals into the ear and also keep the ear drum pliable (flexible)
- The canal also has glands that secrete sebum which moistens the lining making it soft.

MIDDLE EAR
Air filled cavity consisting of tympanic membrane/ear drum, ear assicles, Eustachian tube oval
and round window.
Tympanic membrane (ear drum)
 A thin tough membrane

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  Separates outer ear from middle ear
 Consist of a double layer of epidermis with connective tissue in between the layers
 It vibrates when sound waves hit it thus transforms the sound waves into vibrations, it
then transmits the vibration to ear ossicles.
The Ear Ossicles
 3 bones called malleus (hammer) incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup)
 Are suspended from the roof of the cavity by ligament and muscles (tensor tympani)
which also prevent excessive vibrations which could damage the inner ear.
 The 3 ossicles form a system of levers which amplify and transmit vibration from
tympanic membrane to the oval window.
 Malleus –attached to the ear drum at one end and articulates with the incus at the other
end
 Incus articulates with the malleus at one end and the stapes at the other
 Stapes articulates with incus at one end oval window at the other
Eustachian tube
 A tube connecting the MIDDLE EAR with the PHARYNX
 Function equalize air pressure between middle ear and outer ear to prevent distortion of
the ear drum e.g if you go high up in an airplane, the atmospheric pressure outside falls
below that of the middle ear, this results in the ear drum bulging outwards. The condition
is rectified by yawning or swallowing which opens the Eustachian tube to equalize the
pressure on both sides of the Ear drum.
Eustachian tube may unfortunately provide a passage of microbes to enter the middle ear
from the pharynx. This causes ear infections.
Oval Window
 Allows vibrations to be transmitted from the ear ossicles to the inner ear
 It is smaller than the ear drum, therefore amplifies/ magnifies vibrations 22 times
more to the to enable them pass through the fluid in the inner ear which is denser than
air.
Round window
 Dissipates/releases sound vibrations from the inner ear
INNER EAR
 A fluid filled cavity connected to the middle ear by the OVAL WINDOW
 Consists of a series of chambers and canals which are embedded in the bone of the skull
 The chambers and canals comprise the cohlea, semi-circular canals, and the vestibule or
vestibular apparatus.
 The vestibular apparatus comprise of the utriculus and the saccule.
 The vestibule and the semi-circular canals are responsible for balance.
 The cochlea is responsible for hearing.

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  The cavities in the inner ear are filled with fluid called perilymph and endolymph
 The fluids conduct sound vibrations transmitted from the middle ear through the cochlea
for hearing. Also absorb mechanical shock protecting delicate sensory structures.
 In vestibular apparatus and semi-circular canals, displacement of the fluids leads to
restoration of body balance.
 The fluid are also responsible for absorbing mechanical shock hence protect delicate
sensory structure
Cochlea

- spiral hollow conical chamber consisting of membrane and sensory neuron

- its canals are filled with endolymph and perilymph
- the coiling of the cochlea offers a large S.A for attachment of sensory neurons
responsible for hearing
- running through the centre of the cochlea is the organ of corti which contains sensory
neurons responsible for hearing.

Hearing/sound perception
- the pinna channels and concentrates sound waves into the auditory meatus
- sound waves that strike the ear drum cause it to vibrate
- the vibrations are picked up by the ear ossicles i.e from the tympanic membrane to the
malleus, then to incus and then to stapes.
- stapes transmit vibration to oval window from where the vibrations are transmitted to the
perihymph of the cochlea
- ear ossicles are specially arranged to amplify the vibrations as they transmit them to the
oval window. They form a system of leavers that transmit and amplify vibrations from
the ear drum to the oval windlow.
- Oval window is much smaller than ear drum thus it greatly magnifies or amplifies the
vibrations i.e vibrations are amplified 22 times on the oval window. This is necessary to

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 enable the vibrations to pass through the liquid in the inner ear which is much denser than
air.
- In cochlea, the vibrations of the fluids stimulate sensory cell hairs in the organ of corti
which generate a nerve impulse that is transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve for
interpretation.
- The intensity of the stimulus (vibrations) enables the brain to determine the loudness and
pitch of the sound. Vibrations in the cochlea are dissipated back into the middle ear
through the round window.
-

Maintenance of body balance and pasture

- The vestibular apparatus are responsible for maintenance of balance and pasture
- Vestibular apparatus consist of 2 large chambers i.e utricle (Utriculus) and succule
(Succulus) as well as the 3 semi-circular canals.
- The cavities of the urtricle and succule and semi-circular canals are continuous with each
other and with that of the cochlea. They are filled with endolymph and perilymph.
Semi-circular canals(s.c.c)
 Organized in 3 different planes i.e one horizontally and the other 2 vertically at right
angles to one another.
 Each s.c.c has a swelling called an AMPULA at one end, ampulla contains sensory cells.
 S.c.c maintains body balance and posture in relation to movement of the head.
 When the head is suddenly moved in a given direction the liquid in one of the s.c.c also
moves. The movement of the fluid stimulates the sensory cells in ampulla which trigger
off nerve impulses which are transmitted via auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation
 In the brain, the information is relayed to motor nerve cells which carry motor impulses
to the muscles of the body to restore body balance.
Utricle and saccule/Utriculus and sacculus

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 Contain sensory cells that are responsible for maintenance of body balance and posture in
respect to gravity.
 The sensory cells are located in a specialized area in the utriculus and succulus called the
macula.
 When body balance is shifted, fluid disturbs the sensory cells in the macula. This causes
transmission of a nerve impulse to the brain via auditory nerve.
 Brain interprets the impulse according to the position of the body in relation to gravity
 The brains then relay impulses through motor neurons to the muscles of the body to
restore correct pasture.

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Defects of the Ear

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DEAFNESS
A condition where an individual is unable to perceive sound ie unable to hear. There are two
types of deafness:
1. ABSOLUTE/NERVE DEAFNESS
A condition whereby sound impulses are unable to reach the brain
If may be due to:
a. Damaged auditory nerve e.g by presence of a tumor
b. Damaged cochlea making it unable to perceive stimuli
c. Damage to the brain cells that are involved in sound perception
Causes
 Infection in the inner ear
 Heredity – a child may be born with some ear parts missing
Correction
In most cases is not treatable but affected individuals can be assisted to live normal lives by use
of visual signs and by learning lip reading skills
2. CONDUCTIVE/PARTIAL DEAFNESS
Caused by impairement of structures that conduct vibrations to the cochlea e.g ear drum or ear
ossicles
The conditions that may cause partial deafness include
i. Blockage of external auditory canal with a layer of wax or foreign bodies
ii. Perforation of ear drum which may be caused by infection of middle ear or physical
blow or sharp objects
iii. Thickening of ear drum such that it cannot vibrate when it is hit by sound waves
iv. Fused ear ossicles due to calcification or abnormal growth of connective tissue hence
unable to transmit vibration.
Effects of Drug Abuse on Human Health
 Drugs are any substance which when taken into the body has psychological and
physiological effects
 Drugs are mainly prescribed for medicinal purposes to alleviate pain or cure illness
 Drug abuse- indiscriminate use of drugs with no regard to their side effects
COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS
 Khat (Miraa)
 Nicotine
 Cannabis sativa (bhang)
 Alcohol
Prolonged abuse of drugs can cause addiction (drug dependence)
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 Effects of Drug Abuse
1. Depressed appetite and poor feeding habits leading to emaciation
2. Interference with absorption of vital vitamins such as vitamin K and vitamin E which
may lead to sterility and blindness
3. Lowers nervous co-ordination leading to loss of posture and balance-this decreases
performance in sports and manual activity
4. Irritation of lungs and the respiratory tract leading to frequent coughs and infections
5. May lead to cancer of the lungs, throat and that of the urinary bladder
6. May also lead to stomach ulcers
7. Interference of temperature regulation leading to excessive heat loss
8. Damage caused to the brain may lead to sleeplessness (insomnia), loss of memory
(amnesia) delirium, hallucinations and mental illness (madness)
9. In women poor foetal development and pregnancy complications
10. Irreversible damage to vital body tissue and organs may eventually lead to death
11. Addicted persons have impaired judgment which may predispose them to accidents and
infections such as HIV/AIDS.

SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT

SUPPORT
 Is theability of organisms to bear their own weight and maintain their body forms.
 This includes holding their body parts in their correct position and allowing for
movement
MOVEMENT
 is a characteristic feature of all living organisms. It is the change in position of the whole
organism or part of it
 Movement of the whole organism is termed as locomotion
 Support structures are necessary for movement to occur in animals
SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN PLANTS
NECESSITY FOR MOVEMENT
Movement enables plants to adjust adequately to the environment
i. Movement can occur at cellular level as seen in swimming of male gametes in bryophytes
and pteridophytes and in growth of pollen tube in flowering plants
ii. Occurs at organ level as seen in tropic movement
1. Such movements enable plants to obtain resources from the environment such as light,
water and nutrients.
2. They also help plants to escape or avoid harmful stimuli such as high temperatures
NECESSITY FOR SUPPORT
1. Support tissues ensure that the leaf lamina is well spread out to expose a large S.A for light
absorption and gaseous exchange.
2. Support tissues in flowers ensure that they are exposed to pollinating agents e.g wind and
insects

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3. Support tissues enable fruits and seeds that are dispersed by wind and animals to be held in
position to expose them to agents of dispersal.
4. Most plants require support to have strong structures to resist breakage due to the own weight
and the weight of the other organisms like birds, monkeys and insects that may be living on
them.
5. A plant needs a supporting framework to enable it withstand the forces in the environment
e.g force of gravity air currents, winds and storms.

Arrangement of Support Tissues in Stems

A stem plays an important role is support of the plant due to presence of support tissue in it,
support tissues include:
i. Parenchyma
ii. Collenchyma
iii. Sclerechyma
iv. Xylem vessels and Tracheids
PARENCHYMA
Its cells are :
 Spherical/elongated with a thin cell-walls
 Undifferentiated and living
 Found in cortex and pith
Functions
 Packing (fill-up spaces between other tissues)
 When turgid they become tightly packed and rigid, thus enable a plant to attain an erect
posture. They provide the main support in many herbaceous plants such as tomatoes and
Irish potatoes. However When such plants lose water on a hot dry day, the cells become
flaccid and the plant droops, a process known as wilting.
 Responsible for maintaining shape in organs where they found.
 Keep leaves firms and in horizontal position

Draw
COLLENCHYMA
 Found beneath epidermis in some stems
 Found in leaf petiole and along leaf veins

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  Have cellulose as the strengthening material
 Similar to parenchyma cell except that their walls become thickened with cellulose
especially at the corners to provide mechanical support.
 Contain cytoplasm hence the cells are living.
 Collenchyma tissues are relatively flexible hence it provides support for plant organs and
enables them to bend without breaking.

Draw from klb

SCERENCHYMA
 Their cells have lignin as the strengthening material on their walls
 Have no cytoplasm and therefore the cells are dead
 The cells are tough and strong
 Found together with xylem and phloem and also in fruits
 Found in roots, stems and leaf veins
 Their cells are elongated fibers with thick lignified walls with tapering or chisel shaped
ends

Draw sclerenchyma cells from klb

XYLEM VESSELS & TRACHIEDS

- Xylem conducts mineral salts and water to the leaves for photosynthesis
- Also provide mechanical support to the plant
- Vessels form long tube-like structure whose walls are lignified
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 - Tracheids are also tubular with lignified walls but have tapering/chisel shaped at the end
walls
- Vessels and tracheids are packed closely together to form large bundles of xylem tissue
which provide support especially because of their lignified walls

Draw vessels and tracheids

Support in Herbaceous Plants

- Plants depend on Turgor Pressure for support
- Their tissues are relatively soft and easily crushed. Plants with this kind of stem are
usually small and do not grow very tall. Mechanical strength in such stems is directly
related to the turgor pressure of the living cells of which it is composed.
- Cells absorb water by osmosis and become turgid
- Turgor in parenchyma cells provides support enabling plant to be upright
- When the plants lose more water than is being absorbed from the soil, their parenchyma
cells became flaccid and plant droops or wilts.
Plant with woody stems

- Shrubs and trees have woody stems

- They derive mechanical support from support tissue such as collencyma, sclerenchyma,
and xylem vessels and tracheids whose cells are stiff with thickened walls.
- Even when completely dry, these cells remain strong and maintain shape.
- Stems of woody plants are more efficient and better organized than those of herbaceous
plants.
- Woody stems grow in height and also in diameter from year to year. Branches, leaves
and trunks of such plants may grow to weigh many tonnes hence require massive support
framework.
- The elongated vessels and trachieds of shrubs and trees are hollow tubes connected
firmly together hence resist compression or tension forces therefore do not collapse.
- When young, stems of woody plants are soft like those of herbaceous plants but later they
undergo secondary growth, they develop more elaborate support tissues.

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Plants with flexible stems

- Some plants have flexible stems and cannot remain upright. These plants use tendrils,
stems and spines or thorns, to hold onto other objects for support.
- These enables them to expose their leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis
- Other plants use adventious roots or claspers to enable them grow on rough surfaces such
as walls.
Tendrils

- Slender structures found on climbing plants

- Pumpkins, beans and morning glory use tendrils to hold onto upright plants and other
objects for support.
- Such tendrils show thigmotropism or haptotropism

Stems
Plants such as lianas and morning glory have slender stems that twine on stems of other plants in
order to reach higher levels to obtain light for photosynthesis.

SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN ANIMALS

Necessity for Support in Animals
1. To hold tissues and organs in their rightful positions so as to carry out their functions
efficiently. This is made possible by support structures like skeleton which provide
surface for attachment for muscles and other body organs.
2. Enables animals to have a certain body shape or form and to bear their own weight
3. Enhance movement in animals by providing surface for attachment of muscles
Necessity for movement in Animals
1. Enables animals to search for food and shelter.
2. Enables animals to search for shelter
3. Enables the animals to search for mates and breeding grounds
4. Enables animals to escape harmful conditions e.g predators, high temperatures
- Animals have a firm rigid framework called a skeleton that provides support

Types of Skeletons
There are 3 types of skeletons
 Hydroskeleton
 Exoskeleton
 Endoskeleton
i. Exoskeleton
- Is a skeleton that is found on the outer surface of the body and is seen mainly in
arthropods

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 - Is made of chitin, however in most crustaceans, chitin is impregnated with chalk/calcium
carbonate making it hard and is called a carapace. In insects, it is covered by a water
proof layer of waxes or lipids. Chitin is dead amterial, hence the exoskeleton does not
grow with the animal.
- The exoskeleton covers the whole body of the arthropod but thins out to a flexible
membrane at the joints to allow for movement,
- Muscles of arthropods are attached on the inner surface of the exoskeleton.
- Exoskeleton is also called cuticle.

Functions
1. Serves as a site for attachment of muscles
2. Prevents entry of pathogens into the body
3. Protects the soft part of the body against any mechanical damage
4. Protects the arthropod against excessive drying/desiccation
5. Provide support for soft body parts and organs
6. Sometimes pigmented hence camouflages the animal in its environment

Draw limb of Arthropod showing muscle attachment ot exoskeleton, also well-labeled

grasshopper

Disadvantage of Exoskeleton
- Since it is made of dead tissue, it does not grow, hence limits growth therefore must be
shed periodically
- May limit movement

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 Endoskeleton of Vertebrates

- It consists of an internal supporting framework with the muscles being external to this
framework
- It is a characteristic of all vertebrates
- Made up of either cartilage, bone, or both
- Unlike exoskeleton, endoskeleton is made up of living tissue and grows steadily within
the animal. Calcium and phosphate deposits on the bones cause hardening of bone tissue
hence acting as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in the body
Functions of endoskeleton
1. Supports the body and its internal organs
2. Provides protection for certain internal organs e.g brain, heart, lungs and spinal cord form
mechanical injury.
3. Protects part of the ear and eyes
4. Provides surface for muscle attachment and works with muscles to bring about movement
5. Gives the body its shape
6. Important in formation of blood cells
Locomotion of finned fish e.g tilapia

- Fish live water which provide support but also offers more resistance that air
- To minimize this resistance called drag the bodies of fish are streamlined
- Fish are adapted to move in water in the following ways:
 They have a streamlined body which minimizes resistance or drag
 Their scales overlap backwards and lie close to the body to enhance the streamlined
shape and reduce drag.
 Have an INFLEXIBLE head that enables it to maintain FORWARD THRUST
 Secretes mucus which covers the body and reduces friction in water
 Have an air-filled swim bladder that provides them with buoyancy and helps the fish to
adjust its verticals position in water.

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  Has a flexible backbone onto which segments of muscle blocks called myotomes are
attached .The muscles contract and relax antagonistically to bring about undulating
movement that propel the fish forward.
 Have a lateral line along the length of their body that enables it to detect vibrations and
pressure changes in water enabling the fish to respond suitably (for sensitivity)
 Well developed fins which help them to move in water i.e to maintain balance, to steer
and for swimming.
How locomotion occurs in a finned fish –tilapia

- Movement in a fish is a result of muscles acting on a skeleton and fins

- Fish have muscle blocks called myotomes that are attached onto the flexible backbone on
either side of the body
- Myotomes contract and relax antagonistically to bring about movement. When myotomes
on one side contract, the myotomes on other side relax. This causes the tail fin to move
from side to side ie, anguilliform/undulating movement. Contractions of the myotomes
start at interior end towards posterior, thus providing a thrust that propels fish forward.

Draw fish skeleton showing mayotommes

Tail power in fish

It determines the forward thrust produced by the tail fin. It is calculated as follows:
Tail power =length of tail tip to anus x100
Length of tail tip to mouth
Fins
Fins are of two type:
i) Paired fins- pelvic and pectoral fin
ii) Unpaired fins-dorsal, anal and caudal

Paired fins-Pelvic and pectoral

i. Maintain balance/stabilize the fish in water
ii. Braking
iii. Changing direction/stearing

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 iv. Prevent pitching
- When both pectoral fins are spread out at an angle of 900 to the body, they act as brakes
- If one is held at 900 and the other flattened on the body surface, they act to turn and steer
the fish in another direction.
- Both fins are held flat against the body wall to enhance the sreamlined shaped when fish
is swimming straight ahead.
- Paired pectoral and pelvic fins provide lift and prevent the heavier front end of the fish
from dipping and sending the fish into a dive.
- This downward movement of the fish head first is called PITCHING

Unpaired -Dorsal, anal, caudal fin

Functions
1. Reduce rolling in the water i.e rocking from side to side
2. Prevent yawing- swinging of the head from side to side due to side to side movement of
the tail.
3. Lateral flattening of the fish body increases its vertical surface area hence also prevents
rolling and yawing and keeps the fish in a vertical position.
4. Caudal fin propel the fish forward by swinging side ti side due to the action of muscles

Support and Movement in Mammals

Draw skeleton of man

- In mammals, bones and muscles work together to bring about support and movement
- Skeleton in mammals is similar almost bone to bone in the different species, and only
varies to some extend in shape and size from species to species.
- Variation is more pronounced between bipeds and quadrupeds

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 - Mammalian skeleton can be divided into 2 main parts
a) Axial Skeleton
b) Appendicular Skeleton

Axial Skeleton-Skull, Ribs and sternum and vertebral column

THE SKULL

Draw
The skull Consists of the following :
 Cranium
 upper jaw/maxilla
 Lower jaw /mandible
o The cranium-Houses, protects and supports the brain, middle and inner ear and
part of the eye
o Formed of several flattened bones that are fused together forming immovable
joint called sutures
o The upper jaw/maxilla is fused to the cranium
o The lower jaw/mandible articulates with the upper jaw forming a hinge joint
(movable)
o Cranium has several perforations to allow blood vessels and nerves to and from
the brain, and has an opening at the bottom to form foramen magnum for passage
of spinal cord.
- At the posterior end of the cranium are two smooth rounded protruberances called
occipital condyles that articulate with the atlas vertebra to form a hinge joint which
permits the nodding of the head
- The skull provides for the mechanisms for chewing

THE RIBS, RIBCAGE AND STERNUM

141
 Draw ribcage and individual rib
- The ribcage encloses the thoracic cavity protecting the delicate organs such as the heart
and lungs
- Ribcage is made of ribs which articulate with vertebral column at the back and sternum at
the front. At the articulating points, the ribs have cartilage
- The sternum is a rigid bony structure that supports the ribs and protects the delicate
organs in the thoracic cavity. At the lower end, the sternum and ribcage offer surface for
attachment of muscles of the abdomen and back.
- In humans only the first 7 pairs of ribs are attached to the sternum by the cartilage .These
are called true ribs.
- The eighth to the tenth pair of ribs are attached to the cartilage of the 7th rib and are called
asternal ribs
- The remaining two pairs of ribs are not attached to the sternum and are called floating
ribs.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN

- Consists of small bones called vertebrae

- The number of vertebrae vary from one species to another

In man there are 33 vertebrae. The vertebrae are separated from each other by cushions of
cartilage called inter-vertebral discs.
Functions of inter-vertebral discs:
a) Act as a cushion that absorbs shock
b) Reduces friction between 2 vertebrae

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 c) Make the vertebral column flexible by allowing for a certain degree of movement
between vertebrae
The vertebrae are arranged end to end and extend all the way from the base of the skull to the
tail.
Function of the vertebral column
1. Support the trunk
2. Protects the spinal cord
There are 5 types of vertebrae located in various regions around along the vertebral column.
i) Cervical-neck region -7
ii) Thoracic –chest region-12
iii) Lumbar-abdomen-5
iv) Sacral-hip region-5
v) Caudal-tail region-4

General Structure of Vertebrae

Draw general structure of vertebrae

- Although the detailed structure of the various vertebrae varies from one region to another
they all have the same basic pattern. They each have a solid structure called Centrum,
which supports the weight of the vertebrae.

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 - Above the Centrum is a bony neural arch which enclose a hole called neural canal
through which the spinal cord passes. Together the neural arch and centrum protect the
spinal cord.
- A neural spine projects from the back of the neural arch. Two transverse processes
project one from each side of the neural arch.
- Transverse processes are responsible for the attachment of muscles and ligaments.
- Each vertebra has 4 articular facets two at the front and 2 at the back. These articulate
with adjacent vertebrae.
- The facets at the anterior part are called prezygapophysis (Prezygapophyses-PL). They
face upwards and inwards.
- The facets of the posterior part are called postzygapophysis (Postzygapophyses-PL).
They face downwards and outwards.
i) CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
 In all mammals there are 7 seven cervical vertebrae that form the skeleton of the neck
 The first 2 cervical vertebrae are called Atlas and the Axis .These are different from the
other cervical vertebrae.
ATLAS
 Has a small neural spine.
 It has no Centrum.
 Neural canal is wide for the passage of the large spinal cord in the neck region.
 Their transverse processes are broad and wing-like offering a large surface area for
attachment of neck muscles.
 It has broad facets for articulation with condyles of the skull. This forms a joint which
allows for up and down movements of the head (nodding).
Axis
 It’s the second cervical vertebra on the neck region.
 The Centrum is broad and projects in front to form an odontoid process. This forms a
peg which fits into the ventral side of the neural canal of the atlas.
 The joint between the atlas and axis allows turning movement of the head (rotatory
movements).
 It has broad neural spine.
 Has wide neural canal.
 Has wing-like transverse
 The ATLAS and AXIS are modified to allow extensive movement of the head
THE REST OF THE CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
 have short neural spines
 They have broad and branched transverse process which offers a large S.A for attachment
of neck muscle
 They have prezygapophysis and postzygapaophysis for articulation with other vertebrae
All cervical vertebrae including atlas and axis have vertebraterial canals through which the
vertebral artery and nerves pass.

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Draw Atlas, axis, and Normal cervical vertebrae
ii. THORACIC VERTEBRAE
 Found in the thoracic region articulating with ribs
 Each thoracic vertebra has a long neural spine to provide large surface area for
attachment of back muscles
 Transverse processes are short
 Has a small neural arch
 There are 12 thoracic vertebrae in man
 The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae at 2 points i.e. the capitulum & the
tuberculum.
 Tubercular facet on each transverse process articulates with tuberculum of the rib while
the capitular demifacet on the centrum articulates with the capitulum of rib.

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Draw thoracic vertebra and articulation with rid

iii. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Draw lumbar vertebra

 Found in the lumbar region (abdominal regions)
 In most mammals they are 7, in man has five (5)
 It has a broad thick Centrum to support weight of the animal and to transmit force
from hind limbs to forelimbs.
 Has long and wide transverse processes and broad neural spine to provide a wide
surface for attachment of abdominal muscles.
 Transverse process projects forwards and downwards.
 Have additional projects on either side of the neural spine called metapophyses, also
projecting dorsally near transverse processes are an anapophyses.
 Ventral to the Centrum is another projection called hypapohysis.
 All these projections provide additional surfaces for attachment of abdominal muscles
iv. SACRAL VERTEBRAE

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 Draw sacrum
 Located at the sacral region (lower back)
 Humans have 5 of them
 They have large and broad Centrum for support
 The neural canal is narrow and spine is reduced.
 The first anterior sacral vertebra is large with wing-like transverse processes which are
fused to pelvic girdle
 All sacral vertebrae are fused to form a rigid structure called sacrum. This makes the
sacrum strong and firm to bear the body weight and spread it to the legs through the
pelvic girdle.
 The transverse processes provide surface for attachment of back muscles.
V. CAUDAL VERTEBRAE
 These are found in the tail region
 Their number differs from one animal to another depending on size of the tail
 Tail is vestigial in humans
 Humans have 4 caudal vertebrae which have been fused to form coccyx
 Their neural spine are very much reduced
 Neural canal and arch are absent and the entire bone is essentially a Centrum

Appendicular Skeleton
It consists of the girdles and limbs attached to them. The girdles are:
i) Pectoral girdle on the anterior part
ii) Pelvic girdle to the posterior part of the body
The limbs attached to the pectoral girdle are called forelimbs those attached to the pelvic girdle
are hind limbs.
The limbs of all mammals have the same basic plan i.e have five digits (five fingers and toes)
hence they are called pentadactyl limbs.
PECTORAL GIRDLE AND BONES OF THE FORELIMB
a) PECTORAL GIRDLE

147
 Draw scapula

 Made up of two halves each of which consists of 3 bones i.e

i) Scapula/shoulder blade
ii) Clavicle/collar bone
iii) Coracoid process that is attached to the scapula and poorly developed in mammals
 Each scapula is a flat triangular bone
 It consists of a socket (cavity/depression) called the glenoid cavity which articulates
with the humerus forming, the shoulder joint
 Both scapulae are attached to the body wall by strong muscles
 Scapulae provides large surface for attachment of muscle that move the arm
 A spine runs along the outer surface of the scapula and at its ends close to the glenoid
cavity are two projections the acromion and metacromion
 The clavicle articulates on one end with acromion process and on other end with the
sternum.
 The clavicle is used for attachment of muscles that aid in movement of the arms
b) BONES OF THE FORELIMB
They are:
i) Humerus
ii) Ulna and radius
iii) Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges

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 Draw humerus, ulna&radius and carpals, metarcarpals,phalanges

HUMERUS
 Bone found in the upper arm
 Has a rounded ball shaped head at the anterior end. The head articulates with the glenoid
cavity of the scapula to form a ball and socket joint at its proximal/anterior end
 Near the head are two roughened projections, the greater and lesser tuberosities, which
provide surface for muscle attachment.
 Between the tuberosities is a groove called bicipital groove where the tendon of the
biceps muscles passes.
 At its distal end/lower ends the humerus has smoothened condyles called trochlea that
fits into the sigmoid notch of the ulna bone of the lower forelimb
 The humerus articulates with sigmoid notch at the trachlea forming a hinge joint.
ULNA AND RADIUS
 Are the two bones found in the lower forelimb
 The radius is found on the side of the thumb (shorter)
 Ulna is found on the side of small finger and has a projection called Olecranon process
at its proximal end.
 Olecaron process has a sigmoid notch which articulates with the humerus forming a
hinge joint
 The olecranon process offers a large S.A for attachment of muscles and also prevents
overstretching of the forearm at the joint
 At the proximal/lower end radius and ulna articulates with the carpals.
CARPALS, METACARPALS AND PHALANGES
 Carpals are small bones found at the wrist, they are 9 in number and articulate with
metacarpals, bones of that palm, which are longer than carpals and are 5 in number.
Towards the end of the hand are the fingures made of bones called phalanges (finger
bones)
THE PELVIC GIRDLE AND BONES OF THE HIND LIMB
a) THE PELVIC GIRDLE
 Consist of 2 halves fused together at the pubic symphysis
 Each half is made of 3 fused bones i.e ilium, ischium and pubis
 Each half has a cavity/socket called acetabulum which articulates with femur to form a
ball and socket joint at the hip.
 The ilium bone is found above acetabulum and articulate with sacrum
 Ilium also provides a large S/A over which thigh muscles are attached

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  Between isichum and pubis is a hole called obturator foramen, an aperture through which
blood vessels, nerves and muscles pass)
 The pelvic girdle is specially designed to reduce its weight hence lighten the load to be
supported by hindlimb.
 The pubic symphysis consists of a flexible cartilage which enables widening of the
female girdle during birth.
b) BONES OF THE HIND LIMB
They are:
 Femur
 Tibia and fibula
 Tarsals
 Metatarsals
 Phalanges

Femur, tibia and fibula

FEMUR
 The thigh bone, a long bone between hip and the knee
 Has a rounded head which fits into the cavity called acetabulum in pelvic girdle forming
a ball and socket joint(Hip joint)
 Next to the head are lesser and greater tronchanters which are used for muscle
attachment

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  At the lower/distal end are knobs called condyles which articulate with tibia and patella
to form a hinge joint at the knee
 Covering the joint in front of the knee is a small and rounded flat bone, patella, which
prevents the leg from bending too far upwards and also enables the leg to thrust against
ground during locomotion
TIBIA AND FIBULA
 These are two long straight bones found in the lower part of the leg/ lower hindlimb
 They articulate with small tarsal bones of the ankle at the lower end
TARSALS, METATARSALS AND PHALANGES
 Tarsals articulate with metatarsals at the lower end
 Metatarsals are bones of the foot
 Metatarsals articulate with the phalanges or bones of the toe

JOINTS
 A connection between 2 or more bones
 In mammals these are 3 main types of joints
i) Immovable joints e.g
a) Fused bones of the skull form immovable joints called
b) Immovable joint of the pelvic girdle
ii) Gliding/slightly movable/sliding joint
The bones glide over one another resulting in slight movements e.g between vertebrae, at the
wrist and at the ankle.
seperated by a cartilaginous pad
iii) Movable joints/also called Synovial joints

Draw a synovial joint

 Allow a large degree of movement
 Bones forming such a joint are held in position by ligaments made of tough inelastic
connective tissue fibers.
 The articular surface of the bones are covered with articular cartilage which is smooth
and elastic
 The joint cavity is surrounded by a tough fibrous capsule

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  The inner surface of the capsule is lined by a thin synovial membrane which secretes a
slippery fluid called synovial fluid.
 Both synovial fluid and articular cartilage i) reduce friction between the bones at the
joint and ii) absorb shock.
There are two main types of synovial joints:
a) Ball and socket joints
b) Hinge joints
a) Ball and socket joint
 Joint where the rounded head of one bone fits into a socket or cavity of another bone
allowing movement in all planes or all directions
 Ball and socket joint is found between femur and pelvic girdle (hip joint) and between
humerus and pectoral girdle (shoulder joint)
 Such a joint allows the limb to rotate through 3600/allows movement in all planes
 However the joint is unable to bear heavy loads

Draw ball and socket joint

b) Hinge joint
 Are joints in which depression in one bone allows the smooth condyles of another bone
to fit and articulate to allow movement in one direction.
 The maximum stretch of the limb at this joint is 1800
 Hinge joints are found at the elbows, knees and phalanges

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MOVEMENT OF A JOINT
 At a movable joint, the bones are held together by connective tissue fibers called
ligaments
 The ligaments restrict movement of bones at the joint thus preventing dislocation.
 Muscles are attached to bones by inelastic connective tissues known as tendons
 A muscle is attached to the bone at 2 points i.e
i) The origin on an immovable bone
ii) The insertion on a movable bone
 Muscles which operate joints are in pairs and are antagonistic. A muscle that brings about
bending at a joint is called flexor muscle while that which straight the limb is called
extensor muscle
Movement at the hinge joint at the elbow
 In the upper arm, there are 2 muscles which are antagonistic i.e biceps and triceps
 Biceps are flexor hence flex the arm and triceps are extensor muscle hence extend the
arm.
 When biceps contract triceps relax. This pulls the ulna and radius upwards hence bending
the forearm. When triceps contract, biceps relax thus straightening the ulna radius and
arm is extended
 During this movement the hinge joint at the elbow serves as a fulcrum with biceps
muscles providing the effort to lift the load at the forearm.

Draw
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MUSCLES

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  Muscles are specialized tissues which contract when stimulated by nerve impulses
 Muscles are made up of cells called muscle fibres which contract and relax
 There are types of muscles:
i. Skeletal muscle
ii. Smooth muscle
iii. Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle
 Are attached to the skeleton and play an important role in locomotion. Also called
striated, stripped or voluntary muscle
 Are innervated by the voluntary part of the nervous system hence responsible for
voluntary movement.
 When viewed under the microscope its fibres or cells are seen to have stripes running
across them hence said to be striated/stripped muscle
 A skeleton muscle is made up of a bundle of long fibres running the whole length of the
muscle. An individual fibre is equivalent to one cell but containing many nuclei
(multinucleated)
 Each fibre contains many myofibrils running parallel to each other.
 Myofibrils are made of 2 protein strands i.e actin and myosin
 Actin are thin fibres while myosin are thicker
 The muscle fibre is covered by a membrane sarcolemma
 Apart from myotibrils, the skeletal muscle fibres contain many mitochondria which
provide energy for contration
 The cytoplasm of the muscle fibre is called sarcoplasm.
 Contraction and relaxation of striated muscles bring about movement of limbs
 They contract and fatigue rapidly
 The force created by contraction is transmitted onto the skeleton in the same magnitude
by the tendon. This brings about the appropriate movement of the skeleton.

draw

Smooth or visceral muscles

 Also known as involuntary muscles
 Are found on walls of internal organs e.g

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 i) Alimentary canal
ii) Urinary tract
iii) Blood vessels
iv) Reproductive tract and respiratory tract
 Have spindle-shaped cells (tapering at both ends) with a single nucleus(uninucleated)
 They contain myofibrils
 Lack cross striations hence referred to as smooth muscles
 They contract slowly
 Their contractions are involuntary i.e the smooth muscles are innervated by autonomic
part of the nervous system.

draw
Cardiac muscle
 A special type of muscle found in the heart. The muscle consist of short cells or fibres
with one centrally placed nucleus(uninucleated)
 The muscle fibres are striated
 The ends of cells are marked by thickened regions called intercalated discs
 These form bridges between fibres hence transmit impulses rapidly throught out the heart
 Contraction of the heart muscle begins from within the heart muscle itself without nerve
stimulation hence the heart is said to be myogenic.
 Cardiac muscle contracts continuously throughout the life of a mammal without fatigue
 Has more mitochondria than skeletal muscles to sustain their energy demands

Draw

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