Wave Propagation

Direction
x Ex of ˆz

Consider the simplest wave propagation, i.e. plane wave

y
But how to determine the both
z
field in the propagating wave? Hy

Comm
The propagating wave is a combination of time
Tower varying E field, E(t) and magnetic field, H(t). Portable
devices

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 Wave Propagation
Objectives
1. To use the Maxwell’s equations in time varying field in describing the wave propagation
behavior.
2. To study the wave propagation behavior in free space and lossless dielectrics in terms
of wave velocity, wavenumber (propagation constant) and relation between
propagating electric field and magnetic field.

In general, waves are means of transporting energy or information.

Maxwell’s Equations Wave Propagation in Free
(Time Varying Field) Space /Lossless Dielectrics

Wave Propagation in Wave Propagation in

Good Conductors Lossy Dielectrics
3
 Typical examples of EM waves include radio waves, TV signals, radar beams, and
light rays.
All forms of EM energy share three fundamental characteristics: they all travel at
high velocity; in traveling, they assume the properties of waves; and they radiate
outward from a source, without benefit of any discernible (observable) physical
vehicles.
In this lecture, our major goal is to solve Maxwell's equations and derive EM wave
motion in the following media:

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A clear understanding of EM wave propagation depends on a grasp of what waves are in general.
A wave is a function of both space and time.

(1)

where u is the wave velocity.

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 (2a)
(2b)
or
(3)
where f and g denote any function of z - ut and z + ut, respectively

(4)

When the time factor inserted, the possible solutions to eq. (4) are
(5a)
(5b)
Then (6)
where A and B are real constants.
 let us consider the eq. (5a) & taking the imaginary part of this equation, we will get
(7)
This is a sine wave chosen for simplicity; a cosine wave would have resulted if we had
taken the real part of eq. (5a). Note the following characteristics of the wave in eq. (7):

2. A is called the amplitude of the wave and has the same units as E.

Due to the variation of E with both time t and space

variable z, we may plot E as a function of t by keeping z
constant and vice versa.
The plots of E(z, t = constant) and E(t, z = constant)
are shown in Fig.1(a) and (b), respectively.
 (8a)
But T = 1/f, where f is the frequency (the number of cycles per second) of the wave in
Hertz (Hz). Hence, (8b)

(9a)
(9b)
 and (9c)
(10)
from eqs. (8) and (9)
Equation (10) shows that for every wavelength of
distance traveled by a wave undergoes a phase change of 2π
radians.
We will now show that the wave represented by eq. (7)
is traveling with a velocity u in the +z direction.
To do this, we consider a fixed point P on the wave.
We sketch eq. (7) at times t = 0, T/4, and T/2 as in Fig.2.
From the figure, it is evident that as the wave advances
with time, point P moves along +z direction. Point P is a
point of constant phase, therefore

or
(11)
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which is the same as eq. (6). Equation (11) shows that the wave travels with velocity u
in the +z direction.

In summary, we note the following:

1.A wave is a function of both time and space.
2. Though time t = 0 is arbitrarily selected as a reference for the wave, a wave is
without beginning or end.
 Table

A large number of frequencies visualized in numerical order constitute a spectrum.

Table shows at what frequencies various types of energy in the EM spectrum occur.
Exam:- The electric field in free space is given by

(b) In free space, u = c.

 Alternatively, because the wave is traveling at the speed of light c,

But

Hence,

(c) At
Ey at t = 0, T/4, T/2 is plotted against x as shown in
Fig. Notice that a point P (arbitrarily selected) on the
wave moves along - ax as t increases with time. This
shows that the wave travels along - ax
 Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics
Wave propagation in lossy dielectrics is a general case from which wave propagation
in other types of media can be derived as special cases.
A lossy dielectric is a medium in which an EM wave loses power as it propagates
due to poor conduction.

(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
 Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics
Taking the curl of both sides of eq. (14) gives
(16)
Applying the vector identity (17)
to the left-hand side of eq. (16) and invoking eqs. (12) and (15), we get
(18)
or
(19)
where (20)

Similarly we can obtain for the H field,

(21)
Equations (19) and (21) are known as homogeneous vector Helmholtz 's equations or
simply vector wave equations.
 Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics

(22)

(23)
or
(24)

(25)

(26)

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 Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics

𝜇𝜀 𝜎
𝛼 𝜔 1 1 (27)
2 𝜔𝜀

𝜇𝜀 𝜎
𝛽 𝜔 1 1 (28)
2 𝜔𝜀

Without loss of generality, if we assume that the wave propagates along +az and that Es
has only an x-component, then
𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑥𝑠 𝑧 𝑎𝑥 (29)
Substituting this into eq. (19) yields
∇2 𝛾2 𝐸𝑥𝑠 𝑧 0 (30)

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 or
(27)

This is a scalar wave equation

𝐸𝑥𝑠 𝑧 𝐸0𝑒 𝐸 𝑒 (28)
where E0 and 𝐸 are constants.
The fact that the field must be finite at infinity requires that 𝐸 0.
Alternatively, because 𝑒 denotes a wave traveling along –az whereas we assume that
the wave propagation is along az , so 𝐸 0.
Inserting the time factor 𝑒 into eq. (28) and using eq. (22), we get
𝐸 𝑧, 𝑡 Re 𝐸𝑥𝑠 𝑧 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 Re 𝐸0𝑒 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 (29)

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 𝐸 𝑧, 𝑡 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝛽𝑧 𝑎𝑥 (30)

A sketch of |E| at times t = 0 and t = Δt is

shown in Fig. , where it is evident that E has
only an x-component and is traveling along the
+z-direction.
Similarly we can obtain H(z, t) ,
& is written as
𝐻 𝑧, 𝑡 Re 𝐻0𝑒 𝑒 𝑎𝑦 (31)
where
𝐻0 𝐸0/𝜂 (32)
and η is a complex quantity known as the FIG. An E‐field with an x‐component
intrinsic impedance (in ohms) of the medium. travelling in the +z‐direction at times t = 0
and t = Δt; arrows indicate instantaneous
values of E.
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 (33)

(34)

Substituting eqs. (32) and (33) into eq. (31) gives

𝐻 Re 𝑒 𝑒 𝑎𝑦
or
𝐻 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝛽𝑧 θ𝜂 𝑎𝑦 (35)
Notice from eqs. (30) and (35) that as the wave propagates along az, its amplitude
decreases or attenuates by a factor 𝑒 , and hence 𝛼 is known as the attenuation
constant or attenuation factor of the medium.
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It is a measure of the spatial rate of decay of the wave in the medium, measured in
nepers per meter (Np/m) or in decibels per meter (dB/m).
An attenuation of 1 neper denotes a reduction to e-1 of the original value whereas an
increase of 1 neper indicates an increase by a factor of e. Hence, for voltages
1 Np = 20 loglog 𝑒 = 8.686 dB (36)
From eq. (27), we notice that if 𝜎=0, as is the case for a lossless medium and free
space, 𝛼=0 and the wave is not attenuated as it propagates.
The quantity 𝛽 is a measure of the phase shift per length and is called the phase
constant or wave number.
(37)

Notice from eqs. (30) and (35) that E and H are out of phase by θ𝜂, at any instant of
time due to the complex intrinsic impedance of the medium.
Thus at any time, E leads H (or H lags E) by θ𝜂.

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Finally, notice that the ratio of the magnitude of the conduction current density J to
that of the displacement current density Jd in a lossy medium is
| | | |
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
or 𝜎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (38)
𝜔𝜀
where 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 is known as the loss tangent and 𝜃 is the loss angle
of the medium as shown in Fig.
A medium is said to be a good (lossless or perfect) dielectric if 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 is very small
(𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜀) or a good conductor if 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 is very large (𝜎 ≫ 𝜔𝜀).
From the wave propagation view of point, the characteristic behavior of a medium
depends not only on its constitutive parameters 𝜎, 𝜀, & μ but also on the frequency of
operation.
A medium which is a good conductor at low frequencies may be a good dielectric
at high frequencies.
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 From eq. (15) i.e
(15)

where 𝜎
𝜀𝑐 1 𝑗 (39)
𝜔𝜀)
or
𝜀𝑐 𝜀’ j𝜀" (40)
𝜀𝑐 is called the complex permittivity of the medium.
the ratio of 𝜀" to 𝜀’ is the loss tangent of the medium; that is,
 PLANE WAVES IN LOSSLESS DIELECTRICS
In a lossless dielectric, 𝜎 ≪ 𝜔𝜀. 𝜎 ≃ 0, 𝜀 𝜀0𝜀𝑟 , 𝜇 𝜇 0𝜇 𝑟

𝜇𝜀 𝜎
𝛼 𝜔
2
1
𝜔𝜀
1 𝛼 0

𝜇𝜀 𝜎
𝛽 𝜔 1 1 𝛽 𝜔 𝜇𝜀
2 𝜔𝜀

𝑢 𝜔/𝛽 1/ 𝜇𝜀 𝜆 2𝜋/𝛽

𝜂 𝜇/𝜀 00

i.e. E and H are in time phase with each other.

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 PLANE WAVES IN FREE SPACE
In a Free Space 𝜎 0, 𝜀 𝜀0 , 𝜇 𝜇0

𝜇𝜀 𝜎
𝛼 𝜔
2
1
𝜔𝜀
1 𝛼 0

𝜇𝜀 𝜎
𝛽 𝜔 1 1 𝛽 𝜔 𝜇0𝜀0 𝜔/c
2 𝜔𝜀

𝑢 𝜔/𝛽 1/ 𝜇0𝜀0 = c 𝜆 2𝜋/𝛽

𝜂0 𝜂 𝜇0/𝜀0 00 ≃ 120π ≃ 377Ω

𝐸 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝛽𝑧 𝑎𝑥
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then 𝐻 𝐸0
𝐻0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝛽𝑧 𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝛽𝑧 𝑎𝑦
𝜂0
The plots of E and H are shown in Fig.(a) In
general, if aE, aH, and ak are unit vectors along the
E field, the H field, and the direction of wave
propagation.
The relation between the unit vectors aE, aH, and ak is

Fig.(a) Plot of E and H as functions of z at t

= 0; (b) plot of E and H at z = 0. The arrows
indicate instantaneous values
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 Plane Waves in Good Conductors
Good conductors 𝜎 ≃ ∞, 𝜀 𝜀0 , 𝜇 𝜇 0𝜇 𝑟

Also,
thus E leads H by 45°.
If
then

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 Therefore, as E (or H) wave travels in a conducting medium, its amplitude is
attenuated by the factor e-𝛼z.
The distance 𝛿, shown in Fig, through which the wave
amplitude decreases by a factor e-1 (about 37%) is called
skin depth or penetration depth of the medium; that is,

or

Fig. Illustration of skin depth.

The skin depth is a measure of the depth to which an EM wave can penetrate the medium.

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For a good conductor

for good conductors, E-field can be written as

From the table, we notice that the skin depth decreases with increase in frequency.
Thus, E and H can hardly propagate through good conductors.
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The phenomenon where field intensity in a conductor rapidly decreases is
known as skin effect. 𝛿
The fields and associated currents are confined to a very thin layer 𝑎
(the skin) of the conductor surface.
For example, a wire of radius a, it is a good approximation at
high frequencies to assume that all of the current flows in the
circular ring of thickness 𝛿 as shown in Fig.
Fig. Skin depth at high frequencies, 𝛿 ≪a.
This phenomena is advantageous in many applications.
For example, because the skin depth in silver is very small, the difference in performance
between a pure silver component and a silver-plated brass component is negligible, so
silver plating is often used to reduce material cost of waveguide components.
For the same reason, hollow tubular conductors are used instead of solid conductors in
outdoor television antennas.
Effective electromagnetic shielding of electrical devices can be provided by conductive
enclosures a few skin depths in thickness.
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 Surface or skin resistance
define the surface or skin resistance Rs(in Ω/m2) as the real part of the 𝜂 for a good conductor

This is the resistance of a

unit width and unit length of
the conductor.

It is equivalent to the dc resistance for a unit length of the conductor having

cross-sectional area 1 𝛿.
For a given width w and length l, the ac resistance will be given
as assuming a uniform current
flow in the conductor of
thickness 𝛿.
where S= 𝛿w.

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 For a conductor wire of radius a, w = 2ira, so

Since 𝛿 ≪ a at high frequencies, this shows that Rac is far greater than Rdc.
In general, the ratio of the ac to the dc resistance starts at 1.0 for dc and
very low frequencies and increases as the frequency increases.

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 POWER AND THE POYNTING VECTOR
The energy can be transported from one point (where a transmitter is located) to
another point (with a receiver) by means of EM waves. The rate of such energy
transportation can be obtained from Maxwell's equations:
1a

1b
Dotting both sides of eq. (1b) with E gives
2
For any vector field A & B
3

Applying vector identity (3) assuming that A=H & B = E, gives

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Dotting both sides of eq. (1a) with H gives
5

and thus eq. (4) becomes

Rearranging terms and taking the volume integral of both sides,

Applying the divergence theorem to the left-hand side gives

7

=
35
 Equation (7) is referred to as Poynting's theorem.
The various terms in the equation are identified using energy-conservation arguments
for EM fields.
The first term on the right-hand side of eq. (7) is interpreted as the rate of decrease in
energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields.
The second term is the power dissipated due to the fact that the medium is conducting
(𝜎 0). The quantity E H on the left-hand side of eq. (7) is known as the Poynting
vector P in watts per square meter (W/m2); that is,
8
It represents the instantaneous power density vector associated with the EM field at a
given point.
The integration of the Poynting vector over any closed surface gives the net power
flowing out of that surface.
Poynting's theorem stales that the net power flowing out of a given volume v is equal to
the lime rate of decrease in the energy stored within v minus the conduction (ohmic) losses.
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 It should be noted that P is normal to both E and H and is therefore along the direction
of wave propagation ak for uniform plane waves. Thus

if we assume that
then

and

To determine the time-average Poynting vector Pavg(z) (in W/m2),

which is of more practical value than the instantaneous Poynting
vector P(z, t), we integrate eq. (9) over the period T = 2𝜋/𝜔; i.e, Fig. Illustration of power
balance for EM fields.
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The total time-average power crossing a given surface S is given by

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 Reflection of a Plane Wave at Normal Incidence
Suppose that a plane wave propagating along
the +z-direction is incident normally on
the boundary z = 0 between medium 1 (z < 0)
characterized by 𝜎1, 𝜀1, 𝜇1 and medium
2 (z > 0) characterized by 𝜎2, 𝜀2, 𝜇2 as shown in
Fig. In the figure, subscripts i, r, and t denote
incident, reflected, and transmitted waves,
respectively.
The incident, reflected, and transmitted waves
shown in Fig are to be obtained as follows:

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