Chapter 7

Print ISBN: 978-81-974388-7-5, eBook ISBN: 978-81-974388-2-0

Study on Gravity Technique

Measurements Associated with Different
Lithologies in Turkana South Subcounty

Daniel Mogaka Nyaberi a*

DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/bpi/raeges/v5/8301E
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ABSTRACT

The geology of Turkana South Subcounty encompasses the basement (The

Neoproterozoic belt), the tertiary volcanics and the quaternary sediments with
similarities across the border in eastern Uganda, and counties of West Pokot,
Baringo, Samburu and area and Marsabit. The use of gravity data has
demonstrated the capability for monitoring lithological changes in large-scale in
as a consequence differentiating basement and sedimentary of buried valleys.
Gravity anomalies are associated with lateral contrasts in density and therefore
deformation by faulting or folding will be manifested if accompanied by lateral
density changes, otherwise the vice versa is true. The objective of the study is to
use the gravity data to advance geological interpretation in the region, especially
looking at the subsurface structure of the basement and the relation of gravity in
relation to the known geology of the area. The study has revealed that the
regional anomaly gravity map presents high anomalies in the Northern region in
the NW-SE trend and low anomalies in the southern trending in NW-SE, while
the residual anomaly gravity map shows different trends for the low and high
gravity anomalies. The gravity anomalies are well interpreted in line with the
lithologies of the study area rather than the deformation of the same lithologies.
There is observed high values of gravity anomaly values (ranging -880.2 to -
501.2 g.u.) where there is eolian unconsolidated rocks overlying the basement as
compared to low gravity anomaly values (ranging -1338.9 to -1088.7 g.u.) where
the andesites, trachytes and phonolites overly the basement. The different
regional gravity anomalies relate well with different rock densities in the study
area along the line profile for the radially averaged power spectrum. The gravity
highs are noted in the eastern point and are associated with andesites, trachytes,
basalts and igneous rocks, while the gravity lows are associated with sandstone,
________________________________________________________________________
a
Department of Environmental Earth Sciences, University of Eldoret, Uasin Gishu, Kenya.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];
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greywacke, arkose, and eolian unconsolidated rock. The utilization of the

information from the Power spectrum analysis demonstrates that the depth to the
deepest basement rock is 12.8 km which is in the eastern flank, while the
shallowest to the basement of 1.1 km to the western flank.

Keywords: Regional gravity anomalies; Power spectrum analysis; density

contrasts; lithologies.

1. INTRODUCTION

There subsists variations on the Earth materials’ densities and the gravity
technique measurements by yielding deviations in the measured gravity field help
pick where the differences in densities of subsurface rocks exists [1]. The gravity
method is a geophysical technique that can be used to map subsurface
geological structures. Gravity data can provide information about subsurface
geological structures such as: faults, rock intrusions, dykes, sills, and caves [2,3].
The gravity technique helps manifest the subsurface geologic structures [4] and
has the capability of detecting the structural trends including mapping of fractures
and intrusions, and determining the binding interfaces of bedrock, therefore
becoming dominant method in geophysical surveys. Gravity application is greatly
applied in investigating geological structures, ascertaining existence of
geothermal reservoirs, detecting volcanic activity and hydrothermal movement
beneath volcanoes, examination of CO2 movement, locating active faults
associated with earthquakes and detection of confined cavities [1]. The gravity
method helps determine the configuration for the bedrock surface over an area of
recent sediment cover [5] shows the relationship between deep buried basin and
[6] and find mineral resources and groundwater in sedimentary terrain [4,7].
Residual gravity anomalies’ application in the detection of the trends of the faults
is tested in study areas by distinguishing between high and low gravity anomalies
and the downthrown of faults towards low anomalies [8,9].

The research deals with the Southern part of Turkana County considering data
from the gravity survey carried out from 1955 to 1975 (Fig. 1) [9]. The objective of
the study is to use gravity data to advance geological interpretation in the region,
especially looking at the subsurface structure of the basement and the relation of
gravity in relation to the known geology of the area.

2. GEOLOGY

The geology of Turkana South Subcounty (Fig. 2) encompasses the basement

(The Neoproterozoic belt), the tertiary volcanic and the quaternary sediments
with similarities across the border in eastern Uganda, and counties of West
Pokot, Baringo, Samburu and area and Marsabit [9]. The present-day basin has
its origins in Pliocene tectonic developments. The subcounty is traversed by the
extensive modern rift, with subsidence making room for more than one kilometer
of Plio-Pleistocene [10]. It is within this structure and deep basins exist
manifestations of prospects of oil and gas deposits within sedimentary.

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The metamorphic basement in the Turkana South Subcounty mainly of

crystalline nature formed as part of the Mozambique Belt during a
Neoproterozoic to Cambrian age mountain-building episode [11]. The lithologies
in the basement encompass schists, gneisses and marbles that originate from
the metamorphism of sandstones, sediments-grits, limestones and shales due
from heat, pressure or through impregnation by permeating subsurface fluids.
Igneous rock formations are comparatively rare and are made up of granitic
masses and dykes, and sills of epi-dioritic and amphibolitic nature resulting from
originally dolerite material or associated rocks, and more or less ultrabasic
lithologic formations. Some of the formations are seemingly younger as
compared to the metamorphism that affected the sedimentary host rocks, though
all are undoubtedly of Precambrian in age [9].

The older sediments accumulated within components of the Central African Rift
System or in isolated depositional basins [10]. These sedimentary strata offer a
limited opening unto understanding earlier stages in the geological history of the
region as revealed from some outcroping, faulting, or uncertain relationships to
broader depositional systems, which preserve vital paleontological records and
are important openings towards deciphering evolutionary patterns across Africa
[10].

The Late Eocene to Miocene volcanics dominated by extensive basalts volcanic

rocks cover a large proportion of the study area and attain considerable
thickness. These are the oldest volcanic rocks which are generally fine-grained
basalts that overlie the Turkana Grits [9]. This volcanic series of basalts tend to
weather fairly rapidly by mechanical breakdown on joints and fractures, which
reduce much of the mass of the exposed rock to small boulders and cobble
which in turn suffer surface weathering and alteration. For this reason, the
topography of outcrops of the lower basalts is generally a series of low rolling
hills. The volcanics shape much of the landscape, and are significant contributors
to sediment flux and solutes. Volcanic raw materials are also the dominant
sources used in manufacture of most of the Turkana basin’s archaeological
record [12]. Volcanism is of a 'cyclic' nature, and six cycles of plateau basalt
eruption followed by salic, usually trachyte central volcano activity are recognised
[13]. The dominant mechanism of deformation is noted particularly from the
morphology of multi-centred plateau basalt formations and dykes and their
relationship to progressive easterly tilting [13,9].

There is an emerging understanding of the link between extensional pulses and

magmatic episodes especially modern magmatism located within the Turkana
Depression and its relationship with the distribution of extensional strain and find
that the magmas are derived from sub-lithospheric sources equivalent to
magmatism in the more mature sectors of the rift [14].

These Quaternary are sediments of the Lake Turkana basin and according to
Walsh and Dodson (1969), the formation comprises a sequence of lacustrine
deposits of Pleistocene age and whose accumulation and formation has
continued through to the recent period. Evidently, the geology of Turkana South

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Subcounty is in a larger way affected by geological structures that are cross

cutting the metamorphic and igneous formations in the region (Fig. 3) [9].

Fig. 1. Gravity data locations of in study area

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Fig. 2. The geological map of Turkana South Subcounty

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Fig. 3. Structural geology map of Turkana South Subcounty

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

3.1 Gravity Method Theory and Application
Gravity method is referred to as a potential field method because the
measurements involve a function of the potential of the observed field of force,

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i.e. terrestrial gravity, at the observation site [15,9]. The gravity method operates
on a basis that depends on two laws derived by Newton, namely, the Universal
Law of gravitation, and the Second Law of Motion. Using Kepler’s empirical third
Law (Eq. 1) which relates the period (T) and the semi-major axis (a) of the orbit
of the satellite to the mass (M) of the parent body, Newton deduced that the force
of attraction between a planet and the Sun varied with the “quantities of solid
matter that they contain” (i.e., their masses) and with the inverse square of the
distance between them [16] whose application to two particles or point masses m
and M separated by a distance r gives relationship for the gravitational attraction
F exerted by M on m (Eq. 2).

4𝜋2
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑎3 (1)
𝑇2

𝑚𝑀
𝐹 = −𝐺 ṝ (2)
𝑟2

In this equation ṝ is a unit vector in the direction of increase in coordinate r, which

is directed away from the center of reference at the mass M. The negative sign in
the equation indicates that the force F acts in the opposite direction, toward the
attracting mass M [9]. The constant G, which converts the physical law to an
equation, is the constant of universal gravitation. The second law of motion
states that the rate of change of momentum of a mass is proportional to the force
acting upon it and takes place in the direction of the force [16] which defines
force (F) in terms of the acceleration (a) given to a mass (m) as equation 3.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (3)

According to Hinze, et al. [15], gravity applications include micro-scale surveys in

mapping physical property variations of the upper meter or two of the subsurface,
or larger-scale applications for regional to global surveys designed to image the
deeper variations of the Earth’s crust, mantle, and core. The crust exhibits highly
complex structural and compositional properties attributed to erosion,
sedimentation, metamorphism, tectonics, and igneous activity, and the plastic
movement of the mobile asthenosphere underlying the lithosphere occurred over
the time span of 4,600-Myr. These processes have led to the differentiation of
chemical elements, deposition of a variety of sediments, vertical and horizontal
movements, zones of crustal weakness, and the focusing of geological
processes, such as volcanism, in which variations in the lithosphere control the
formation and distribution of the Earth’s resources, and volcanic, earthquake, and
other natural hazards [9]. The gravity survey investigates variation (gravity
anomalies) in Earth’s gravitational field generated by differences in density
whose variations are induced by the presence of a causative body such as salt
domes, granite plutons, sedimentary basins, heavy minerals like chromite and
manganese, and faults and folds within the surrounding subsurface rocks [17].
The variations measured by gravity are dependent on Newton’s universal law of
gravitation, which takes into account the differential mass and the distance
between the source and observation point [18]. The size of the anomalies
primarily depends on the difference in density between host rocks and causative

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body, their geometrical form, and depth of occurrence [17]. The gravity
anomalies are the differences between the observed and the theoretical field
based on planetary considerations and the assumption of radial symmetry of the
Earth layers [18].

3.2 Gravity Data collection

The gravity data used is secondary data collected in Kenya from 1955 to 1975
using La Coste & Romberg gravimeter G-16 with the reference point being
Nairobi Pendulum Station (IGSN71 STATION "35716 A NAIROBI"VALUF.
9775260.7 g.u.). The calibration of the gravimeter was checked by measuring the
gravity difference between Nairobi and Mombasa airport (STATION "35749 JII,
VALUE 9780346.1 g.u.) and found correct to be 1 in 5000 [9].

The station elevations for the pre-1971 data were all measured using the
"modified leapfrog" method [19] with two "Baromec" aneroid barometers
supplemented later by two "Paulin" altimeters. The normal "leapfrog" is in
principle the better method as index correction errors tend to cancel). Networks
were constructed from interconnecting traverses and control points "tied into"
whenever possible. Full terrain corrections were computed automatically for all
stations for which adequate topographic maps, taking the earth's curvature into
account and using a digital model of the East African topography based on the
five-minute square (approx. 9 km.). Local terrain corrections (within 2 km. of the
station) were included in the automatic computation by an interpolation method
but where these were larger than 10 g.u. were always checked by zone chart [9].
The accuracy of some of these methods has been studied by Stacey and
Stephens [20] and an overall standard deviation of 10% of the total correction
was expected.

3.3 Gravity Data Presentation

The gravity data used originates from the gravity measurements in Kenya done
from 1955 to 1975. The data table presented in this research contains three
columns: (1) and (2) are the geographic coordinates in decimal degrees, and (3)
is the observed absolute gravity [9].

Table 1. Showing Observed Gravity Data in the collected format

Longitude (decimal Latitude (decimal Observed Gravity

Degrees) Degrees)
35.5015 0.8562 9774101
35.5096 0.8932 9774078
35.5221 0.9600 9773840
35.5337 0.9391 9773949
35.5409 0.9763 9774107
35.5490 0.9835 9774245
35.5597 0.9998 9774603
35.0550 0.8690 9774699
35.0117 0.9115 9774921

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The observed gravity data is presented in the format of Table 1 and the entire
data in Appendix Table A1 and gravity units (g.u.) have been used throughout. (1
g.u. = 0.1 mgal = 10-6 ms-2). There are about 632 gravity readings measured and
plotted in the area map (Fig. 1) which have been reduced pursuant to the
International Gravity Standardization Net 1971 and the National Gravity
Reference Net of 1973 [9].

3.4 Gravity Data Processing

The datum used in reducing the gravity observations is defined by the

International Gravity Standardization Net adopted in 1971 (IGSN 71) [21]
together with the 1967 gravity formula (I.A.G. 1967) as recommended by the
I.U.G.G. [22]. This required the subtraction of 137.5 g.u. from values that are
referred to as the Original Gravity Station (O.G.S.) primary net of Masson and
Andrew [23] -taking Nairobi "A" as the primary base. The tidal corrections to all
the post-1971 data was done with the Base station readings made at intervals of
up to 4 weeks, during the surveys, and indicated low long-term drift rates <3 g.u.
per month [9]. The pre-1971 data were less accurate, perhaps ±4 g.u. It would
have been possible to use the repeat readings during surveying to adjust the
gravity values but as the average error in the elevations (±3 m) gives rise to an
error of ±6 g.u. in the Bouguer anomalies this was not justified.

The considered theoretical sea-level gravity, ϒ, at latitude Ø, was calculated from

the 1967 gravity formula after the Geodetic Reference System 1967 [24] with the
approximation (Eq. 4) whose accuracy is up to 0.04 g.u., being used [9].

ϒ = 9780318.5 (1 + 0.005278895 sin2 Ø + 0.000023462 sin4 Ø) g.u. (4)

The correction -171.0±0.5 g.u. can be applied to values of ϒ calculated with

Cassinis [25] formula within 50 of the equator.

The free air anomalies (F.A.A.) were calculated by use of the continuing upward
of the sea level theoretical gravity ϒ to the measured station height by applying
the free air correction factor which is then subtracted from the observed gravity g o
thus (Eq. 5):

F.A.A. = go - (ϒ -3.086h) g.u. (h in m.). (5)

The conventional constant factor was used throughout with the variation of the
factor with latitude and elevation given as shown (Eq. 6) by Vyskocil [26]:

F.A, Correction (g.u.) = - (3.08772 + 0.00439 sin2Ø -0.72 x 10-6 h) h (6)

which implies an error at the equator, through using the constant quoted, of -1.0
g.u. at 1000 m. and + 4.6 g.u. at 4000 m. These errors are unchanged upto 5 0
from the equator.

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The "simple Bouguer anomalies" (S.B.A.) were determined by subtracting a

calculated value from the F.A.A. (Eq.7), which represents the effect of a slab
considered to be infinite and horizontal of thickness equal to the station height h
and density p (2.67 x 103 kg. m-3) [9].

S.B.A, = F.A.A. -2ΠGph = F.A.A. -1.119h g.u. (7)

The "complete Bouguer anomaly" (C.B.A.) should in principle be calculated by

subtracting from the F.A.A. the effect at the observation point, of all masses
outside the geoid. However, the attraction of topography beyond Hayford's Zone
0 is inconvenient to calculate [27,9] and the "indirect effect" of the topography,
causing the geoid to depart from the spheroid, becomes relatively large for such
distant masses. Except where extreme elevation changes occur in relatively
short distances, as occurs in New Guinea for example, [28] the effect of the more
distant topography will show slow spatial variation. For these reasons, the
convention of Heiskanen and Veninq [29] was followed and an attempt was
made to correct for those masses outside the geoid and within the outer limit of
Hayford Zone 0 (166.7 km.).

A terrain correction T was computed for stations, as the difference in gravity

effect between the actual topography within 166.7 km. of the station and a disc of
thickness equal to the station elevation, radius 166.7 km. and curved to the
radius of the earth. A correction B was made to all stations for the gravity
difference between the curved disc, just defined, and the infinite slab of the
simple Bouguer correction [27,9].

The value B (Eq. 8) was computed for elevations using different approximate
methods including that of Takin and Talwani [30] and finally the resultant in Eq.9
was adopted.

B = 0.0134h - 3.5 x 10-6 h2 g.u. (h in m.) (8)

Thus

C.B.A. = S.B.A. + T – B (9)

It should be noted that both T and B depend on the density. With this method of
reduction, a constant density must be used and 2. 6 7 x 10 3 kg.m3 was used
throughout. The Processed data presented in this research (Table 2) contain four
columns: (1) and (2) are the geographic co-ordinates in decimal degrees, (3) is
the observed absolute gravity, and (4) complete Bouguer anomalies [9]. The
data is presented in format as in Table 2 and the entire data in Appendix Table
A1.

3.5 Gravity Data Analysis and Interpretation

Secondary gravity data was used where standard gravity corrections, including
removal of the effect of instrument drift, tide, elevation and latitude were applied
to the data. These corrections were carried out within the gravity processing

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package of Oasis Montaj. The corrected gravity values were contoured to

produce anomaly maps. Gravity data analysis and interpretation were used to
measure the differences in density on the earth's surface that indicate the
underlying geologic structures.

Table 2. Showing processed gravity data as complete Bouguer anomaly

Longitude in Latitude in Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly(CBA)
35.5015 0.8562 9774101 -1488
35.5096 0.8932 9774078 -1466
35.5221 0.9600 9773840 -1484
35.5337 0.9391 9773949 -1481
35.5409 0.9763 9774107 -1489
35.5490 0.9835 9774245 -1475
35.5597 0.9998 9774603 -1440
35.0550 0.8690 9774699 -1782
35.0117 0.9115 9774921 -1836

The corrected gravity values were contoured to produce anomaly maps. Gravity
data analysis and interpretation were used to measure the differences in density
on the earth's surface that indicate the underlying geologic structures. The
observed gravity data sets were reduced to complete Bouguer anomaly data and
they were gridded and contoured by using Geosoft Program Oasis Montaj to
produce several maps. The corrected data (complete Bouguer anomaly data)
were plotted into Bouguer anomaly maps which were filtered into regional (Fig. 6)
and residual (Fig. 7) gravity anomaly maps. These maps show different high and
low anomalous values throughout the survey area [9]. The minimum curvature
method was applied to determine the residual and the regional gravity anomalies.
The algorithm was used where the minimum-curvature gridding technique uses a
two-dimensional (2-D) differential equation for the displacement of a thin sheet
under the influence of point forces. The algorithm used is after Webring, [31] was
keen in the minimization of aliasing in large gaps between adjacent data points.
The minimum-curvature gridding algorithm was applied to the complete Bouguer
anomaly data to define the regional gravity field. The contours of the minimum-
curvature regional gravity map were matched in the contouring as that of the
complete Bouguer anomaly and were influenced by the features of interest [9].

The deployment of complex attributes (that is analytic signal and tilt derivative) of
filtered Bouguer Gravity signal helped to extract properties of the source of the
anomalous fields in the study area and thus the gridded analytic signal gravity
maps (Fig. 8). In processing of the complex attributes, a filter of passing the
wavelengths of not more than 1 km was used on the complete Bouguer anomaly
gravity data resulting unto several maps (Figs. 6 to 8) with the regional bouguer
anomaly map (Fig. 4) considered for determination of depths [9]. Fig. 5 shows a
power spectrum curve of a line running in the E-W direction of the study area [9].
The power spectrum curve is further divided into components related to gravity

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anomalies starting at the deepest, to the shallow and later handling the noise
sources.

Fig. 4. Regional bouguer anomaly map key in establishing of the power

spectrum

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Fig. 5. Complete Bouguer anomaly spectrum

The depth calculation by using Power Spectrum Curve Numbers (Table 3) was
achieved by using the equation (10) after Nadiah (2016), where the subsurface
depth was calculated by the basis of the difference of power spectrum [9]. In the
equation, the depth value of positive ᶁ indicates the mean depth along the gravity
data profile.

−1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸1 −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐸2
|ᶁ| = ( ) (10)
4𝜋 𝑘1 −𝑘2

Whereby the 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 stand for the power spectrum, 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 standing for the
wave numbers. Equation (10) provides the depths, ᶁ that are derived by getting
the difference of the power spectrum curve slopes divided by - 4𝜋 . Using
Equation (10) and reading the values of the Power Spectrum Curve Numbers
from Figs. 5, 9 and 10, the values in Table 3 were determined [9].

Table 3. Calculation for Depths Using Power Spectrum Curve Numbers

Curve |ᶁ| 4𝝅 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑬𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑬𝟐 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 Depth

A 12.8 12.57142857 6 1 0.01 0.041 -12.83
B 4.6 12.57142857 1 -5.1 0.041 0.15 -4.452
C 1.1 12.57142857 -5.1 -6 0.15 0.217 -1.069

4. RESULTS

Several outcomes of data analysis are presented under the gravity consideration
in this study. The data presented include the regional Bouguer anomaly maps
(Fig. 6), the residual Bouguer gravity anomaly maps (Fig. 7), and the analytic
signal maps (Fig. 8) [9].

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Fig. 6. The regional bouguer anomaly map with contours

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Fig. 7. The residual Bouguer gravity anomaly map with contours

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Fig. 8. The analytic signal gravity map with contours

Equally power spectrum numbers were established and Fig. 9 displays the power
spectrum curves as interpreted for a line along the E-W direction along latitude

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2.261814 degrees, and the correlation of curvatures in the interpreted power

spectrum and the depth estimate curves is given in Fig. 10 [9].

Fig. 9. Showing the interpreted power spectrum curves of a line along the
E-W direction

Fig. 10. Showing correlation of curvatures in the interpreted power

spectrum and the depth estimate curves

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5. DISCUSSION

The use of gravity data has demonstrated the capability for monitoring lithological
changes in large-scale in as a consequence differentiating basement and
sedimentary of buried valleys [9]. Gravity anomalies are associated with lateral
contrasts in density and therefore deformation by faulting or folding will be
manifested if accompanied by lateral density changes, otherwise the vice versa
is true. The area presents an overall range of Bouguer anomaly of -1756.8 g.u to
-501.2 g.u, all negative, and the descriptions are enumerated in Table 4 in the
different zones presented in the map (Fig. 6) [9]. The regional anomaly gravity
map presents high anomalies in the Northern region in the NW-SE trend and low
anomalies in the southern trend in NW-SE, while the residual anomaly gravity
map shows different trends for the low and high gravity anomalies.

Table 4. Bouguer anomaly zone descriptions based on gravity pattern

Zone Characteristic Anomaly

A Zone showing pattern at the SE lower corner of map showing lowest
amplitude (~ -1445.6 g.u. to -1756.8 g.u), further analysis in relation
with geology and structural maps shows the contrast of high density
pyroclastics overlying high density basement, probably tectonic
events, faulting. The rocks here have low-density variations
compared to the basement rocks.
B Zone of broad northerly trending bound feature in the eastern part of
the area; indicating moderate amplitude (~ -680.2 g.u. to -994.3 g.u).
The area is covered by basalt, igneous rock, granite and acidic
metamorphic rocks. These are rocks whose densities are closer to the
basement density.
C Zone C has the outstanding feature with north westerly continuous
trend stretching from the SE to the west having low amplitude (~ -
1102.2 g.u to -1396.8 g.u) (Nyaberi, 2023). Correlation with geological
map indicates that the surface is covered with pyroclastics, andesites,
trachytes, phonolites, sandstone, greywacke and Eolian
unconsolidated rock all overlying the basement. The rocks here have
recognizable density variations from the one-by-basement rocks.
D, E, Zone of northerly trending parallel features covering the northern part;
F showing alternating moderate to high amplitude (~ -501.2 g.u to -
994.3 g.u). The geology of the sections is mainly of granite and acidic
metamorphic rocks, andesites, basalts, and pyroclastics.

The major rock groups in the study area have varying densities (Table 5) ranging
from Sandstone beds with a density of 2050 kg/m 3 to Archean basements with
densities in excess of 3200 kg/m3 [9].

Consequently, the gravity anomalies are well interpreted in line with the
lithologies of the study area rather than the deformation of the same lithologies.
Meaning the deformation in the area isn’t accompanied by changes in the
densities of deformed lithologies. Therefore, analysis of Fig. 6 (regional Bouguer

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gravity anomaly map), and Fig. 2 (lithology map) shows a good correlation. Zone
A with pyroclastics overlying basement rocks with ~ -1756.8 g.u to -1445.6 g.u.
anomalous amplitude and Zone B with basalt, igneous rock, granite and acidic
metamorphic rocks overlying the basement with anomalous amplitude of ~ -994.3
g.u. to -680.2 g.u. The pyroclastics, andesites, trachytes, phonolites, sandstone,
greywacke and Eolian unconsolidated rock all overlying the basement dominate
Zone C having low amplitude (~ -1396.8 g.u to -1102.2 g.u) [9]. Zones D, E, F
portents alternating moderate to high amplitude (~ -994.3 g.u to-501.2 g.u)
representing the geology of granite and acidic metamorphic rocks, andesites,
basalts, and pyroclastics overlying the basement.

Table 5. Densities of Common Rocks in the study area

Rocks Density (103 kg/m3)

Amphibolites 2.79-3.14
Basalt 2.70-3.20
Gabbro 2.85-3.12
Gneiss 2.61-2.99
Granite 2.52-2.75
Quartzite 2.60-2.70
Rhyolite 2.40-2.60
Sandstone 2.05-2.55
Schist 2.50-2.90

The residual anomaly gravity map indicates that the area is affected by faulting
with faults running in the NE-SW and N-S trends. This is seen in the residual
anomaly gravity contour map in that the edges of contoured map (Fig. 7) match
well with points of high faulting in the structural geology map (Fig. 3). The
technique of analytical signal calls for its interpretation in conjunction with other
geological and geophysical information to maximize on its results. Thus the
calibration of the analytic signal map (Fig. 8) is done where points of high
anomaly values match well with areas which in geological map (Fig. 2) that are
covered by igneous intrusive rocks considered to be of high density or fluvial
deposits considered to be deposits of heavy minerals [9]. This is evident also in
the analytical signal map for these formations pose high density in comparison to
surrounding rocks.

Fig. 9 displays the power spectrum curves as interpreted for a line along the E-W
direction along latitude 2.261814 degrees. Accordingly, the depths related to the
gravity sources have been calculated using the curve slope obtained from Fig.
10. Fig. 10 shows a comparison between the graphs of the radially averaged
power spectrum and the depth estimate graph.

Fundamentally, the power spectrum curves are separated into three components
interrelated with gravity anomalies originating from the deepest formations, the
shallow formations and structures and finally from the noise sources. By
application of equation (10), the depths to gravity anomaly sources have been
calculated using the three slope curves. The radially averaged power spectrum

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curve is presented as in (Power) in the Y-axis and the Wave Number (1/K_Unit)
in the X-axis. Equally the depth estimate has been given as Depth (K_Unit) in
the Y-axis and the Number (1/K_Unit) in the X-axis. Table 6 presents estimated
and calculated depths t subsurface sources of gravity anomalies [9].

Table 6. Depth estimation for unconformity bedrock

Curve Assumed Depth (km) Calculated Depth (km)

A 13 12.8
B 5 4.1
C 1.4 1.1

Based on the research, the different anomalies relate well with different rock
densities in the study area along the line profile. The gravity highs are noted in
the eastern point and are associated with andesites, trachytes, basalts and
igneous rocks, while the gravity lows are associated with sandstone, greywacke,
arkose, and eolian unconsolidated rock. By the use of the Power spectrum
analysis, the showing of the depth of the deepest basement rock is 12.8 km
which is on the eastern flank, while the shallowest to the basement of 1.1 km to
the western flank [9].

The Bouguer anomaly maps happen to always act as the best and indeed
display the best subsurface density changes of the bedrock in the areas of
interest. The variation of the Bouguer anomaly have been enhanced by
calculating 2nd derivative and horizontal gradient (tilt derivative) relief maps [9].
These maps have helped in recognizing, discovering, and categorizing
formations and structures affecting gravity. Local variation of gravity is well
observed in the residual Bouguer anomaly, tilt derivative and analytic signal
maps where, the sources are aligned to quantities relating to the position, shape
and structure of geological formations.

6. CONCLUSION

Gravity method used in this study has been instrumental and the conclusion of
the results of interpretation is that the area is affected by different fault elements
trending NE-SW, N-S and minor in the E-W reflecting the orientation of different
lithologies which can be tied to past tectonic activities. The gravity anomalies are
well interpreted in line with the lithologies of the study area rather than the
deformation of the same lithologies. There is observed high values of gravity
anomaly values (ranging from -880.2 to -501.2 g.u.) where there is eolian
unconsolidated rocks overlying the basement as compared to low gravity
anomaly values (ranging from -1338.9 to -1088.7 g.u.) where the andesites,
trachytes and phonolites overly the basement [9]. The different regional gravity
anomalies relate well with different rock densities in the study area along the line
profile for the radially averaged power spectrum. The gravity highs are noted in
the eastern point and are associated with andesites, trachytes, basalts and
igneous rocks, while the gravity lows are associated with sandstone, greywacke,
arkose, and eolian unconsolidated rock. The utilization of the information from

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the Power spectrum analysis demonstrates that the depth to the deepest
basement rock is 12.8 km which is in the eastern flank, while the shallowest to
the basement of 1.1 km to the western flank.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special appreciation goes to the Ministry of Petroleum and Mining, Kenya from
whom geological and topographic maps were obtained, which were useful in
production of the final geological map of the area. To the survey of Kenya which
was instrumental in provision of data used, I am indebted. I also wish to
recognize the prayers, efforts, encouragement, humour and cooperation received
from my wife Lydia Gesare and our Children (Amygrace Kerubo Tsitsi, Merrybell
Meita, and Madiba Mandela) during the entire period of this research. They
allowed me to use the meagre family resources for the research and am dearly
indebted.

COMPETING INTERESTS

Author has declared that no competing interests exist.

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APPENDIX

Table A1. Gravity Observed and Processed Gravity Data as Complete

Bouguer Anomaly

Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.5015 0.8562 9774101 -1488
35.5096 0.8932 9774078 -1466
35.5221 0.9600 9773840 -1484
35.5337 0.9391 9773949 -1481
35.5409 0.9763 9774107 -1489
35.5490 0.9835 9774245 -1475
35.5597 0.9998 9774603 -1440
35.0550 0.8690 9774699 -1782
35.0117 0.9115 9774921 -1836
35.0596 0.9576 9774859 -1799
35.0856 0.9241 9774873 -1787
35.1186 0.8825 9775029 -1761
35.1251 0.8508 9774922 -1745
35.1763 0.8716 9774759 -1726
35.2257 0.8743 9774754 -1708
35.2533 0.8545 9774679 -1698
35.3000 0.8301 9774673 -1657
35.6073 0.3695 9776515 -1561
35.6145 0.8984 9776598 -1556
35.6154 0.9165 9776664 -1545
35.0226 0.9355 9776656 -1002
35.6217 0.9545 9776591 -1573
35.6128 0.9870 9776560 -1492
35.0093 0.9693 9774764 -1632
35.0434 0.9836 9774764 -1815
35.6944 0.8677 9776058 -2168
35.6908 0.902 9776125 -2089
35.6899 0.9291 9776163 -2038
35.6837 0.9779 9776137 -1995
35.7187 0.9282 9776065 -1920
35.7429 0.9191 9775845 -1816
35.7626 0.9029 9775881 -1742
35.7923 0.8866 9775836 -1625
35.8129 0.8649 9775445 -1709
35.8093 0.8396 9775388 -1760
35.8264 0.8802 9775787 -1675
35.8407 0.8793 9775586 -1703
35.8497 0.8647 9775909 -1666
35.8757 0.8955 9770372 -1687
35.9018 0.8829 9776536 -1680
35.9071 0.8621 9776599 -1648

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.9098 0.8377 9776042 -1610
35.9934 0.9352 9777238 -1403
35.9664 0.9515 9777087 -1491
35.9001 0.9316 9776980 -1547
35.9458 0.9108 9776864 -1584
35.9314 0.8865 9776636 -1612
36.1790 0.8811 9776751 -1292
36.7447 0.8951 9775392 -1401
36.7590 0.9349 9775481 -1344
36.7536 0.9764 9775472 -1218
36.7851 0.9023 9775522 -1347
36.5991 0.9754 9774873 -1492
36.5974 0.9203 9774894 -1516
36.1072 0.8991 9777286 -1293
36.1180 0.9217 9777241 -1288
36.1323 0.9534 9777368 -1197
36.1466 0.9796 9777462 -1165
36.1682 0.9877 977724 -1162
36.2849 0.9761 9776392 -1454
36.2732 0.9327 9776412 -1455
36.2751 0.8902 9776486 -1453
36.0300 0.9424 9777341 -1314
36.0470 0.9578 9777379 -1262
36.0595 0.9949 9777487 -1211
36.0327 0.8918 9777211 -1388
36.0354 0.9144 9777263 -1364
36.0551 0.9208 9777285 -1334
36.0758 0.9027 9777276 -1312
36.0991 0.8973 9777291 -1297
36.1252 0.8973 9777221 -1302
36.1422 0.8919 9777193 -1264
36.0048 0.9641 9777336 -1341
36.0147 0.9975 9777408 -1309
36.3001 1.0050 9776788 -1468
35.5705 1.0052 9774434 -1455
35.6128 1.0078 9776543 -1463
36.6126 1.0107 9775014 -1427
36.1888 1.0122 9777513 -1142
36.7266 1.0225 9775368 -1293
36.6494 1.0234 9775282 -1327
36.0236 1.0265 9777424 -1322
36.1520 1.0266 9777614 -1109
36.2085 1.0275 9777460 -1184
36.1798 1.0284 9777561 -1120
35.9566 1.0292 9777035 -1479
36.0452 1.0292 9777479 -1284

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
36.3199 1.0294 9776873 -1495
36.2400 1.0303 9777315 -1277
35.5758 1.0305 9774089 -1461
35.6191 1.034 9776669 -1450
36.0703 1.0356 9777571 -1210
36.2660 1.0393 9777103 -1407
36.2893 1.0421 9776934 -1484
35.9225 1.0473 9776891 -1533
35.6290 1.0503 9776734 -1455
36.0398 1.0509 9777426 -1327
36.3297 1.0548 9776895 -1495
36.6808 1.0560 9775263 -1296
36.7086 1.0578 9775390 -1261
35.5830 1.0667 9774774 -1432
35.8956 1.0672 9776733 -1533
35.5946 1.0676 9774699 -1416
35.6063 1.0676 9774948 -1396
36.0792 1.0717 9777577 -1221
35.6335 1.0729 9776704 -1452
36.0487 1.0753 9777483 -1290
35.6117 1.0803 9775356 -1405
36.5838 1.0830 9774720 -1364
36.3387 1.0837 9776935 -1494
36.6664 1.0912 9774932 -1290
35.8822 1.0925 9776791 -1390
35.6186 1.0938 9775779 -1407
36.6925 1.0966 9775226 -1280
35.6344 1.0973 9776622 -1423
36.0648 1.0988 9777480 -1316
35.6224 1.1019 9776076 -1413
35.8777 1.1088 9776667 -1279
36.0792 1.1106 9777560 -1269
35.6251 1.1110 9776194 -1409
35.8643 1.1115 9776483 -1264
36.3261 1.1180 9777003 -1469
35.6421 1.1218 9776705 -1430
36.2291 1.1243 9776813 -1231
36.0810 1.1268 9777578 -1262
35.8499 1.1287 9776832 -1259
36.2138 1.1288 9776725 -1206
36.2452 1.1297 9776875 -1239
36.2874 1.1297 9776869 -1451
36.2749 1.1306 9776878 -1383
36.2605 1.1324 9776858 -1297
36.3099 1.1325 9776911 -1489
36.2048 1.1351 9776623 -1201

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.3588 1.1364 9772924 -1633
36.3251 1.1370 9777043 -1442
36.5011 1.1399 9774944 -1490
36.6340 1.1418 9774592 -1321
36.1976 1.1477 9776606 -1192
36.2551 1.1487 9776733 -1263
36.2369 1.1532 9777191 -1138
36.4580 1.1534 9775945 -1471
36.2901 1.1550 9776915 -1420
36.1815 1.1567 9776577 -1181
36.2291 1.1577 9777260 -1110
36.2569 1.1577 9776742 -1259
36.0971 1.1593 9777662 -1270
36.1463 1.1594 3777231 -1195
35.6488 1.1596 9776776 -1426
35.6492 1.1598 9776773 -1430
35.8293 1.1604 9776946 -1309
36.2228 1.1649 9777285 -1101
36.3512 1.1687 9777022 -1480
36.1105 1.1693 9777543 -1285
36.1303 1.1693 9777437 -1232
35.6497 1.1696 9776752 -1431
36.3530 1.1696 9777021 -1480
36.1734 1.1712 9775994 -1253
35.3274 1.1717 9773048 -1675
36.2102 1.1730 9777231 -1087
35.8149 1.1757 9777021 -1279
36.1842 1.1757 9776581 -1163
36.1617 1.1784 9776803 -1180
36.4140 1.1823 9776109 -1487
36.1043 1.1829 9777644 -1290
35.8006 1.1848 9777040 -1300
36.2461 1.1866 9776792 -1221
36.6196 1.1870 9774253 -1294
35.6516 1.1904 9776708 -1434
36.2317 1.1911 9776742 -1197
36.1949 1.1929 9776663 -1172
36.2093 1.1929 9776778 -1161
36.2183 1.1929 9776758 -1176
36.1968 1.1939 9777876 -871
36.1823 1.1983 9776627 -1211
35.7270 1.2020 9776937 -1516
36.1213 1.2046 9777647 -1327
36.1653 1.2046 9777125 -1236
35.6561 1.2048 9776788 -1437
35.2825 1.2052 9773379 -1711

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.6776 1.2093 9776849 -1546
36.1024 1.2100 9777671 -1264
36.1410 1.2100 9777492 -1305
35.7611 1.2146 9776976 -1404
35.6965 1.2156 9776872 -1613
35.6552 1.2283 9776949 -1423
36.1060 1.2360 9777706 -1229
36.5025 1.2475 9774167 -1245
35.6453 1.2482 9776784 -1430
35.2484 1.2522 9773603 -1737
35.1694 1.2568 9774027 -1752
35.6301 1.2600 9776630 -1435
35.1918 1.2604 9773754 -1744
35.2313 1.2694 9773700 -1731
35.1613 1.2767 9774594 -1774
35.6283 1.2781 9776724 -1437
35.1712 1.2785 9774949 -1781
36.6160 1.2792 9774572 -1300
35.1586 1.2866 9774313 -1744
35.6202 1.2925 9776675 -1447
35.1892 1.3002 9775149 -1762
36.1454 1.3004 9777835 -1190
36.0996 1.3031 9777789 -1140
36.6195 1.3099 9774956 -1324
35.2053 1.3101 9775228 -1744
36.8611 1.3102 9776746 -1255
35.2269 1.3155 9775173 -1754
36.3663 1.3196 9777672 -1300
36.0843 1.3301 9777500 -1221
35.2530 1.3339 9775531 -1712
35.6266 1.3350 9776859 -1469
36.8611 1.3373 9776856 -1227
36.1561 1.3429 9777944 -1086
35.2018 1.3445 9775384 -1744
36.6303 1.3515 9775233 -1296
36.3644 1.3522 9777798 -1235
36.2522 1.3547 9778030 -1071
36.2711 1.3557 9778021 -1084
36.2378 1.3601 9778062 -1034
36.0796 1.3609 9777626 -1245
35.6311 1.3648 9776895 -1511
36.1759 1.3655 9778029 -1028
36.2926 1.3656 9778016 -1085
35.2458 1.3670 9775309 -1659
36.3590 1.3711 9777853 -1173
36.2208 1.3719 9778130 -965

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
36.3779 1.3748 9777802 -1187
36.3159 1.3756 9777987 -1097
35.6077 1.3757 9776850 -1437
36.3411 1.3783 9777932 -1123
35.1892 1.3815 9775406 -1706
36.6284 1.3823 9775381 -1302
35.2593 1.3869 9775455 -1636
36.0645 1.3880 9777481 -1249
36.1857 1.3890 9778143 -930
36.3752 1.3901 9777798 -1154
36.1992 1.3908 9778159 -929
36.1354 1.3926 9777883 -1068
35.5943 1.3947 9776877 -1451
35.3330 1.3995 9775831 -1628
36.0385 1.4015 9777415 -1249
35.5656 1.4038 9776886 -1454
35.3455 1.4067 9775646 -1612
35.2818 1.4086 9775548 -1632
35.3195 1.4103 9775735 -1619
36.6661 1.4112 9775673 -1792
35.2997 1.4113 9775636 -1620
36.2027 1.4116 9778236 -861
36.8539 1.4132 9776732 -1215
36.0187 1.4141 9777243 -1251
35.5395 1.4146 9776824 -1458
35.200 1.4159 9775567 -1681
35.3456 1.4230 9775873 -1588
36.2638 1.4289 9778221 -889
35.5252 1.4327 9776797 -1476
36.1399 1.4359 9777871 -1011
36.2090 1.4378 9778260 -863
35.3537 1.4383 9775945 -1584
35.2189 1.4394 9775696 -1659
36.0043 1.4394 9777045 -1242
36.8466 1.4449 9776926 -1154
36.7047 1.4529 9775779 -1271
35.5055 1.4599 9776866 -1515
35.3698 1.4618 9776123 -1549
35.2288 1.4647 9775769 -1687
36.2117 1.4659 9778298 -865
35.3726 1.4691 9776115 -1548
35.4875 1.4780 9776963 -1534
35.3762 1.4790 9776171 -1555
36.1443 1.4820 9777899 -979
35.2486 1.4846 9775687 -1726
35.3851 1.4862 9776234 -1530

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.5315 1.4870 9777010 -1511
36.8367 1.4883 9776887 -1122
36.2170 1.4894 9778339 -868
35.3932 1.4952 9776386 -1520
35.4669 1.4961 9776808 -1557
35.4049 1.4970 9776424 -1504
36.7765 1.4981 9776027 -1202
36.7253 1.4990 9776004 -1217
35.6743 1.5021 9777073 -1305
35.4049 1.5043 9776525 -1501
36.3472 1.5049 9777133 -896
35.2639 1.5053 9775715 -1712
36.6624 1.5071 9776105 -1233
36.4406 1.5095 9777044 -1195
36.6049 1.5142 9775823 -1205
36.2188 1.5156 9778355 -884
35.4094 1.5160 9776599 -1488
36.5259 1.5187 9777731 -1200
36.8385 1.5271 9776883 -1112
35.4103 1.5287 9776681 -1471
36.1371 1.5290 9778033 -956
35.7049 1.5292 9777128 -1268
35.4355 1.5296 9776788 -1504
35.2702 1.5297 9775036 -1661
35.4211 1.5305 9776682 -1481
35.4472 1.5322 9776940 -1509
35.5646 1.5339 9777125 -1442
36.2313 1.5373 9778416 -859
36.7343 1.5451 9776113 -1187
35.7166 1.5527 9777156 -1243
36.8286 1.5561 9776841 -1090
36.2520 1.5581 9778503 -819
35.5846 1.5628 9777154 -1361
35.4490 1.5675 9776873 -1517
35.7337 1.5735 9777255 -1212
36.1235 1.5787 9778082 -988
36.2654 1.5789 9778695 -781
36.7252 1.5948 9776276 -1171
35.7490 1.5979 9777310 -1180
35.5820 1.6044 9777208 -1340
36.0876 1.6067 9778082 -1042
36.2779 1.6069 9778886 -751
35.4553 1.6091 9776806 -1586
36.8231 1.6112 9776722 -1090
35.7706 1.6249 9777428 -1242
36.7467 1.6292 9776494 -1074

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
36.2779 1.6322 9778843 -809
36.7755 1.6428 9776676 -1054
35.6090 1.6441 9777197 -1277
35.4617 1.6452 9776978 -1494
35.7751 1.6475 9777506 -1223
36.0713 1.6491 9778138 -1045
36.8087 1.6609 9776629 -1050
35.7635 1.6728 9777491 -1177
36.3084 1.6729 9778782 -878
36.2668 1.6765 9778781 -840
35.4734 1.6769 9777055 -1528
36.3506 1.6811 9778777 -924
35.6297 1.6812 9777185 -1240
35.7419 1.6819 9777391 -1173
36.3748 1.6821 9778749 -942
36.4170 1.6821 9778646 -1012
36.0460 1.6852 9778151 -1012
36.4440 1.6903 9778618 -1038
35.7123 1.6991 9777282 -1180
36.7916 1.7007 9776711 -1034
35.4806 1.7040 9777065 -1450
36.2713 1.7045 9778700 -771
35.7743 1.7099 9777491 -1185
35.6818 1.7200 9777171 -1174
35.6270 1.7209 9777253 -1237
36.2517 1.7262 9778367 -804
36.0425 1.7331 9778163 -970
36.4448 1.7391 9778687 -1033
35.6486 1.7417 9777211 -1200
35.4807 1.7428 9777222 -1395
35.6199 1.7463 9777288 -1248
35.7860 1.7505 9777437 -1108
35.4888 1.7582 9777215 -1381
36.7888 1.7591 9776746 -1101
36.2499 1.7596 9778269 -785
36.0245 1.7737 9778204 -952
36.4717 1.7834 9778739 -1025
35.7987 1.7885 9777678 -1032
36.0855 1.7901 9778343 -893
36.1385 1.7902 9778380 -880
35.6173 1.7933 9777297 -1258
36.7969 1.7938 9776818 -1086
36.2507 1.7976 9778259 -773
36.3064 1.8103 9778805 -702
36.4806 1.8223 9778806 -977
35.6140 1.8264 9777719 -968

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
36.2210 1.8265 9778155 -876
35.5975 1.8267 9777306 -1305
36.5426 1.8269 9777675 -1009
36.3575 1.8285 9778925 -789
36.0262 1.8325 9778246 -887
36.4312 1.8367 9778834 -955
36.8175 1.8372 9776644 -1085
36.1833 1.8418 9778285 -861
35.5670 1.8467 9777344 -1256
36.6432 1.8506 9776819 -1041
36.7357 1.8516 9776753 -1147
36.5938 1.8532 9777227 -1065
36.4949 1.8540 9778866 -906
36.6881 1.8552 9776966 -1099
35.8275 1.8661 9777682 -910
36.1554 1.8770 9778365 -824
36.8417 1.8798 9776572 -1103
36.0171 1.8812 9778293 -850
35.5518 1.8937 9777438 -1232
36.4958 1.8983 9778978 -810
35.8518 1.9032 9777848 -860
36.0449 1.9120 9778308 -858
36.1365 1.9149 9778442 -785
36.0054 1.9174 9778332 -873
36.8632 1.9232 9776575 -1128
36.0952 1.9275 9778464 -773
35.8779 1.9311 9778000 -827
35.5303 1.9326 9777520 -1205
35.6966 1.9329 9777456 -1011
36.5101 1.9336 9779026 -765
36.0269 1.9490 9778320 -897
36.0691 1.9491 9778351 -892
36.0197 1.9544 9778283 -913
35.9049 1.9582 9778156 -788
36.8353 1.9584 9776647 -1116
35.5277 1.9642 9777573 -1216
36.5154 1.9652 9778985 -801
35.6777 1.9730 9777450 -1056
36.7975 1.9801 9776603 -1086
35.6418 1.9803 9777474 -1122
35.7891 1.9900 9777609 -862
36.0001 1.9933 9776212 -945
35.9355 1.9934 9778153 -886
36.0343 1.9947 9778276 -935
35.6070 1.9985 9777497 -1189
35.9669 1.9996 9778176 -938

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.8322 2.0044 9777834 -796
36.0604 2.0091 9778318 -942
35.9221 2.0115 9778068 -904
35.7631 2.0118 9777493 -884
35.5251 2.0139 9777587 -1248
35.9718 2.0146 9777567 -945
35.8673 2.0152 9778042 -758
35.5601 2.0193 9777497 -1302
36.7867 2.0198 9776642 -1033
35.7254 2.0209 9777434 -925
35.9188 2.0318 9777350 -1019
35.8907 2.0441 9777957 -931
35.4928 2.0456 9777657 -1118
36.0531 2.0498 9778271 -980
36.7732 2.0532 9776643 -1000
35.4263 2.0593 9777757 -1186
36.0810 2.0734 9778312 -959
35.4515 2.0791 9777782 -1135
35.8575 2.0812 9777949 -959
36.0219 2.0863 9778247 -952
35.4830 2.0927 9777768 -1100
35.3859 2.0928 9777709 -1206
36.7668 2.1039 9776739 -959
35.8261 2.1165 9777923 -1011
36.1034 2.1177 9778436 -866
35.9905 2.1180 9778130 -1004
35.3626 2.1290 9777717 -1204
35.4983 2.1378 9777860 -1091
36.1241 2.1404 9778485 -847
35.5466 2.1414 9777754 -1100
36.7623 2.1446 9776709 -908
36.1178 2.1530 9778500 -853
35.5711 2.1549 9777750 -1030
35.7966 2.1581 9777925 -1036
35.9798 2.1650 9778128 -1014
35.6062 2.1684 9777664 -980
35.3384 2.1697 9777679 -1203
35.5415 2.1775 9777816 -1044
36.7613 2.1807 9776929 -860
35.6376 2.1846 9777501 -906
36.1106 2.1865 9778478 -875
35.6739 2.1870 9778029 -932
35.6646 2.1918 9777763 -898
35.7751 2.1952 9777830 -1133
35.7032 2.1989 9777884 -918
36.2719 2.2014 9778863 -736

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
36.5744 2.2021 9778987 -817
35.9556 2.2057 9778122 -1048
36.7613 2.2060 9776958 -830
35.5442 2.2083 9777834 -1913
36.6292 2.2104 9778631 -728
35.3457 2.2149 9777815 -1147
35.7338 2.2161 9777798 -1114
36.5035 2.2167 9778930 -907
36.1078 2.2209 9778530 -829
35.7554 2.2241 9777787 -1191
36.4360 2.2275 9778457 -766
36.6956 2.2340 9778467 -751
36.7576 2.2395 9776994 -779
35.9243 2.2410 9778090 -1085
36.1231 2.2453 9778520 -798
35.5551 2.2471 9777822 -980
36.2805 2.2500 9778301 -760
36.3956 2.2501 9777438 -776
35.5290 2.2535 9777873 -993
36.3470 2.2536 9776942 -842
35.3350 2.2565 9777873 -1129
36.1671 2.2580 9778544 -860
35.7339 2.2585 9777797 -1201
36.2184 2.2590 9778476 -823
35.8983 2.2736 9778034 -1137
35.5686 2.2832 9777831 -955
36.7207 2.2892 9776865 -685
35.3206 2.2918 9777861 -1141
35.9675 2.2922 9778339 -916
35.7115 2.2965 9777837 -1159
36.6740 2.2994 9778411 -579
35.5139 2.3014 9777952 -977
36.0097 2.3031 9778343 -917
36.0592 2.3131 9778371 -903
35.5876 2.3203 9777830 -896
35.8723 2.3206 9778078 -1138
35.6891 2.3309 9777911 -1056
35.2947 2.3325 9777865 -1106
35.4995 2.3394 9778022 -957
35.8392 2.3460 9777968 -1159
36.0807 2.3493 9778436 -833
35.6218 2.3518 9778019 -810
35.6640 2.3662 9778132 -818
36.6064 2.3783 9778774 -688
35.8078 2.3786 9777989 -1158
35.4834 2.3792 9777697 -909

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.6982 2.3815 9777933 -1075
35.6533 2.3852 9778151 -774
35.2947 2.3886 9777930 -1104
35.7647 2.3904 9777918 -1184
36.1095 2.3937 9778526 -798
35.7243 2.3959 9777908 -1132
35.6856 2.3960 9777991 -987
36.5516 2.4028 9778919 -766
36.1422 2.4034 9778671 -785
36.8598 2.4042 9778112 -752
36.6171 2.4110 9776964 -710
35.4422 2.4118 9778106 -969
35.3020 2.4265 9777960 -1112
36.8463 2.4431 9778206 -720
35.3838 2.4463 9778134 -1025
35.6588 2.4512 9778141 -791
36.1622 2.4579 9778717 -743
36.8273 2.4774 9778311 -706
35.2949 2.4790 9777976 -1104
35.3291 2.4807 9777962 -1159
36.1822 2.4869 9778726 -746
35.6616 2.4991 9778133 -842
36.5298 2.5067 9778359 -711
36.8084 2.5171 9778394 -692
35.2716 2.5197 9777990 -1006
36.6951 2.5242 9778881 -821
36.7706 2.5469 9778473 -668
36.1983 2.5475 9778712 -779
35.6590 2.5479 9778231 -768
35.2321 2.5496 9777985 -1017
36.0964 2.5506 9778698 -804
35.2582 2.5586 9778037 -1019
36.7337 2.5713 9778422 -696
35.1926 2.5741 9776814 -1084
36.4951 2.5795 9778055 633
36.4384 2.5818 9779206 -487
36.5800 2.5854 9778765 -901
36.7076 2.5866 9778699 -755
36.1875 2.5891 9778708 -810
35.6591 2.5958 9778288 -710
36.6986 2.6037 9778895 -803
35.2538 2.6065 9778082 -993
35.3032 2.6146 9778085 -1091
35.3536 2.6244 9778317 -927
36.0346 2.6252 9778148 -542
35.8380 2.6306 9778753 -587

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.9027 2.6350 9778634 -482
35.9665 2.6367 9778635 -441
35.4039 2.6370 9778377 -834
35.6493 2.6401 9778380 -614
36.5790 2.6415 9778888 -813
36.2027 2.6416 9778747 -799
36.6967 2.6435 9778957 -739
35.4507 2.6468 9778302 -786
35.2494 2.6499 9778117 -974
35.5001 2.6567 9778204 -758
35.5469 2.6656 9777972 -716
36.1514 2.6723 9778703 -831
35.5990 2.6727 9778215 -638
36.6958 2.6751 9778969 -740
35.6458 2.6772 9778433 -592
35.7878 2.6787 9778550 -747
35.6997 2.6789 9778438 -730
36.2045 2.6896 9778757 -814
35.2368 2.6897 9778128 -970
36.6018 2.6937 9779175 -560
36.3745 2.7087 9778955 -440
36.6885 2.7135 9778942 -738
36.4366 2.7160 9779214 -496
36.7002 2.7186 9779016 -703
35.6513 2.7278 9778513 -562
35.2360 2.7295 9778175 -935
36.2036 2.7303 9778766 -829
36.7217 2.7593 9779040 -638
35.6559 2.7693 9778626 -525
36.1954 2.7755 9778812 -818
35.2316 2.7774 9778209 -926
35.1804 2.7947 9778083 -1016
36.7054 2.8008 9778975 -752
36.3942 2.8038 9779120 -586
36.1576 2.8089 9778670 -749
35.6452 2.8145 9778686 -536
35.2434 2.8299 9778272 -910
35.2102 2.8390 9778221 -945
36.7044 2.8460 9779105 -626
35.6210 2.8490 9778609 -558
36.1072 2.8496 9779005 -653
36.0361 2.8594 9779014 -532
35.2480 2.8832 9778342 -891
35.2480 2.8832 9778335 -895
36.0918 2.8857 9778987 -709
36.6837 2.8867 9779141 -593

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Longitude Latitude Observed Complete Bouguer

Degrees Degrees Gravity Anomaly
35.6139 2.8960 9778703 -586
36.5209 2.8972 9779129 -607
36.0279 2.8992 9778974 -634
36.6450 2.8993 9778996 -739
36.5704 2.9045 9779189 -547
36.7160 2.9075 9779151 -524
36.3911 2.9280 9778687 -496
35.2688 2.9329 9778369 -873
36.0864 2.9355 9778995 -731
35.6140 2.9493 9778756 -589
36.7321 2.9555 9778950 -481
35.3003 2.9590 9778360 -924
36.0710 2.9671 9779030 -682
36.1052 2.9871 9778963 -770
36.7581 2.9899 9778885 -436
36.0431 2.9933 9778979 -696
35.5498 3.1056 9778825 -649
35.5048 3.0829 9778779 -674
35.4588 3.8581 9778664 -763
35.4119 3.0320 9778713 -669
35.3606 3.0023 9778418 -919
35.7524 3.1032 9778617 -879
35.7664 3.0780 9778658 -798
35.8298 3.0717 9778707 -735
35.8703 3.0609 9776786 -794
35.9180 3.0556 9778760 -835
35.9612 3.0375 9778858 -764
35.9961 3.0132 9778056 -789
35.6399 3.1003 9778751 -743
35.6120 3.1030 9778852 -616
36.3940 3.0290 9779032 -715
36.3948 3.0725 9779024 -728
36.1232 3.0025 9778943 -802
36.7854 3.0212 9779039 -454
36.8007 3.0501 9779064 -431
36.8475 3.0683 9779150 -432
36.8835 3.0973 9779155 -431
36.8988 3.0810 9779068 -432
36.9267 3.0448 9779019 -480

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Biography of author(s)

Dr. Daniel Mogaka Nyaberi (Ph.D)

Department of Environmental Earth Sciences, University of Eldoret, Uasin Gishu, Kenya.

I am a holder of a Doctor of Philosophy in Natural Resources Management from Kisii University, Kenya,
a Master of Science in Geology and a Bachelor of Science in Geology both from the University of
Nairobi (UON), Kenya. I have other related training in diverse areas including Resource evaluation using
geophysical methods; GIS and Remote Sensing Applications in Agriculture; Sustainable Mining; Hydro-
Infrastructure Development and Management and Application of Geographical Information Systems,
Remote Sensing and Geographical Positioning Systems to Natural resources Management.

I have 15 years of work experience in the geoscience profession, 3 years in civil service in the Ministry
of Water, and 12 years as a Lecturer in the University. I have taught various courses covering
geotechnical engineering, advanced pavement materials, groundwater investigations and technology,
geophysics, groundwater hydrology and modelling, geochemistry, and geological thermodynamics,
geostatistics, hydrogeology, introduction to geophysics, earth processes, geological field mapping, field
geology, fluvial geomorphology, among others.

I have published papers in Journals covering areas of groundwater, mapping of lithologies using
geophysical methods, petroleum potential mapping, and environmental assessments. I have acted as a
reviewer to a number of papers published in reputable journals, participated and presented papers at
conferences and participated in a number of consultancies.
___________________________________________________________________________________
© Copyright (2024): Author(s). The licensee is the publisher (B P International).

DISCLAIMER
This chapter is an extended version of the article published by the same author(s) in the following journal.
Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 11: 79-118, 2023.
Available:https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2023.111006

Peer-Review History:
This chapter was reviewed by following the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. This chapter was thoroughly checked to
prevent plagiarism. As per editorial policy, a minimum of two peer-reviewers reviewed the manuscript. After review and
revision of the manuscript, the Book Editor approved the manuscript for final publication. Peer review comments,
comments of the editor(s), etc. are available here: https://peerreviewarchive.com/review-history/8301E

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