Biosensor

❖ Definition: A self-contained integrated device that is capable of producing quantitative and

semi-quantitative analytic information using a biological recognition element which is in direct
special contact with a transduction element.
 Basic operation of Biosensor
❖ First biological recognition element which highly specific towards the biological
receptors forms bonding.
❖ Second transducers detect and transduces signal from biological target - receptor
molecule to electrical signal which is due to reaction occur.
❖ Third after transduction signal from biological to electrical signal where its
amplification is necessary and takes place and read out in detector after processing
the values are displayed for monitor and controlling the system .
 IDEAL SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
Sensitivity:
❖ Sensitivity is typically defined as the ratio of output
change for a given change in input.
❖ A high sensitivity implies that a small change in input
quantity causes a large change in its output.
❖ if the calibration line is linear, the sensitivity is
constant, whereas the sensitivity will vary with the input
when the calibration is nonlinear
❖ It is also defined as the smallest change in the input quantity that will result in a
detectable change in sensor output.
❖ For example-a temperature sensor may have a sensitivity of 20 mV/C; that is, the
output of this sensor will change by 20 mV for 1 degree change in input temperature.
Range:
❖ The range of a sensor corresponds to the minimum and maximum operating limits
that the sensor is expected to measure accurately.
❖ For example, a temperature sensor may have a nominal performance over an
operating range of -200 to +500 degree Celsius.
Offset:
❖ Offset refers to the output value when the input is zero
Linearity:
❖ A Linear response means that if we plot the input signal vs. the output reading then
we will get straight line
Accuracy:
❖ Accuracy refers to the difference between the true value and the actual value
measured by the sensor.
❖ Typically, accuracy is expressed as a ratio between the preceding difference and
the true value and is specified as a percent of full-scale reading.

Precision:
❖ Precision refers to the degree of measurement reproducibility.
❖ Very reproducible readings indicate a high precision.
❖ Precision should not be confused with accuracy. For example, measurements may
be highly precise but not necessary accurate.
Resolution:
❖ When the input quantity is increased from some arbitrary nonzero value, the
output of a sensor may not change until a certain input increment is exceeded.
❖ Accordingly, resolution is defined as the smallest distinguishable input change
that can be detected with certainty.
Response time:
❖ The response time indicates the time it takes a sensor to reach a certain percent
(e.g.,95 percent) of its final steady-state value when the input is changed.
❖ For example, it may take 20 seconds for a temperature sensor to reach 95 percent
of its maximum value when a change in temperature of 1 degree is measured.
❖ Ideally, a short response time indicates the ability of a sensor to respond quickly to
changes in input quantities.
Drift:
❖ Drift refers to the change in sensor reading when the input remains constant.
❖ Offset drift: the output of a pressure transducer may
depend not only on pressure but also on temperature.
Therefore, variations in temperature can produce changes
in output readings even if the input pressure remains zero.
❖ Sensitivity drift: for a pressure transducer, repeating the
measurements over a range of temperatures will reveal how
much the slope of the input-output calibration line varies
with temperature
Hysteresis:
❖ In some sensors, the input-output characteristic follows a different nonlinear trend,
depending on whether the input quantity increases or decreases
❖ When the measurement is not perfectly reversible, the sensor is said to exhibit
hysteresis.
❖ If a sensor exhibits hysteresis, the input-output relation is not unique but depends
on the direction change in the input quantity.
 What is an electrical transducer ?
❖ An electrical transducer is a device which transforms a nonelectrical physical quantity (i.e.
temperature, sound or light) into an electrical signal (i.e. voltage, current, capacity…)
❖ In other word it is a device that is capable of converting the physical quantity into a
proportional other types of measureable quantity.
❖ The process of converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction.
❖ Some common examples of transducers include loudspeakers, microphones, thermometers and
LEDs.
 Why need a transducer ?

❖ To determine the exact magnitude of physical forces such as temperature and pressure is
difficult.
❖ But, if these physical forces are converted into an electrical signal, then their values can be
easily determined using a meter.
❖ The primary function of transducers is to convert a physical force into an electrical signal so
that it can be easily handled and transmitted for measurement.
 Advantages
•Electrical signals are easily transmitted and processed for measurement.
•Electrical signals process less friction error.
•Small power is needed to control the electrical systems.
•Amplification of electrical signals are easy.
•The measuring instrument used for measuring the electrical signal is very compact and accurate.
 Characteristics of Transducers
❖ The static characteristics of a transducer is a set of performance criteria that are established through
static calibration i.e. description of the quality of measurement by essentially maintaining the measured
quantities as constant values of varying very slowly.

Following is a list of some of the important static characteristics of transducers.

•Sensitivity
•Linearity
•Resolution
•Precision
•Span and Range
•Threshold
•Drift
•Stability
•Responsiveness
•Repeatability
•Input Impedance and Output Impedance
 Characteristics of Transducers
•The dynamic characteristics of transducers relate to its performance when the measured quantity
is a function of time i.e. it varies rapidly with respect to time.
•Dynamic Error
•Fidelity
•Speed of Response
•Bandwidth
 Parts of Transducer
A transducer consists of the following two important parts:
•Sensing element
•Transduction element
Transducers have other vital parts such as signal processing equipment, amplifiers and power
supplies.

Sensing Element
It is the part of a transducer that responds to the physical sensation. The response of the sensing
element depends on the physical phenomenon.
Transduction Element
The transduction element of the transducer converts the output of the sensing element into an
electrical signal. The transduction element is also called the secondary transducer.
 Types of Transducers

There are two types of transducers based on function, as follows:

•Input Transducer
•Output Transducer
 Input Transducers
•An input transducer or a sensor takes in physical energy and converts it into an electrical signal
that can be read. A microphone, for example, converts physical sound waves into an electrical
signal that can be transferred through wires.
 Output Transducers
•An output transducer, or an actuator, takes in electrical signals and converts them
into other forms of energy.
•A lamp converts electricity into light and a motor, on the other hand, converts
electricity into motion.
 Transducer efficiency
❖ Transducer efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power in the desired form to the total power input.
Mathematically, the ratio is represented as follows:

❖ P represents the input in the above ratio, and Q represents the power output in the desired form. The efficiency of
the transducer always falls between 0 and 1.
❖ No transducer is 100% efficient; some power is always lost in the conversion process. This loss is manifested in
the form of heat. In incandescent lamps of certain wattage, only a few watts are transformed into visible light.
Most of the power is dissipated as heat. Due to this, an incandescent lamp is a bad transducer in terms of
efficiency.
 Application of Transducer
•They are used to detect the movement of muscles; this process is known as acceleromyograph.
•Transducers are used in an ultrasound machine.
•The transducers in a speaker convert electrical signals into acoustic sound.
•A transducer is used in the antenna to convert electromagnetic waves into an electrical signal.
Transducer Vs. Sensors
 Inductive Displacement Transducers
❑Inductive displacement transducers are based on the inductance L of a coil given by

❑where µ is the permeability of the magnetically susceptible medium inside the coil (in henry per
meter), n is the number of coil turns (in turns per meter), l is the coil length (in meters), and A is
the cross-sectional area of the coil (in square meters).
❑These types of transducers measure displacement by changing either the self-inductance of a
single coil or the mutual inductance coupling between two or more stationary coils, typically by
the displacement of a ferrite or iron core in the bore of the coil assembly. A widely used
inductive displacement transducer is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) shown
in Figure
Inductive Displacement Transducers
 Strain Gauge Transducers
❑ Strain gauges are displacement-type transducers that measure changes in the length of an object
as a result of an applied force. These transducers produce a resistance change that is
proportional to the fractional change in the length of the object, also called strain, S, which is
defined as

❑ where Δl is the fractional change in length, and l is the initial length of the object. Examples
include resistive wire elements and certain semiconductor materials.
 Capacitive Transducers
❑ The capacitance, C (in farad), between two equal-size parallel plates of cross-sectional area, A,
separated by a distance, d, is given by

❑ where eo is the dielectric constant of free space (8.85 x 10^-12 F/m), and er is the relative dielectric
constant of the insulating material placed between the two plates. The method that is most commonly
employed to measure displacement is to change the separation distance, d, between a fixed and a
movable plate, as illustrated in Figure. This arrangement can be used to measure force, pressure, or
acceleration.
Bio-electrodes
 Introduction
• In order to measure and record potentials (currents) in the body, it is
necessary to provide some interface between the body and the
electronic measuring apparatus.
• Current flows in the measuring circuit for at least a fraction of the
period of time over which the measurement is made.
• Biopotential electrodes is a transducer that convert the body ionic
current in the body into the traditional electronic current flowing Electrolyte skin interface
in the electrode.
• Current is carried in the body by ions, whereas it is carried in the electrode and its lead wire by
electrons.
• Electrodes have electrical characteristics and can be modelled with equivalent circuits based on this
characteristics.
Electrode change an ionic current into an electronic current

2
❖ To understand the passage of electric current from the body to an electrode, electrode-
electrolyte interface is examined.

Electrode-Electrolyte interface

❖ A net current, I, that crosses the interface, passing from the

electrode to the electrolyte, consists of
(1) electrons moving in a direction opposite to that of the
current in the electrode,
(2) cations (denoted by C+) moving in the same direction as the
current, and
(3) anions (denoted by A-) moving in a direction opposite to that of the current in the electrolyte.
❖ For charge to cross the interface-there are no free electrons in the electrolyte and no free
cations or anions in the electrode----something must occur at the interface that transfer
the charge between these carrier. What actually occurs is chemical reaction-
𝑪 ↔ 𝑪𝒏+ + 𝒏𝒆−
where n is the valence of C.
Assumption:
✓The electrode is made up of some atoms of the same material
as the cations and that this material in the electrode at the
interface can become oxidized to form a cation and one or more
free electrons
✓The cation is discharged into the electrolyte; the electron remains as a charge carrier in the
electrode.
❖ Again anions can come to the electrode–electrolyte interface that can be oxidized to a neutral
atom, giving off one or more free electrons to the electrode.
𝑨𝒎− = 𝑨 ↔ 𝒎𝒆−
m is the valence of A
❖ When the current flow is from electrode to electrolyte, the oxidation reactions dominate. When
the current is in the opposite direction, the reduction reactions dominate.
❖ Depending on the electrode, electrolyte and other factors cations from the electrolyte can come
to the electrode-electrolyte interface and take off free electrons from the electrode
becomes neutral deposit into the electrode.
❖ Note that both reactions are often reversible. As a matter of
Fact, when no current is crossing the electrode-electrolyte
interface, these reactions often still occur. But-
Rate of Oxidation reaction

Rate of Reduction reaction

Results in Equilibrium happens & net transfer of charge
across the interface is zero.
 Half-cell Potential

❖ As reactions reach equilibrium, no current flows between the electrode and the electrolyte.so
the rates of oxidation and reduction at the interface are equal.
❖ Under these conditions, a characteristic potential difference called equilibrium half-cell
potential is established by the electrode and its surrounding electrolyte which depends on the
metal, concentration of ions in solution and temperature (and some second order factors) .
❖ Equilibrium half-cell potential results from the distribution of ionic concentration in the
vicinity of the electrode–electrolyte interface.
 Half-cell Potential

❖ Oxidation or reduction reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface lead to a double-charge

layer, similar to that which exists along electrically active biological cell membranes.
❖ The electrolyte surrounding the metal is at a different electric potential from the rest of the
solution.
❖ Half-cell potential cannot be measured without a second electrode. It is physically impossible
to measure the potential of a single electrode: only the difference between the potentials of
two electrodes can be measured.
❖ Hydrogen electrode is used as reference electrode. The half-cell potential of the standard
hydrogen electrode has been arbitrarily set to zero. Other half cell potentials are expressed as
a potential difference
 Polarization
If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte, the observed half cell potential is often
altered due to polarization. The difference is due to polarization of the electrode.
Overpotentiall
Difference between observed and
zero-current half cell potentials

Resistance Concentration Activation

Current changes resistance of Changes in distribution of ions at the The activation energy barrier depends
electrolyte and thus a voltage drop interface on the direction of current

𝑽𝑷 = 𝑽𝑹 + 𝑽𝑪 + 𝑽𝑨 + 𝑬𝟎

Polarization and impedance of the electrode are two of the most important electrode
properties to consider.
 Ohmic Overpotential
❖ Direct result of the resistance of the electrolyte.

❖ When a current passes between two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, there is a voltage
drop along the path of the current in the electrolyte as a result of its resistance.

❖ This drop in voltage is proportional to the current and the resistivity of the electrolyte.
 Concentration Overpotential
❖ Results from changes in the distribution of ions in the electrolyte in the vicinity of the
electrode–electrolyte interface.

❖ When a current is established, the rates of oxidation and reduction at the interface are no longer
equal.
❖ Thus it is reasonable to expect the concentration of ions to change.
❖ This change results in a different half-cell potential at the electrode. The difference between
this and the equilibrium half-cell potential is the concentration overpotential.
 Activation Overpotential
❖ The charge-transfer processes involved in the oxidation–reduction reaction are not entirely
reversible.
❖ In order for metal atoms to be oxidized to metal ions that are capable of going into solution, the
atoms must overcome an energy barrier which governs the kinetics of the reaction.
❖ The reverse reaction—in which a cation is reduced, thereby plating out an atom of the metal on
the electrode—also involves an activation energy, but it does not necessarily have to be the
same as that required for the oxidation reaction.
❖ When there is a current between the electrode and the electrolyte, either oxidation or reduction
predominates, and hence the height of the energy barrier depends on the direction of the
current.
❖ This difference in energy appears as a difference in voltage between the electrode and the
electrolyte, which is known as the activation overpotential.
 Polarizable and Non-Polarizable Electrodes

Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes

These are electrodes in which no crosses in the electrode-electrolyte interface when a current is
applied. the electrode behaves like a capacitor. Example: Platinum Electrode (Noble metal)

Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode

These are electrodes where current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte interface,
requiring no energy to make the transition. These electrodes see no overpotentials.
Example : Ag/AgCl electrode

No electrode is perfectly polarizable or non-polarizable.

Approximation Used !
 Polarizable and Non-Polarizable Electrodes

• Generally considered, non-polarizable electrodes are used for recording biopotentials and
polarizable electrodes are better suited for transient electrical stimulation.

• Polarizable electrodes can be used to record biopotential but as they behave like capacitors, they
are better suited for higher frequency measurements.
 Electrode behaviour and circuit model
❖ Current–voltage characteristics of the electrode–electrolyte interface are found to be nonlinear,
❖ Nonlinear elements are required for modelling electrode behaviour.
❖ Characteristics of an electrode are sensitive to the current passing through the electrode,
❖ Electrode characteristics at relatively high current densities can be considerably different from those at
low current densities.
❖ Characteristics of electrodes are also waveform-dependent.
❖ When sinusoidal currents are used to measure the electrode’s circuit behaviour, the characteristics are
also frequency-dependent.
❖ For sinusoidal inputs, the terminal characteristics of an electrode have both a resistive and a reactive
component.
Distribution of ionic charge Leakage resistance at
Resistance of electrolyte
at interface interface
❖ If we start modelling with series resistance-capacitance, then the equivalent circuit breaks
down at the lower frequencies as impedance going to infinity as the frequency approaches to
DC.
❖ To avoid this problem, we can convert the series RC circuit with parallel RC circuit that has a
purely resistive impedance at very low frequencies.
❖ We can combine the circuit with the voltage source representing the half cell potential & the
series resistance representing the resistance of the electrolyte ( as shown in figure)
❖ Here, Cd represents the capacitance across the double layer of charge at the electrode-
electrolyte interface.
❖ Rd represents the parallel leakage resistance across the double layer.
❖ Rs is the resistance of the electrolyte
❖ All the components of this equivalent circuit have values determined by the electrode material
and its geometry, and—to a lesser extent– by the material of the electrode and its concentration.
 Electrode impedance is frequency-dependent
❖ At high frequencies, where 1/wC<< Rd, the impedance is constant at Rs.
❖ At low frequencies, where 1/wC>> Rd, the impedance is again constant but its value is larger,
being Rs+ Rd.
❖ At frequencies between these extremes, the electrode impedance is frequency-dependent.
 Electrode-skin interface
❖ Interface between the electrode–electrolyte and the skin needs to be considered to understand the behaviour of the
electrodes.
❖ In coupling an electrode to the skin, we generally use transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl- as the principal
anion to maintain good contact.
❖ The interface between this gel and the electrode is an electrode–electrolyte interface which is discussed earlier.
❖ However, the interface between the electrolyte and the skin is different. To understand this first we have to
understand the structure of skin.
❖ Three layers: (i) Epidermis (ii) Dermis & (ii) Subcutaneous layer
❖ Epidermis has three sublayers–
Stratum Deepest layer, Cells divide & grow
Germinativum

Stratum Cells begin to die & lose nuclear material

Granulosum

Stratum Dead material on the skin surface

Corneum
 Electrical equivalent circuit of body-surface electrode
❖ Considering stratum corneum, as a membrane that is semipermeable to ions, so if there is a difference in ionic
concentration across this membrane, there is a potential difference Ese, which is given by the Nernst equation.

❖ Epidermal layer has an electric impedance that behaves as a parallel RC circuit.

❖ The dermis and the subcutaneous layer under it behave in general as pure resistances. They generate negligible dc
potentials.
❖ There also is a parallel RpCp combination in series with this potential that represents the wall
of the sweat gland and duct, as shown by the broken lines.
❖ These components are considered when the electrodes are used to measure the electrodermal
response or GSR
❖ These components are often neglected when we consider biopotential electrodes
 Motion artifact

❖ If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one moves with respect to the other, a potential
difference appears across the electrodes known as the motion artifact. This is a source of noise
and interference in bio-potential measurements.
❖ When the electrode moves with respect to the electrolyte, the distribution of the double layer of
charge on polarizable electrode interface changes. This changes the half-cell potential
temporarily.
❖ Note: Motion artifact is minimal for non-polarizable electrodes (Measurement electrodes –
AgCl).
Electrolyte gel is used for good contact between electrode and skin during ECG
(biopotential) measurements.
✓ What is the equivalent circuit when the gel is fresh?
✓ For prolong ambulatory recording, the gel can dry. How would be equivalent circuit change?
✓ How would be equivalent circuit change if the gel completely dries?
✓ And how would this affect the ECG recording?
Answer:
✓ The equivalent circuit model of an electrode with electrolyte gel coupling it to the skin is
shown at the slide. When the electrode is wetted by the electrolyte gel, Rs & Rd will have their
minimum value since there will be a large surface area coupling the electrode to the skin. Rs
will be at minimum value because the electrolyte at the interface, consisting primarily of the
gel, will be a relatively good conductor. Cd will have its greatest value since the area of contact
between the electrode the electrolyte will be large.
✓ As the electrolyte gel begins to dry, Rs will increase as the effective conductance of the
electrolyte decreases as a result of decreasing contact area with the electrolyte solution. There
will also be a decease conductivity of the electrolyte solution resulting from lower effective ion
mobility due to increased concentration and salt precipitation. Rd will increase and Cd will
decrease because of decrease in effective electrode contact area.
✓ When completely dry Rd will be infinite or nearly infinite and Cd will be quite small. Under
these circumstances, the equivalent circuit will reduce to a series combination of the new Rs
and the new Cd denoted by prime as indicated below.

✓ ECG will lose its low frequency components because Capacitor breaks down at low frequency
resulting in high pass filter.
 Bio-electrodes placement procedure
•The skin is first cleaned by rubbing alcohol
•All hair at that portion is removed.
•A jelly is then applied and the electrode is placed.
•Due to the movement of electrodes, noise signals are generated. They are
referred to as artifacts. To avoid artifacts and establish a low impedance path,
an electrolyte or a jelly is applied to the area where the electrodes make contact.
 Bio-electrodes properties
•They should be good conductors
•They should have low impedance
•They should not polarize when a current flows through them
•They should establish a good contact with the body and not cause motion
•Potentials generated at the metal electrolyte (jelly) surface should be low.
•They should not cause itching, swelling or discomfort to the patient for
example the metal should not be toxic
•They should be mechanically rugged
•They should be chemically inert
•They should be easy clean
 Electrode materials
The materials used to make Electrodes include:
•Aluminium (Al)
•Copper (Cu)
•Silver (Ag)
•Gold (Au)
•Platinum (Pt)
 Bio-electrodes
•Bioelectric events have to be picked up from the surface of the body before they
can be put to the amplifier for subsequent record or display. This is done by use
of electrodes. The potentials produced at different points are measured by
placing electrodes at various points on the body.

Bioelectrodes can be classified as:

•Surface electrodes: These electrodes pick up potentials from the surface of the
tissue.
•Deep seated electrodes: These electrodes are inserted inside a live tissue or
cell.
•When a measurement is made outside the body by placing surface electrodes it
is called in vitro measurement. When measurement is made by inserting a
needle electrode inside the tissue, it is called in vivo measurement.
 Types
The three basic types of biopotential electrodes used in biomedical
measurements are:
1.Microelectrodes
2.Skin surface electrodes
3.Needle electrodes
 Types
Microelectrodes:
These electrodes are designed to measure bioelectric potentials near or within
the cell. These electrodes are much smaller in cross-sectional area as compared
to the size of the cell in which they are to be inserted so that their penetration
should not damage the cell. A cell is rarely larger than 500 microns, therefore
these microelectrodes should have tip dimension of about 5 microns and the tip
should be strong enough to penetrate the cell without damage.

Microelectrodes can be of two types:

•Metal
•Micropipette
 Types
METAL MICROELECTRODES
Metal microelectrodes are formed from a fine needle of a suitable metal down
to a fine tip. Then the needle is coated almost to the tip with an insulating
material. These electrodes are used to measure the biopotential from the
metal-electrolyte interface i.e. the electrode potential is developed across the
metal-electrolyte interface which is proportional to the exchange of ions
between the metal and the electrolyte of the body.
 Types
MICROPIPETTE MICROELECTRODE
The Micropipette microelectrode is a microcapillary made of glass which is
filled with an electrolyte as shown in the figure below:
 Metal Vs. Micropipette
• The metal microelectrodes are used in direct contact with the cell and they
have lower resistance. However, these electrodes tend to develop unstable
electrode offset potentials. The micropipette microelectrodes have a dual
interface; one interface is formed by metal wire in contact with the
electrolyte solution filled in the micropipette while the other interface is
formed between the electrolyte inside the micropipette and the fluids inside
or immediately outside the cell.
• The micropipette microelectrodes tend to develop stable electrode offset
potentials and thus preferred where steady-state potentials measurements
are required however metal microelectrodes have advantages too such as:
✓ Lower impedance
✓ Infinite shelf life
✓ Repeatable and reproducible performance
✓ Easy cleaning and maintenance
 Types
Body Surface Electrodes
• These electrodes are designed to measure ECG, EEG, and EMG potentials from the
surface of the skin; hence these electrodes are least traumatic.
• Body Surface electrodes are designed and used to measure bioelectric potentials
from the surface of the body. They are available in many forms and sizes. The larger
electrodes are usually used for sensing of ECG potentials as these measurements do
not depend on the specific localization of the electrodes.
• However, for sensing of EEG and EMG potentials, smaller electrodes are used as
sensing for them depends upon the location of electrode or measurement.
• Metal plate and suction cup type electrodes are body surface electrodes but they
have a common problem or the possibility of slippage or movement.
• These electrodes are sensitive to movements hence produce incorrect
measurements on shifting. To avoid this problem, the floating electrodes are used.
The principle of the floating electrode is to eliminate the movement artifacts (false
signals) by avoiding any direct contact of the metal electrode with the skin. The
contact between the metal electrode and skin is maintained by the electrolyte paste
or jelly.
Types
 Types
Examples of surface electrodes include:
•Limb electrode
•Disposal electrode
•Pre-gelled electrode
•Circular electrode
Types
 Silver/Silver chloride electrode
❖ Ag/AgCl is a practical electrode that approaches the characteristics of a perfectly nonpolarizable
electrode.
❖ Can be easily fabricated in the laboratory.
❖ Consists of a metal coated with a layer of a slightly
soluble ionic compound of that metal with a suitable anion.
❖ Whole structure is immersed in an electrolyte containing the
anion in relatively high concentrations.

❖ The behaviour of Ag/Agcl electrode can be best governed by two chemical reactions:
𝑨𝒈 ↔ 𝑨𝒈+ + 𝒆−
𝑨𝒈+ + 𝑪𝒍− ↔ 𝑨𝒈𝑪𝒍 ↓
❖ The second reaction occurs immediately after the formation of 𝑨𝒈+ ions and creates AgCl that is
precipitated.
 Types
Needle Electrodes
• They are generally made of stainless steel.
• These electrodes are designed to penetrate the skin surface of the body to
some depth to record EEG potentials of a region of the brain
or EMG potentials of a muscle.
• These electrodes have to be sharp and small like subdermal needles which
help them to easily penetrate the scalp for measuring the EEG potentials.
They are required to penetrate up to some surface at certain depth of the skin
which is parallel to the surface of the brain or muscle.
 Biomedical Instrumentation

• Diagnosis and therapy depend heavily on the

use of medical instrumentation.

• Medical procedures:
Medicine can be defined as a multistep
procedure on an individual by a physician,
group of physician, or an institute, repeated
until the symptoms disappear

65
The Importance of Biomedical Instrumentation

• Medical procedure

1 Collection of data - qualitative and/or quantitative

2 Analysis of data

3 Decision making

4 Treatment planning based on the decision

66
Biomedical Instrumentation System

• All biomedical instruments must interface with biological

materials. That interface can by direct contact or by
indirect contact

67
Components of BM Instrumentation System

• A sensor
• Detects biochemical, bioelectrical, or biophysical
parameters
• Provides a safe interface with biological materials
• An actuator
• Delivers external agents via direct or indirect
contact
• Controls biochemical, bioelectrical, or biophysical
parameters
• Provides a safe interface with biologic materials

68
 Components of BM Instrumentation System

• The electronics interface

• Matches electrical characteristics of the sensor/actuator with
computation unit
• Preserves signal to noise ratio of sensor
• Preserves efficiency of actuator
• Preserves bandwidth (i.e., time response) of sensor/actuator
• Provides a safe interface with the sensor/actuator
• Provides a safe interface with the computation unit
• Provides secondary signal processing functions for the system

69
Components of BM Instrumentation System

• The computation unit

• provides primary user interface
• provides primary control for the overall system
• provides data storage for the system
• provides primary signal processing functions for
the system
• maintains safe operation of the overall system

70
Problems Encountered in Measuring a Living
System

• Many crucial variables in living systems are

inaccessible.
• Variables measured are seldom deterministic.
• Nearly all biomedical measurements depend on the
energy.
• Operation of instruments in the medical environment
imposes important additional constraints.

71
 The Scientific Method

• In the scientific method, a hypothesis is

tested by experiment to determine its validity.

Problem Review State Perform

statement prior work hypothesis experiments

Design further Analyze Final

experiments data conclusions
More
Problem
experiments
solved
necessary

72
 Clinical Diagnoses
• Physicians often need instrumentation to obtain data
as part of the scientific method.
• For example, a physician obtaining the history of a
patient with a complaint of poor vision would list
diabetes as one possibility on a differential
diagnosis.

List the Treatment

Chief Obtain Examination
differential and
complaint history and tests
diagnosis evaluation

Use data
Select further Final
to narrow the
tests diagnosis
diagnosis
More than Only one
one likely likely

73
 Feedback in Measurement Systems
• Figure shows that the measurand is measured by a
sensor converting the variable to an electrical signal,
which can undergo signal processing. Sometimes the
measurement system provides feedback through an
effector to the subject.

Outputs

Signal Signal Data

Sensor
Measurand conditioning processing displays

Feedback
Data Data
Effector
storage communication

74
Classifications of Biomedical Instruments

• The sensed quantity

• The principle of transduction
• The organ system for measurement
• The clinical medicine specialities
• Based on the activities involved in the medical care,
medical instrumentation may be divided into three
categories:
• Diagnostic devices
• Therapeutic devices
• Monitoring devices

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Generalized Medical Instrumentation System

76
Generalized Medical Instrumentation System

• Measurand
• Physical quantity, property, or condition that the
system measures
• Bio-potential
• Pressure
• Flow
• Dimension (imaging)
• Displacement (velocity, acceleration, and force)
• Impedance
• Temperature
• Chemical concentrations

77
 Errors in measurements
• When we measure a variable, we seek to determine the true value, as shown in
Figure.
• This true value may be corrupted by a variety of errors. For example
• Movement of electrodes on the skin may cause an undesired added voltage
called an artifact.
• Electric and magnetic fields from the power lines may couple into the wires
and cause an undesired added voltage called interference
• Thermal voltages in the amplifier semiconductor junctions may cause an
undesired added random voltage called noise. Temperature changes in the
amplifier electronic components may cause undesired slow changes in
voltage called drift.
• We must evaluate each of these error sources to determine their size and what
we can do to minimize them.

78
 Errors in measurements

(a) Signals without noise are uncorrupted.

(b) Interference superimposed on signals causes error.
Frequency filters can be used to reduce noise and interference.

(a) (b)

79
 Errors in measurements

(a) Original waveform.

(b) An interfering input may shift the baseline.
(c) A modifying input may change the gain.

(a) (b) (c)

80
Common Physical Measurements
Figure 2