23U402 Electrical and Electronic

Measurements

Presented By
Mrs. LATHAMARY A (Sr.Gr)
Assistant Professor
Dept of I&CE
PSG College of Technology
 INTRODUCTION
OF
MESUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS
What is Electrical ?

What is Electronics ?
Basis For Comparison Electrical Device Electronics Device
Definition It is defined as the device which The device which controls the
uses the electrical energy for flow of electrons for performing
performing the work. the particular task is known as
the electronics devices.

Material Used Metals like copper and aluminum Semiconductor material like
are used for the conduction of silicon, germanium etc.
current.
Operating Principle Convert the electrical energy into Uses the electrical energy for
other forms of energy. performing the particular task.

Current Alternating Current Direct Current

Voltage Works on high voltage. Works on low voltage
Power consumption More Less
Manipulation Do not manipulate the data It manipulates the data.
Response Time Fast Slow
Required Space More Less
Safe Less More
Uses For doing mechanical work. For amplifying the weak signal or
for coding and decoding the
information.
Examples Transformer, motor, generator Transistor, diode, microprocessor,
etc. flip-flop, amplifier, etc.
 CHAPTER - I

MEASUREMENT ERROR ANALYSIS

 Measurement System
Instrument
Accuracy
Precision
Sensitivity
Resolution
Error
Hysteresis
Classification of Measuring
Instruments
Classification of Measuring Instruments
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified
according to the kind of quantity, kind of current, principle of
operation of moving system.

CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

• Secondary instruments can be classified into three
types;
i. Indicating instruments;
ii. Recording instruments;
iii. Integrating instruments.

Mrs.V.S.KharoteChavan,E&Tc,PC poly 10
 CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an electrical
quantity at the time when it is being measured. The
indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated
dial.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a
continuous record of the variations of the magnitude of an
electrical quantity to be observed over a defined period of
time.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the total
amount of either quantity of electricity or electrical energy
supplied over a period of time. For example energy meters.
How it’s Working?
A simple feedback control system
Generalized Instrumentation System
The First Law of Measurements

A good measuring strategy is reliable

and, because it is reliable,
it has a small amount of error in its observations.
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

• No electronic component or instrument is perfectly accurate.

• No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy but it is
important to find out what accuracy actually is and how different
errors have entered into the measurement.
• The choice of an instrument for a particular application depends
upon the accuracy desired
• The accuracy and precision of an instrument depends upon its
design, the material used and the workmanship that goes into
making the instrument.
• A study of errors is the ways to reduce them first step in finding
ways to reduce them
• All have some error or inaccuracy. It is important to
understand how these errors are specified and how they
combine to create even greater errors in measurement
systems
• Error of measurement refers to the difference between the
measurement we obtain and the "true" value of the variable.
• Any measurement made with any measuring instrument gives
a certain degree of uncertainty. This uncertainty is referred to
as an error.
• The deviation of the measured quantity from the actual
quantity or true value is called error.
E = Am – At
• where E is the error, Am is the measured quantity and At is the
true value.
Types of Errors
 1. Gross Errors
• This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading
instruments and recording and calculating measurement results.
• The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the
experimenter. The experimenter, may grossly misread the scale.
– For example due to an oversight, read the temperature as
31.5°C while the actual reading may be 21 .5°C. He may
transpose the reading while recording. For example he may
read 25.3°C and record 23.5°c.
• But as long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will
definitely be committed. Although complete elimination of gross
errors is probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and
correct them.
• Some gross errors are easily detected while others may be very
difficult to detect.
Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore their
mathematical analysis is impossible.
However, they can be avoided by adopting two means. They are:
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2. Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the
quantity under measurement.
• These readings should be taken preferably by different
experimenters and the readings should be taken at a different
reading point to avoid re-reading with the same error.
• It should he understood that no reliance be placed on a single
reading.
• It is always advisable to take a large number of readings as a
close agreement between readings assures that no gross error
has been committed.
 2. Systematic Errors
• The systematic errors are mainly due to short comings of the
instrument and characteristics of the material used in the
instrument such as defective or worn parts, aging effects,
environmental effects etc
• A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is
known as a systematic error
• These types of errors are divided into three categories :
 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
2. Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to three main reasons :
– (i) Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument
– (ii) Due to misuse of the instruments,
– (iii) Due to loading effects of instrμments.
Problem:

A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V reads

100V on its 150 V scale when connected across an
unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter.
When the milli-ammeter reads 5 mA, calculate
(a) apparent resistance of the unknown resistor,
(b) actual resistance of the unknown resistor,
(c) error due to the loading effect of voltmeter.
Additional Errors
 Definition
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Sensitivity
4. Resolution
5. Uncertainty
6. Anomalies
7. Repeatable
8. Reproducible
9. Validity
10. tolerance
• Accuracy: The closeness of a measured value to the actual or true
value.
– Example: If a thermometer reads 37.0°C when measuring the
temperature of boiling water (100.0°C), it is not accurate.
However, if another thermometer reads 99.8°C, it is more
accurate.
• Precision: The ability of a measurement to produce consistent results
when repeated under the same conditions, regardless of accuracy.
– Example: A weighing scale that consistently measures an object’s
weight as 5.01 kg, 5.02 kg, and 5.00 kg is precise, even if the true
weight is 5.50 kg (which means it's not accurate).

• Sensitivity: The ability of a measurement instrument to detect small

changes in the measured quantity.
– Example: A digital scale with a sensitivity of 0.01 g can detect a
change from 100.01 g to 100.02 g, whereas a scale with a 1 g
sensitivity might not detect this change.
• Resolution: The smallest measurable increment that an instrument
can detect.
– Example: A ruler with millimeter markings has a resolution of 1
mm, while a micrometer with 0.01 mm resolution can measure
much finer details.
• Uncertainty: The range within which the true value of a
measurement is expected to lie, often due to instrument limitations
or environmental factors.
– Example: A speedometer reading 60 km/h ± 2 km/h means the
actual speed could be between 58 km/h and 62 km/h.
• Anomalies: Unexpected or irregular values in a dataset that deviate
significantly from the expected trend. These are values in a set of
results which are judged not to be part of the variation caused by
random uncertainty.
– Example: If a scientist measures room temperature five times and
records 22.1°C, 22.2°C, 22.0°C, 30.5°C, 22.1°C, the 30.5°C reading
is an anomaly.
• Repeatable: When the same experiment or measurement
produces consistent results under identical conditions.
– Example: A stopwatch measuring the time of a falling object
consistently as 2.01s, 2.02s, and 2.01s in repeated trials is
repeatable.
• Reproducible: The ability of a measurement to be obtained
consistently by different operators, using different equipment, or
under different conditions.
– Example: If two labs measure the sugar content of the same
solution and get similar results (10.2 g/L and 10.3 g/L), the
measurement is reproducible.
• Validity: The extent to which a measurement truly represents
what it is intended to measure.
– Example: A thermometer used to measure body
temperature is valid for that purpose, but not valid for
measuring air pressure.
• Tolerance: The acceptable range of variation in a
measurement that ensures it remains within functional or
specification limits.
– Example: A machine part with a diameter of 10.00 mm ±
0.05 mm must be between 9.95 mm and 10.05 mm to be
acceptable.
Thank You…