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 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral
6.1 Antidifferentiation  1   2 1 1
  x  2 x  dx    x  2 x    dx
2
17. 
3x 3 x
1 2
1. f  x   x  F ( x)  x C 1 1
2   xdx  2  x dx   dx
2
3 x
1 2 2 3 1
2. f  x   9 x 8  F ( x)  x 9  C  x  x  ln x  C
2 3 3
1
3. f  x   e 3 x  F ( x)  e 3 x  C  7  7 3 
3 18.   2 x 3  3 x  dx    2 x  x1 3  dx

1 7 3
f  x   e 3 x  F ( x)   e 3 x  C
2
4.  x dx   x1 3dx
3
7  1 1 43
5. f(x) = 3  F(x) = 3x + C     x 2  x C
2  2 1
1
6. f  x   4 x  F ( x)  2 x 2  C 3
7 2 3 4 3
  x  x C
4 4
 4x
3
7. dx  x 4  C
2 x 3
x 1 1 19.  3e dx   e 2 x  C
8.  dx   xdx  x 2  C 2
3 3 6
x
20. e dx   e  x  C
9.  7dx  7 x  C
21.  edx  ex  C
 k dx  k x  C
2 2
10.
7 7 2 x 7
x 1 1 2 22.  2e 2 x dx  2  e dx   e 2 x  C
11.  dx   xdx  x C 4
c c 2c
 2  e 
 1 dx  2 e 2 x dx  2 1dx
2x
23.
1
12.  x  x dx   x dx  x 4  C
2 3
1 
4  2  e 2 x   2 x  C
2 
2 x  1 1   e 2 x  2 x  C
13.   x  2  dx    2  x  2  x  dx
1 1  e 0.5 x 
 2 dx   xdx x
x 2
24. 
 3e  2 x 
2 
dx
1 2
 2 ln x  x  C 1 0.5 x
 3 e  x dx  2  xdx 
2
4 e dx
1 1 1 1 1  1  0.5 x
14.  7 x dx   7  x dx  7 ln x  C  3e  x  x 2   e C
2  0.5 
 3e  x  x 2  e 0.5 x  C
2
x xdx   x 32
15. dx  x 5 2  C
5 d  2t  5
25.  ke   2ke 2t  5e 2t  k  
dt 2
16.
 2
  x



 2 x  dx   2 x 1 2  2 x1 2 dx  d  t /10  1 t /10
26. ke   10 ke  3e t /10  k  30
 2  x 1 2 dx  2  x1 2 dx dt 
4 d  4 x 1  1
 4 x1 2  x 3 2  C 4 x 1
 2e 4 x 1  k 
3
27.
dx 
ke   4ke 2
4 32
 4 x  x C
3

194 Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

 Section 6.1 Antidifferentiation 195

d  k  d   (3 x 1)  1 5
  (3 x 1) f (t )  t 2  5t  7  f (t )  t 3  t 2  7t  C
  3ke
28. ke 40.
dx  e 3 x 1  dx  3 2
4
3ke  (3 x 1)  4e  (3 x 1)  k   41. f ( x)  0.5e 0.2 x  f ( x)  2.5e 0.2 x  C
3
f (0)  0  2.5e 0.20  C  0  C  2.5
d 
29. k (5 x  7) 1    k (5 x  7) 2 (5) Thus, f ( x)  2.5e 0.2 x  2.5.
dx 
 5k (5 x  7) 2  (5 x  7) 2 42. f ( x)  2 x  e  x  f ( x)  x 2  e  x  C
1
k f (0)  1  0 2  e 0  C  1  C  0
5
Thus, f ( x)  x 2  e  x .
d  3
30.  k ( x  1) 3 / 2   k ( x  1)1/ 2  ( x  1)1/ 2 
dx 2 1 2
2 43. f  ( x)  x  f ( x)  x C
k 2
3 1 2
f (0)  3  0  C  3  C  3
d k k 1 2
31.  k ln 4  x   (1)    1
dx 4 x 4 x 4 x Thus, f ( x)  x 2  3 .
k  1 2

d  k  d  44. f ( x)  8 x1/ 3  f ( x)  6 x 4 / 3  C
32.   k (8  x) 3 
dx  (8  x) 3  dx  f (1)  4  6  14 / 3  C  4  C  2
 3k (8  x) 4 (1) Thus, f ( x)  6 x 4 / 3  2 .
 3k (8  x) 4  7(8  x) 4 
7 2 3/ 2
k 45. f ( x)  x1/ 2  1  f ( x)  x  xC
3 3
2 3/ 2
f (4)  0  4 4C  0
d  3
33. k (3 x  2) 5   5k (3x  2) 4 (3)
dx  2
8  4  C  0  C  
28
 15k (3x  2) 4  (3x  2) 4  3 3
1 2 3/ 2 28
k Thus, f ( x)  x x .
15 3 3

d  1 3 2 3/ 2
34. k (2 x  1) 4   4k (2 x  1) 3  2  8k (2 x  1) 3 46. f ( x)  x 2  x1/ 2  f ( x)  x  x C
dx  3 3
1 1 3 2 3/ 2
 (2 x  1) 3  k  f (1)  3  1  1  C  3  C  2
8 3 3
1 3 2 3/ 2
d k 3 Thus, f ( x)  x  x 2.
35. [k ln 2  x ]   k 3 3 3
dx 2 x 2 x
2
d k 47. f ( x)   dx  2 ln x  C
36.  k ln 2  3 x   (3) x
dx  2  3x
3k 5 5 f (1)  2  2 ln 1  C  2  C  2
  k
2  3x 2  3x 3 Thus, f ( x)  2 ln x  2.
2 5/ 2 1 1
37. f (t )  t 3 / 2  f (t )  t C 48. f ( x)   dx  x  C
5 3 3
4 1
38. f (t )   f (t )  4 ln 6  t  C f (6)  3  (6)  C  3  C  1
6t 3
1
39. f (t )  0  f (t )  C Thus, f ( x)  x  1.
3

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

196 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

d 1  1 c. Since s  (t )  96  32t , s(t) has a

49.   C    2  ln x maximum when
dx x x
d s  (t )  0  96  32t  0  t  3.
 x ln x  x  C   (ln x  1)  1  ln x
dx The ball will reach a maximum height of
d 1 2  ln x s(3) = 400 ft.
 (ln x)  C    ln x
dx 2 x
 32t dt  16t
2
56. a. C
The answer is (b).
s(0) = 400 = –16(0) + C  C = 400
d 2 2 
50.  ( x  1)
5/ 2
 ( x  1) 3 / 2  C  Thus, s (t )  16t 2  400 .
dx  5 3 
 ( x  1) 3/ 2
 ( x  1)1/ 2 b. The rock hits the ground when
 x  1( x  1  1)  x x  1 s (t )  16t 2  400  0  16t 2  400 
d 1 2 2 3/ 2  t 2  25  t = 5 seconds.
 x  ( x  1)  C
dx  2 3 
c. v(5) = –32(5) = –160 ft/sec
2 3/ 2 1 2
 x( x  1)  x ( x  1)1/ 2  x x  1
3 2  1 
57. P (t )    60  2t  t 2  dt
The answer is (a).  4 
1
51.  60t  t 2  t 3  C
12
1
P (0)  0  60  0  0 2   0 3  C  0 
12
C0
1
Thus, P (t )  60t  t 2  t 3 .
12
 1 
58. P (t )    40  2t  t 2  dt
52.  5 
1
 40t  t 2  t 3  C
15
Assuming the output is 0 at time t = 0, we
have
1
P (0)  0  40  0  0 2   0 3  C  0 
15
53. g(x) = f(x) + 3 C0
1 1
g  ( x)  f  ( x)  g  (5)  f  (5)  Thus, P (t )  40t  t 2  t 3 .
4 15
54. h(x) = g(x) – f(x) = f(x) + 2 – f(x) = 2 
100 0.4t
h ( x)  0 59. f (t )   10e 0.4t dt   e C
4
 25e 0.4t  C
 (96  32t )dt  96t  16t
2
55. a. C
f (0)  5  25e 0.40  C  5  C  20
The initial height is 256 feet, so C = 256.
Thus, s (t )  16t 2  96t  256 . Thus, f (t )  25e 0.4t  20 and the
temperature at time t is 25e 0.4t  20 C.
b. Setting s(t) = 0, 16t 2  96t  256  0 
t 2  6t  16  0  (t – 8)(t + 2) = 0. The 60. P (t )   (120t  3t 2 ) dt  60t 2  t 3  C
only solution that is sensible is t = 8
seconds. P (0)  100  60  0 2  0 3  C  100  C  100
Thus, P (t )  60t 2  t 3  100 .

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

 Section 6.2 The Definite Integral and Net Change of a Function 197

61. P ( x)   (1.30  .06 x  .0018 x 2 ) dx  C ( x)dx  C ( x)  1000 x  25 x

2
65.  C1
2 3
 1.30 x  .03 x  .0006 x  C C (0)  C1  fixed cost  10, 000 
P (0)  95  1000  0  25  0 2  C1  10, 000  C1  10, 000
1.30  0  .03  0 2  .0006  0 3  C  95 
C ( x)  25 x 2  1000 x  10, 000
C  95
Thus, P ( x)  .0006 x 3  .03 x 2  1.30 x  95 . 66. F ( x)  x 2  50e 0.02 x

62. C ( x)   (.2 x  100) dx  .1x 2  100 x  C

C (0)  200  .1  0 2  100 0  C  200 
C  200
Thus, C ( x)  .1x 2  100 x  200 .
[−10, 10] by [−20, 100]
94 0.016t
63. f (t )   94e 0.016t dt  e C
.016 1 2x 1
67. F ( x)  e  e x  x3
 5875e 0.016t  C 2 6
Since consumption is reckoned from 1980, we
have f(0) = 0 = 5875(1) + C  C = –5875.
Thus,
f (t )  5875e 0.016t  5875  5875 e 0.016t  1 .  
17.04 0.016t [−2.4, 1.7] by [−10, 10]
64. T (t )   17.04e 0.016 x dt  e
0.016 68.
 1065e 0.016t  C
Since consumption is reckoned from 1987, we
have f (0)  0  1065e 0.016t  C  C = –1065.
Thus,
f (t )  1065e 0.016t  1065  1065 e 0.016t  1   [−2, 6] by [−1, 1]

6.2 The Definite Integral and Net Change of a Function

1
1 3  2 3   2 3   2 3  1
1. 0  2 x  4  dx   x  4 x   1  4 1    0  4 0   4
0

2
 x2 2   x3 1 2    23 1   13 1  4  2  6 2
2 2
2.    x  dx    x       2      1         
2
1  3 9   9 9  1   9 9   9 9   9  9  9 3

 3   3t      2  4     48  4  44
4 4 4
 2  4  2 1  2 1
12 32 2 32 2
3. t  4t dt   4t dt  2t 3 2  2t 2
1 1 1

1
 
9 9 9
   2 9   2 1
12 12
4. dx  x 1 2 dx  2 x1 2  62 4
1 x 1 1

 3x  dx  3x 
2 3  2 2 3 3 3

2 1
5.   2  dx      3 
 x 1 2
1 x 1 1 2

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

198 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

8
 x 2 3x4 3   82 3 84 3   12 3 14 3 
   
8 8
13
6.  x  x dx 
3
 x  x dx            
1 1  2 4   2 4   2 4 
1
1 81
 20   
4 4
25 2 x3  2
5 2 x3 
   
2 2
7. 
1

 x6 
 dx  
1 x 6
 6  dx 
x  1
5 x 6  2 x 3 dx   x 5  x 2
1

 1 1   1 1 1 1 7
  5  2    5  2     
 2 2   1 1  32 4 32
4
4 x2  x  4 x 2 x1 2   x2 
 x  x 
4
 
1 2
8.   dx   x  x  dx  dx    2 x1 2 
1  x  1   1  2 1
 42 1 2  1
2
12 1 
   2  4     2 1   8  4    2 
 2   2   2 
 3  11
 4    
 2 2
0
 3 0 02   3 1  1 
2
 t2 
  
0  1 1 1 1
9. 3e  t dt   e3t     e       e   
3t
  1  3     3
1  2  2   2  e 2 2 e
1

2
2  1 
 
2 2 2
10. 
2 e 2t
dt  2  2
e 2t dt  2   e2t   e2t
 2  2 2
 e4  e4

2 2

2
11. dx  2 ln x  2 ln 2  2 ln1  2 ln 2  0  ln 22  ln 4
1 x 1

1  1 
x 1  1 1
12.    dx     1 dx  ln x  x   ln 1  1  ln 2  2  1  ln 2  2  1  ln 2
2  x  
2 x  2

1
1 ex  e0.5 x 1e x e0.5 x   e1.5 x 
 e 
1
 
x 1.5 x
13. dx    2 x  dx  e dx    e x 
0 e2 x 0  e2 x e  0  1.5 
0
 e1.5   0 e0  1 e1.5  1 
  e 1     e       1  
 1.5   1.5  e 1.5  1.5
1 2e1.5 5
  
e 3 3
ln 2
ln 2 e x  e x ln 2  e xe x   e x e x   eln 2 e ln 2   e0 e 0 
14. 
0 2
dx   0
 2


2 
dx   2  2 
 0

 2
  
2   2 2 


2 1  1 1 3
    
 2 2  2   2 2 4

4 1 4
15. 
0
f  x  dx  
0
f  x  dx   1
f  x  dx  3.5  5  8.5

10 10 1
16. 
1
f  x  dx   1
f  x  dx   1
f  x  dx  4  0  4

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

 Section 6.2 The Definite Integral and Net Change of a Function 199

3 3 3 3 3
17.  2 f  x  3g  x dx   2 f  x dx   3g  x dx  2
1 1 1 1
f  x  dx  3  1
g  x  dx  2 3  3  1  9

3 3 3 3 3
18.  2 g  x  f  x dx   2 g  x dx  
0.5 0.5 0.5
f  x  dx  2  0.5
g  x  dx   0.5
f  x  dx 
3 3
4  2 g  x  dx  0   g  x  dx  2
0.5 0.5

 x   6 x  x  2 x  dx   3x  6 x  21 dx
2 1 2 3
2 2 2

2 2 3 2
19. 2  3 x  x  x  dx  3  2 x  7 dx 
1 2 1 1 1

  6 x  x  2 x  3 x  6 x  21 dx
2
2 3 2
1
2
   2 x  4 x  21 dx    x  x  21x 
2
3  1 24  4 3
1  2 3  1
 1 4 4 3   1 4 4 3 
    2   2  21 2     1  1  211 
 2 3   2 3 
134 131 137
  
3 6 6
1 1 1 1
20. 0
4 x  2 dx  3  x  1 dx   4 x  2 dx   3x  3 dx
0 0 0
1 1
 
0
4 x  2  3x  3 dx   7 x  5 dx
0
1
 7x   7 12
2   7 02 
  5x     5 1     5 0 
 2  0  2   2 
7 3
 5 
2 2
1
 14 13    1 13 
4
 x 4 x3 
 x      
0 1 1
3 2 3 2 3 2
21.  x dx  x  x dx  x  x dx            
1 0 1  4 3  4 3   4 3 
1
7 1 2
  
12 12 3
1 2 1 1 2 2
22.  7 x  4 dx  
0 1
7 x  5 dx  
0  4 dx   7 x dx  
7 x dx 
0 1 1
5 dx
1 2 1 2
  7 x dx   7 x dx   4 dx   5 dx
0 1 0 1
2 1 2
  7 x dx   4 dx   5 dx
0 0 1
2 2  7  2 2 7  0 2 
7x
   4 1  4 0  5  2  5 1  23
1 2
  4 x 0  5x 1   
2  2 2 
0

2 x  3 dx   x 2  3x     
3 3
23. f 3  f 1  
1 1
 32  3 3  12  3 1  2

4
f  4  f  2   73 dx  73 x 2  73  4  73  2  146
4
24.
2

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

200 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

 .5t  e 
1  1 1   1 2 1 2 1   1 1 2 1 
f 1  f  1  dt    t 2  e2t     1  e        1  e   
2t 2
25.
1  4 2  1
 4 2   4 2 
1 e 2  1 e 2  e2  e2
     
4 2  4 2  2

3
3 1  2 1  1  1 1 1
f 3  f 0    12t  t  dt   6t  t    6 3  3    6 0  0   54  3  1  55  3
2 2
26.
0 e e 0 e e e e
2
2 1 2 1 2 x2 1 5
 f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx   
1
27. 1 dx  x dx  x 0   1 2  
0 0 1 0 1 2 2 2
1

 1  x  dx   1  x x  3 dx

3 1 3 1 3
 f  x  dx   f  x  dx   f  x  dx  2
28.
0 0 1 0 1
1 3
 x3   x3 
 1  x  dx    
1 3
2
  x 2  4 x  3 dx   x       2 x2  3x 
0 1  3  3 1
0
 1   0     33   13 
  1     0         2 3  3 3      2 1  3 1  
2 2

 3   3     3   3  
2   4 
  0      2
3   3 

1 0 1 0 1
29. 1
f t  dt  
1
f t  dt  0
f t  dt   1
1  t  dt   1  t  dt
0
0 1
 t2   t2   1  1
  t     t      1    1    1
 2  1  2 0  2  2

 t 
2 1 2 1 2
 f t  dt   f t  dt   f t  dt   t  1 dt
2
30.  1 dt 
1 1 1 1 1
1 2
 t3   t2   1   1   4   1  4 1 5
   t     t      1     1      2     1      
3  1  2 1  3   3    2    2   3 2 6

31. Let s t  represent the position function. We know that s  t   v t   32t , so the change in position is given

32t  dt  16t 2     192.

4 4
by s  4  s  2    16  4  16  2
2 2
2 2
The rock fell 192 feet during the time interval 2  t  4.
32. a. Let s t  represent the position function. We know that s  t   v t   32t  75, so the change in
position is given by
32t  75 dt  16t 2  75t     
3 3
s 3  s 0    16 3  75 3  16 0  75 0  81.
2 2
0 0
The ball rose 81 feet during the time interval 0  t  3.

b. s 3  s 0   s 3  s 0  6  81  87

The ball was 87 feet high at time t = 3.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

 Section 6.2 The Definite Integral and Net Change of a Function 201

33. a. Let s t  represent the position function. We know that s  t   v t   32t  75, so the change in
position is given by
32t  75 dt  16t 2  75t     
3 3
s 3  s 1    16 3  75 3  16 1  75 1  81  59  22.
2 2
1 1

b. During the time interval 1  t  3, the ball rose 22 feet. Therefore, at time t = 3, the ball is 22 feet higher
than its position at time t = 1.

32t  75 dt  16t 2  75t     

5 5
s 5  s 1    16 5  75 5  16 1  75 1  25  59  84
2 2
c.
1 1
During the time interval 1  t  5, the ball fell 84 feet. Therefore, at time t = 5, the ball is 84 feet lower
than its position at time t = 1.

34. Let s t  represent the position function. We know that s  t   v t   45  45e0.2t , so the distance traveled
during the first nine seconds is given by

         
9 9  9
s 9   s  0   45  45e0.2t dt  45 1  e t 5 dt  45  t  5e t 5   45  9  5e9 5  0  5e0 5 
0 0  0  
 45 9  5e 9 5
 5  45  4  5e   217.2 9 5

The skydiver fell about 217.2 feet during the first nine seconds.
35. a. Let C  x  represent the cost function. The cost increase is given by
3
 x3 x 2 
 
3 3
C 3  C 1   C   x  dx  2
.1x  x  12 dx     12 x 
1 1  30 2 1
 33 32   13 12 
   12 3      12 1   32.4  11.53  20.87
 30 2   30 2 
The cost will increase $20.87 if the company goes from a production level of 1 to 3 items per day.

b. C 3  C 1  C 3  C 1  15  20.87  35.87

The cost of producing three items is $35.87.
36. Let C  x  represent the cost function. The cost increase is given by
20
20 x   20  x2   202   152 
C  20  C 15 
15 
C   x  dx  
15  20  
32   dx   32 x     32  20 
 40 
15


40  
32 15  
40 
 650  485.625  164.375
The cost will increase $164,375 if the company goes from a production level of 15 to 20 items per day.
37. Let T t  represent the value of the investment during a given time interval. Then T  t   R t  , and the
increase in value is given by

 700e 
10 10 10
T 10  T 0   T  t  dt   R t  dt  0.07 t
 1000 dt
0 0 0
10
 700 0.07t 
 
10
 e  1000t   10, 000e0.07t  1000t
 .07 0 0


 10, 000e 0.07(10)
 1000 10  10, 000e   0.07 0
 1000 0 
 30137.50  10, 000  20137.50
The investment increased by $20,137.50.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

202 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

38. Let T t  represent the value of the property during a given time interval. Then T  t   R t  , and the
decrease in value from 2015 (t = 0) to 2021 (t = 6) is given by

 8e  dt
6 6 6
T 6   T 0    T  t  dt   R t  dt  0.04t
0 0 0
6
 8 0.04t 
   200e   200e   157.326  200  42.674
6
0.04t 0.04 6 0.04 0
 e   200e
 0.04 0
0

The property decreased in value by $42,674.

10
10 
1 t 16   7 t 25 1 t 16 
7 t
P 10  P 0  
25
39. a. e  e
 e  e  
0 80   12
300 5 0
 7 1   7 1  7 1   7 1
  e10 25  e10 16    e0 25  e0 16    e10 25  e10 16     
 12 5   12 5   12 5   12 5 

1
60
25 58

35e  12e  23  .11325 
The population increased about .11325 million or 113,250 from 2000 to 2010.
40
40 
1  7
7 t 1 
P  40  P 10  
25
b.  et 16    et 25  et 16 
 e
10 80  
300 12 5  10
7 1  7 1  7 1  7 1 
  e 40 25  e 40 16    e10 25  e10 16    e8 5  e5 2    e2 5  e5 8 
 12 5   12 5   12 5   12 5 
 e
7 25
12
65 1 52
35e  1  e  e
5
 58
 .0438182   
The population will decrease by about .043812 million or about 43,812 people due to emigration.
20
20  4.1107 0.03t  4.1107 0.0320 4.1107
40. a. P  20  P 0   0
4.1107e0.03t dt   
 .03
e   
0
.03
e 
.03
 112.649

In twenty years you will have paid $112,649 towards the loan.

b. P  20  P 0   P  20  P 0  200, 000  112, 649  87, 351
$87,351 is still remaining on the loan.
30
30  4.1107 0.03t  4.1107 0.0330 4.1107
P 30  P 0  
0.03t
c. 4.1107e dt    e    e   200
0  .03 0
.03 .03
Thus, the principal has been repaid.
t
t  4.1107 0.03t  4.1107 0.03t 4.1107
41. P t   P 0   4.1107e
0.03t
dt  200    e   200  e 
0  .03 0
.03 .03
 337.023  137.023e0.03t thousand dollars
42. Let T t  represent the amount of radioactive material in grams during a given time interval. Then
T  t   R t  , and the decrease in the amount of radioactive material in the first ten years is given by

 e  dt
10 10 10
T 10  T 0   T  t  dt   R t  dt  .1t
0 0 0

 10e  
10
  
10
 10e    10e   
.1 10
.1t .1 0
 10  6.321
0 e
The radioactive material decayed by 6.321 grams during the first ten years.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Inc.

 Section 6.3 The Definite Integral and Area Under a Graph 203

43. Let T t  represent the amount of salt in grams during a given time interval. Then T  t   r t  , and the
amount of salt that was eliminated during the first two minutes is given by
2 2 2  1  2 1
0  0 
0   2  
T  2  T 0  T  t  dt  r t  dt     t    dt   t   dt
0  2 
2
 t2 1   22 1   02 1 
   t      2      0   3
 2 2 0  2 2   2 2 
Three grams of salt were eliminated in the first two minutes.
44. Let h t  represent the depth of the water in the tank during a given time interval. The decrease in the depth
of the water in the tank during the time interval 2  t  4 is given by
4
4 4 t  t2   42   22 
h  4  h  2   2
h  t  dt   2
  
2
dt  
 4

         3
2  4   4 
The water level dropped by three inches.
1 2
6.3 The Definite Integral and Area
Under a Graph
b. A  0
1  x  dx    x  1 dx
1
1 2
 x2   x2 
1. a. A  lw  3  2  6   x      x
2 
 0
 2 1
4
1   22   12  1 1
 2 dx  2 x 1  2  4  2 1  6
4
b. A      2     1     1
1 2   2  2   2 2
2. a. A  lw  3 1  3
1 1
6. a. A h b1  b2    23  2  5
2 2 2
 1 dx  x 1  2   1  3
2
b. A
1 2 3

1 1
b. A  0
2 dx   2
6  2 x  dx
3. a. A bh   22  2
 
2 3
2 2  2 x 0  6 x  x2
2
0 2 0
x  4  6 3  3   6  2  2 
2 2
b. A 2
 x  dx  
2
2
 0   2  2 
 4 1  5


2 1 3
4. a. A
1
2
1
bh   4 4  8
2
7. 1 x
dx 8.   x x  3 dx
0

2 2
  e  x dx
2
2  x2  9. ln x dx 10.
b. A
2 
 x  2 dx    2 x 
 2  2
1 1

3 1
 22    2
   2  2   
2 
 2  2 
11. 1
 x   dx
x
 2   2  1 2
 6   2  8 12.   x  1 dx  
0 1
3  x  dx
1 1 1 1
b h  b h  11  11  1 1
2

2
5. a. A 13. dx  ln x  ln 2  ln1  ln 2
2 11 2 2 2 2 2 1 x 1

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204 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

0  x x  3 dx  0  x  3x dx

3 3 4
2  4
32
14. 2 4  2 x3 2  16
3
22. 0
x dx  
 3 0
 
3

3
 x3 3 x 2 
  
 3 2  4
0 4  x  3
5
 4  3
5
1  3
5

  x  3 4
23. dx   
33 3 3
2
9 1 5 5 5
   1
3 2 2
1  32  33
    
3  x2 
3 5  5  5
1
15. 1
 x   dx    ln x 
x  2 1 0 e3 x
0
1 e 1 1 1

3x
3 2 1  2 24. e dx     
1 3 3 3 3 3 3e
   ln 3     ln 1  1 3
 2  2  e 1

9  1 3e
   ln 3     4  ln 3
2  2
b
b x4 b4

3
16. 25. x dx  4  4 4
0 4 4
0
b 4  16  b  2
b b
b b x3 x4
 
2 3
26. x dx  x dx   
0 0 3 4
0 0
b3 b 4 4
17.   b
3 4 3
20
27. x   .5
4
The first midpoint is that of [0, .5] which is
.25, so the midpoints are .25, .75, 1.25, 1.75.
3 0
28. x   .5
18. 6
The first midpoint is .25, so the midpoints are
.25, .75, 1.25, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75.
4 1
29. x   .6
5
The first midpoint is that of [1, 1.6] which is
1.3, so the midpoints are 1.3, 1.9, 2.5, 3.1, 3.7.

 
3 3
53
19. 2
4 x dx  2 x 2
2
 2 9  2  4  10 30. x 
5
 .4

1 1 The first midpoint is that of [3, 3.4] which is

20. 1
3 x 2 dx  x3
1
 1   1  2 3.2, so the midpoints are 3.2, 3.6, 4, 4.4, 4.8.
31. x  .5

 3 x  dx
1
21. 2
 x  2e x 2 The midpoints are 1.25, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75.
0 Area
 .5  f (1.25)  f (1.75)  f (2.25)  f (2.75) 
1
 x2 
  x3   4e x 2 
 2 0  .5  (1.25) 2  (1.75) 2  (2.25) 2  (2.75) 2 
3  5  8.625
   4e1 2   4    4e1 2
2  2

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 Section 6.3 The Definite Integral and Area Under a Graph 205

32. ∆x = 1; the midpoints are –1.5, –.5, .5, 1.5.

Area  1 (1.5) 2  (.5) 2  (.5) 2  (1.5) 2   5

33. ∆x = .4; the left endpoints are 1, 1.4, 1.8, 2.2, 2.6.
Area  .4 13  (1.4) 3  (1.8) 3  (2.2) 3  (2.6) 3   15.12

34. ∆x = .2; the right endpoints are .2, .4, .6, .8, 1.
Area  .2 (.2) 3  (.4) 3  (.6) 3  (.8) 3  13   .36

35. ∆x = .2; the right endpoints are 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.
Area  .2  e 2.2  e 2.4  e 2.6  e 2.8  e 3   .077278

36. ∆x = .4; the left endpoints are 2, 2.4, 2.8, 3.2, 3.6.
Area  .4  ln 2  ln 2.4  ln 2.8  ln 3.2  ln 3.6  2.0169

37. midpoints: 1, 3, 5, 7; ∆x = 2
 f (1)  f (3)  f (5)  f (7) x   4  8  6  2 2  40
38. left endpoints: 3, 4, 5, 6; ∆x = 1
 f (3)  f (4)  f (5)  f (6) x  8  7  6  41  25
39. right endpoints: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; ∆x = 1
 f (5)  f (6)  f (7)  f (8)  f (9) x  6  4  2  1  21  15
40. midpoints: 2, 4, 6; ∆x = 2
 f (2)  f (4)  f (6) x  7  7  4 2  36
41. ∆x = .75; the left endpoints are 1, 1.75, 2.5, 3.25.
Area  .75  (4  1)  (4  1.75)  (4  2.5)  (4  3.25)   5.625
The midpoints are 1.375, 2.125, 2.875, 3.625
Area  .75  (4  1.375)  (4  2.125)  (4  2.875)  (4  3.625)  4.5

42. ∆x = .25; the right endpoints are 2.25, 2.5, 2.75, 3.

Area  .25  2(2.25)  4   2(2.5)  4   2(2.75)  4  2(3)  4  1.25
The midpoints are 2.125, 2.375, 2.625, 2.875.
Area  .25  2(2.125)  4  2(2.375)  4  2(2.625)  4   2(.875)  4  1

1 1
The base of the triangle is 1 and the height is 2, so A  bh   1  2  1.
2 2
43. ∆x = .4; the midpoints are –.8, –.4, 0, .4, .8.

         
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 
Area  0.4  1  (.8) 2  1  (.4) 2  1  (0) 2  1  (.4) 2  1  (.8) 2   1.61321

The error is 1.61321 − 1.57080 = .04241.

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206 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

44. ∆x = .2; the midpoints are .1, .3, .5, .7, .9.
Area = .2  1  (.1) 2  1  (.3) 2  1  (.5) 2  1  (.7) 2  1  (.9) 2   .79300
 
The error is .79300 – .78540 = .0076.

45. A  20 106  40 101  40 100  40 113  20 113  16, 940 ft 2

46. First find the total area.

A  10 35  30  25  23  22  25  30  36  42  2680 ft 2
Therefore, the area of each lot must be 2680/2 = 1340 ft2.
10 35  10 30  10 25  10  23  10  22  1350, so build the fence 50 feet from the left side of the lot.

n  n  1 2n  1
47. 12  2 2  32    n 2 
6
11  1  2 1  1 6
n  1: 12  1
6 6
2 2
2  2  1  2  2  1 30
n  2:1  2  5
6 6
3     
3  1 2 3  1 84
n  3 : 12  22  32   14 
6 6

n  4 : 12  22  32  42 
4  4  1  2  4   1  30  180
6 6
The formula can be proven for all values of n using mathematical induction.

48. S n   f  x1   f  x2     f  xn  x
a. Since we are working with right endpoints, we have
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3
x1  0  x  0   , x2  x1     , x3  x2     , ,
n n n n n n n n n n
1 n 1 1 n
x n  x n 1     .
n n n n
2 2 2 2
1 2 3 n
f  x1     , f  x 2     , f  x3     ,  f  x n    
n n n n
Substituting into the formula for S n gives
 1 2  2 2  3 2 n  1 1
2 2
2 2 32 n2  1 1
S n                   2  2  2    2   3 12  2 2  32    n 2
 n  n n n  n n n n n n n
 
b. Substituting the formula from exercise 47 gives
1  n  n  1 2n  1  n  n  1 2n  1
n
1

S n  3 12  2 2  32    n 2  3 
n 
 6  
6n 3

n  n  1 2n  1 2n 3  n 2  n 2n 3 n2 n
c. lim 3
 lim 3
 lim 3
 lim 3
 lim
n  6n n  6n n  6n n  6n n  6n 3
1 1 1 1 1
 lim  lim  lim  00
n  3 n  6n n  6n 2 3 3

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 Section 6.4 Areas in the xy-Plane 207

49.

The area under the graph is about 1.494

50.

The area under the graph is about 1.373.

In exercises 51 and 52, the figures were created on a TI-84 Plus using the program RIEMANN.8xp downloaded
from http://www.calcblog.com. Similar programs are available at www.ticalc.org.
2
51. There are 20 intervals, so x   .1. Since we are using the midpoints of the subintervals, x1  1.05. On
20
the calculator, set Y1  x 1  x 2 . Use the sum( and seq( as shown to find the sum.

The area is approximately 9.60 square units.

2
52. There are 20 intervals, so x   .1. Since we are using the left endpoints of the subintervals, x1  1
20
and x20  .9. On the calculator, set Y1  x 1  x 2 . Use the sum( and seq( as shown to find the sum.

The area is approximately 1.55 square units.

6.4 Areas in the xy-Plane

2 4
1. A   f ( x) dx     f ( x)  dx
1 3

3
2. A   [ f ( x)  g ( x)] dx
2

3.

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208 Chapter 6 The Definite Integral

4.

7
5. 0 f ( x) dx is clearly positive since there is more area above the x-axis.

7
6. 0 g ( x) dx is clearly negative since there is more area below the x-axis.
7.

1 1 2
 x3   x3   x3 
A  
1
2
1  x  dx  1 1  x  dx  1 1  x 
2 1 2 2 2
dx    x     x     x  
 3   3   3 
2 1 1
 1  8   1   1   8   1 
    1     2      1     1       2    1   
 3  3   3   3   3   3 
 4  4  4 
         4
 3 3  3
8. 10.

A 
0
 x  x  1 dx    x  x  1 dx
2 1 2
 x3 
1
1 0
A 
1
 
x  6 x  5 dx    3 x 2  5 x 
2

0
1
 x 3  x dx    1 3
0
x 
 x dx 0  3 0
0 1 1  25
 x4 x2   x4 x2     3  5  0 
   3 
2   4  2  3
 4 1
 0
11.
  1 1   1 1   1 1 1
  0            0   
  4 2   4 2   4 4 2
9.

e x  3 dx    e x  3x 0
ln 3 ln 3 
A  
0 
  e ln 3  3ln 3  1
2  
 x3    3  3ln 3  1  3ln 3  2
A  
2
0
 
x  2 x  3 dx     x 2  3 x 
2
 3 0
8  22
    4  6  0 
3  3

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the most central position, has been chosen as the site of the capital
of the province, though in a bleak and intensely cold region.
The geological formation of Caravaya is composed of non-
fossiliferous schists, micaceous and slightly ferruginous, with veins of
quartz. It is a portion of the extensive system of rocks which Mr.
Forbes has grouped together as belonging to the Silurian epoch, and
which extends almost continuously over an extent from north-west
to south-east of more than seven hundred miles, forming the
mountain-chain of the Eastern Andes, continuous from Cuzco,
through Caravaya, to Bolivia. These rocks throw off spurs along the
eastern side of the main chain. Of this formation, too, are the loftiest
mountain-peaks in South America:—Illampu, or Sorata (24,812 feet),
and Illimani (24,155 feet). Illampu, Mr. Forbes assures us, is
fossiliferous up to its very summit.[307]
Such is a brief account of the geography of Caravaya, and especially
of the streams which combine to form the great river Purus, from
the rivers of the Paucartambo valley on the extreme north-west, to
the Pablo-bamba on the frontier of Bolivia. The streams flowing from
the Eastern Andes to the north-west of the Paucartambo system
combine to swell the Ucayali, while those to the south-east of the
Pablo-bamba fall into the Beni, one of the chief tributaries of the
Madeira. The intermediate streams are the sources of the unknown
Purus, they are all more or less auriferous, they flow through forests
abounding in valuable products, and through countries of
inexhaustible capabilities. Yet the courses of very few of them have
been explored to distances of seventy miles from their sources, and
the main stream of the Purus, one of the principal affluents of the
Amazon, may be said to be entirely unknown to geographers.
 CHAPTER XIII.
CARAVAYA.—THE VALLEY OF SANDIA.
On the 18th of April I left Crucero, on my way to the chinchona
forests, rather late in the afternoon, accompanied by Mr. Weir the
gardener, a young mestizo named Pablo Sevallos, and two cargo-
mules. After a ride of three leagues along the bleak plain of Crucero,
covered with coarse Stipa and stunted Cacti, we reached a little
shepherd's hut, called Choclari-piña, at dusk. It was built of loose
stones, with a sheepskin hung across the doorway, but with no
plaster or mud between the interstices of the stones, so that the
piercingly cold wind blew right through the hut.[308] The poor Indian
family were kind and hospitable, and gave us plenty of fresh milk.
Next morning we continued the journey along the same plain, with
the snowy peaks of the Caravayan Andes on the left, and the
glorious nevada of Ananea ahead, whence rise the rivers of
Azangaro flowing into lake Titicaca, and of Ynambari finding its way
to the Atlantic. A ride of twelve miles brought us to a hut called
Acco-kunka (neck of sand), at the foot of long ridges of dark-
coloured cliffs, with huge boulders of rock scattered over the sides of
the hills. A hard white frost covered the ground.
At Acco-kunka I met a red-faced man, about fifty years of age, who
gave his name as Don Manuel Martel. He said that he had been a
colonel, and had suffered persecution for being faithful to his party;
that he had lost much money in the cascarilla trade; and that he was
now making a clearing in the forests of Caravaya, for the purpose of
growing sugar-cane. He talked about M. Hasskarl, the Dutch agent,
who was employed to obtain chinchona-plants in 1854, under his
assumed name of Müller; said that he employed an agent named
Clemente Henriquez to collect the plants; and vowed that if he, or
any one else, ever again attempted to take cascarilla (chinchona)
plants out of the country, he would stir up the people to seize them
and cut their feet off. There was evidently some allusion to myself in
his bluster; and I suspected, what afterwards proved to be the case,
that Martel had, by some means, got information respecting the
objects of my journey, and was desirous of thwarting them. I had
always carefully avoided any mention of the subject since leaving
Arequipa. Martel said he was going to buy gold-dust at Poti, so I
soon got rid of him; and, passing an alpine lake, full of water-fowl,
we began the descent into the golden valleys of Caravaya.
On the left a black cliff, perpendicular, and fully 2000 feet high,
formed one side of the descent, and the space on its inner side was
occupied by a small glacier, the only one I have ever seen in the
Andes; whence descends, in a long waterfall, the source of the little
river Huaccuyo, which dashes down the ravine. For the first
thousand feet the vegetation continues to be of a lowly alpine
character, consisting of coarse grass and flowering herbs, chiefly
Compositæ, of which there were several Senecios, generally with
yellow flowers, a gentian with violet-coloured flowers, a Bartsia with
a yellow flower, a little Plantago, and a Ranunculus. As we continued
the descent, the scenery increased in magnificence. The polished
surfaces of the perpendicular cliffs glittered here and there with
foaming torrents, some like thin lines of thread, others broader and
breaking over rocks, others seeming to burst out of the fleecy
clouds; while jagged black peaks, glittering with streaks of snow,
pierced the mist which concealed their bases. After descending for
some leagues through this glorious scenery, the path at length
crossed a ridge, and brought us to the crest of the deep and narrow
ravine of Cuyo-cuyo.
The path down the side of the gorge is very precipitous, through a
succession of andeneria, or terraced gardens, some abandoned, and
others planted with ocas (Oxalis tuberosa), barley, and potatoes; the
upper tiers from six to eight feet wide, but gradually becoming
broader. Their walled sides are thickly clothed with Calceolarias,
Celsias, Begonias, a large purple Solanum, and a profusion of ferns.
But it was not until reaching the little village in the bottom of the
hollow that all the glories of the scene burst upon me. The river of
Sandia, which takes its rise at the head of the ravine, flows by the
village of Cuyo-cuyo, bordered by ferns and wild flowers. It is faced,
near the village, with fern-covered masonry, and is crossed by
several stone bridges of a single arch. Almost immediately on either
side, the steep precipitous mountains, lined, at least a hundred
deep, with well-constructed andeneria, and faced with stone, rise up
abruptly. In several places a cluster of cottages, built on one of the
terraces, seemed almost to be hanging in the air. Above all the dark
rocks shoot up into snowy peaks, which stood out against the blue
sky. A most lovely scene, but very sad, for the great majority of
those carefully-constructed terraces, eternal monuments of the
beneficence of the Incas, are now abandoned. The alcalde of Cuyo-
cuyo received me most hospitably. In the early morning numbers of
lambs and young llamas were playing about in the abandoned
terraced gardens near the village. Besides Cuyo-cuyo, there are two
small hamlets, called Muchucachi and Sullanqui, and several
scattered huts in the ravine, the population of which is estimated at
2000 souls.
In the morning of April 20th I rode down the beautiful gorge to the
confluence of the rivers of Sandia and Huaccuyo. After this junction
the stream becomes a roaring torrent, dashing over huge rocks, and
descending rapidly down the ravine towards Sandia. On both sides
vast masses of dark frowning mountains rear themselves up for
thousands of feet, and end in fantastically shaped peaks, some of
them veiled by thin fleecy clouds. The vegetation rapidly increased in
luxuriance with the descent. At first there were low shrubs, such as
Baccharis odorata, Weinmannia fagaroides, &c.; which gradually
gave place to trees and large bushes; while all the way from Cuyo-
cuyo there were masses of ferns of many kinds, Begonias,
Calceolarias, Lupins, Salvias, and Celsias. Waterfalls streamed down
the mountains in every direction: some in a white sheet of
continuous foam for hundreds of feet, finally seeming to plunge into
huge beds of ferns and flowers; some like driven spray; and in one
place a fall of water could be seen between two peaks, which
seemed to fall into the clouds below.
A most glorious and enchanting scene, allowing little time to think of
the road, which was very bad, and in many places most perilous. In
its best parts it was like a steep back-attic staircase after an
earthquake. Three leagues from Cuyo-cuyo is the confluence of the
torrent of Ñacorequi with the river of Sandia; and after this point
maize begins to be cultivated, where the craggy jutting cliffs permit,
between the river and the mountains. The Indians live in eyrie-like
huts, perched at great heights, here and there, amongst the maize
terraces. The village of Sandia is at a distance of fifteen miles from
Cuyo-cuyo, down this ravine, a dilapidated little place, with more
than half the houses roofless and in ruins. It is built along the banks
of the river, and has a church in the plaza. The mountains rise up all
round it, almost perpendicularly, forming a close amphitheatre; and
in two places glittering cascades foam down from their very
summits, into the bushes on a level with the town.
The descent from the summit of the pass over the Caravayan Andes
to Sandia is very considerable, nearly 7000 feet in thirty miles, from
an arctic to a sub-tropical climate. The height of Crucero is 12,980
feet; of the pass 13,600; of Cuyo-cuyo 10,510; and of Sandia 6930
feet above the sea.[309]
The four mountains closely hemming in the village of Sandia are
mount Chicanaco, which is beautified by a splendid cascade; mount
Vianaco, which ends in two fine wooded peaks, between which a
long slender thread of water descends into the foliage midway;
mount Camparacani, on the other side of the river, which rises up to
a stupendous height, ending in a jagged rocky peak; and mount
Catasuyu, which completes the circle, rising abruptly above the
church. The name of Sandia is probably a corruption of the Spanish
word sandilla, the first settlers having mistaken the quantities of
gourds which grow here for sandillas or water-melons.
When I arrived in Sandia the governor was absent on his estate; the
cura, my good friend Dr. Guaycochea, was getting in his maize-
harvest on his land near Cuzco; and the principal remaining
inhabitants were the Juez de Paz, Don Francisco Farfan, and one
Don Manuel Mena, who was drunk in bed when I arrived, but who
afterwards received me very hospitably. These good people are, in
manners and education, the roughest backwoodsmen, much too
fond of aguardiente, and addicted to chewing coca to excess; but
they are warm-hearted and neighbourly, while they display some
energy in working the coffee and coca estates in the distant
montaña, and in making roads, such as they are, from these estates
to Sandia. The richer people of Sandia all have more or less of
Indian blood, and their wives and daughters are unable to speak any
language but Quichua; and thus they seem to be more closely
united in interests and feelings with the mass of the population than
in any other part of Peru. The Indians of the district of Sandia are
divided into six ayllus or tribes, besides the inhabitants of the
villages of Sandia, Cuyo-cuyo, and Patambuco. These ayllus are
established on the mountains around Sandia, living in scattered huts,
some cultivating maize and potatoes, others raising barley and
alfalfa for mules. The ayllus are called Laqueque, about a league up
the river, on the right bank; Cuyo-cuyo (not the village), behind
mount Camparacani; Oruro, on the heights below Cuyo-cuyo; Quiaca
(not the village), near Oruro; Quenequi, about a league down the
river; and Apabuco, behind mount Catasuyu. The population of the
parish of Sandia is about 7000; 4000 in Sandia and its six ayllus,
2000 in the village and ravine of Cuyo-cuyo, and 1000 in Patambuco.
As many as 1000 souls fell victims to the dreadful pestilence of
1855, which raged over all parts of the Andes of Peru. Nearly every
Indian family, besides land near Sandia, owns a small farm of coca
or coffee down in the montaña, to which men, women, and children
go at harvest-time. As in all parts of the Andes, so in the Sandia
ravine, I constantly found the Indians civil, obliging, and respectful,
always saluting with an "Ave Maria Taytay!" and a touch of the hat in
passing. They are reserved and silent, it is true, and superficial
observers take this for stupidity. Never was there a greater mistake:
their skill in carving and all carpenter's work, in painting and
embroidery, the exquisite fabrics they weave from vicuña-wool, the
really touching poetry of their love-songs and yaravis, the traditional
histories of their ayllus, which they preserve with religious care,
surely disprove so false a charge.
The houses in Sandia are the merest barns, with mud-walls, and
roofs which let the water in. All the family sleep together in a
promiscuous way; pigs and fowls wandering over the floor at early
dawn. The Juez de Paz, Francisco Farfan, administers justice in such
a place as this, lounging on a sort of mud-platform at one end of the
room, where his bed is made up, while the culprit, and a crowd of
alcaldes and spectators, stand before him. Every one chatters at the
same time for about ten minutes, and the prisoner is sent to the
lock-up. The Jueces de Paz have to render periodical accounts of all
their cases, attested by witnesses, to the Juez de Primera Instancia
in the capital of the province.
While upon the subject of these local authorities, it will be well to
give an account of the powers placed in their hands by the
Constitution of 1856, by which Peru is now governed; both because
the measures then adopted will, I believe, have a lasting and
beneficial effect on the people, and because the persons so vested
with power endeavoured to display their patriotic zeal by throwing
obstacles in my way. By this constitution it was provided that in the
capital of each department there should be a Junta Departmental,
[310] the members of which should be elected in the same way and
with the same qualifications as those for the National Congress, to
meet every year. These Juntas were to deliberate and legislate for
the advancement and material progress of the departments, their
decrees being null if contrary to any law of Congress. The evident
objection to this measure is its tendency to split the country up into
small communities with separate interests, which has always proved
to be most disastrous in thinly-peopled and half-civilized states. This
view is taken in a very able article on the constitution, in a periodical
published at Lima, where the Juntas Departmentales are declared to
be the initiation of a system of "federation," the result of which has
always been to dismember countries into so many small depopulated
districts, as in Mexico, Central America, New Granada, and the
Argentine Republic, introducing civil war, anarchy, and dissolution.
The writer might now add the dis-United States of North America
also.[311]
But the institutions to which I before alluded, as having had a
beneficial effect, are the Juntas Municipales,[312] which were to be
established in every district where materials existed to form them,
and to have the regulation of the local funds and improvements.
They were to consist of the most influential citizens, elected by their
fellow townsmen, and were to attend to local interests, have charge
of the civic registers, take the census, &c. The same writer speaks of
these municipalities in terms of unqualified praise, and says that
their establishment is a positive good, without in any way promoting
a federation which would be ruinous to Peruvian nationality.[313]
They will give young men the opportunity of becoming acquainted
with public affairs, teach them habits of business, and gradually train
them for more important political duties. I look upon these
institutions as one of the sources of hope for a brighter future for
Peru; and as long as they show activity, whether in a right or wrong
direction, they must be productive of good. The habit of taking an
active part in public affairs must be better than the torpor and
indifference which formerly prevailed. I saw several signs of activity
in these Juntas Municipales during my journey from Puno. At Lampa
they were actively engaged in an endeavour to re-establish a
manufactory of glazed tiles in that town; in Azangaro they were
collecting subscriptions for a bridge across the river, to which one of
their body had contributed half the required sum; and in Sandia they
were drawing up a report on the state of the roads, with an estimate
of the sum required for their thorough repair and bridging. I was
happy to be able to assist the Sandia Municipality, by preparing a
map for them, to illustrate their report. The Juntas Municipales of
Sandia and Quiaca also, especially the latter, took measures to
prevent me from procuring a supply of chinchona-plants or seeds,
influenced by motives which exposed their ignorance of political
economy, while it displayed their activity and patriotic zeal.
In Sandia the municipal body consists of the Alcalde Municipal, who
presides, the Teniente Alcalde, the Syndic, two Judges of the Peace,
three Regidores, one of whom is Don Manuel Mena, and a Secretary.
My original plan had been to examine the chinchona forests during
this month, make as many meteorological and other observations as
was possible, and perhaps send down a small collection of plants to
the coast; but to make the principal collection of plants and seeds in
August, the month when the seeds of C. Calisaya are ripe. I had not,
however, been two days in Sandia before I discovered that Martel
had already written to several of the inhabitants, urging them to
prevent me from taking chinchona plants or seeds out of the
country, and to bring the matter before the Junta Municipal of the
district. I heard also that he was busying himself in the same way in
other villages bordering on the chinchona forests. My mission was
becoming the talk of the whole country; and I at once saw that my
only chance of success was to commence the work of collecting
plants without a moment's delay, and, if possible, anticipate any
measures which might be taken to thwart my designs.
It was at Sandia that it became necessary to make final preparations
for a journey into the forests, for beyond this point the possibility of
procuring supplies of any kind is very doubtful. I here laid in a stock
of bread to last for about a month, which was toasted in the oven
belonging to the cura, the only one in the place, and which, together
with some chocolate and cheese, formed the provisions for myself
and the gardener. I then persuaded the judge to order the alcaldes
of four of the ayllus to procure four Indians and two cargo-mules,
the Indians to bring their own provisions with them, for which I
advanced them money. After considerable delays my little expedition
was ready to start, consisting of myself, Mr. Weir the gardener, Pablo
Sevallos the mestizo, four Indians, and two mules. The supplies and
provisions were packed in six leathern bags, containing tea and
sugar, chocolate, toasted bread, cheese, candles, concentrated beef-
tea, changes of clothes, instruments, powder and shot, besides a
tent, an air-bed, gutta-percha robes, ponchos, a wood-knife and
trowel, and maize and salt meat for Pablo and the Indians. It took
several days to complete these preparations.
The climate of Sandia, at this time of the year, is exceedingly
agreeable, the days being fine and clear until late in the afternoon,
and not too hot. The prevailing wind blows up the ravine from the
north-east, being the trade which comes across the vast forest-
covered plains of the interior. It is this warm trade-wind which
produces a much milder climate and more tropical vegetation in
Cuyo-cuyo than in Arequipa, though the former place is three
thousand feet higher than the latter. In Sandia, just after sunset, it
feels rather chilly, and during the middle of the day the sun is
exceedingly hot. Light clouds generally hang about the highest
peaks. The variety of most beautiful and graceful ferns on the walls
of the houses, and near the banks of the river, is endless.
I had the satisfaction of seeing, in the house of Don Manuel Mena,
before leaving Sandia, a bundle of small branches of the ychu
cascarilla (C. Calisaya, var. β Josephiana), with leaves and flowers,
which had been collected as a tonic medicine for a little daughter of
my host.
On the 24th of April, late in the afternoon, we left Sandia, and
reached the tambo, or travellers' hut, called Cahuan-chaca, before
dark. The road leads down the ravine, along narrow ledges
overhanging the river, which dashes furiously along, in most places
between perpendicular cliffs. The path is very narrow and
dangerous, but the scenery is superb, and the vegetation becomes
richer and more tropical at every league of the descent.
One of the Indians traitorously fled on the first day, and my party
was thus reduced to three, who were barely able to carry the
necessary provisions. These three men proved faithful and willing
fellow-labourers. Their names were Andres Vilca of the Oruro Ayllu,
Julian Ccuri of Cuyo-cuyo, and Santos Quispi of Apabuco. They were
fine-looking young fellows, wearing their hair in long plaits down
their backs, coarse canvas trousers and shirts. They carry the cargos
in large cloths tied in bundles, and placed in other cloths, which are
passed over one shoulder and tied across the chest, called ccepis.
They stoop forward and step out at a great rate; and it is in this way
that Indians carry their burdens along the roads, and women their
children, throughout Peru. The tambo of Cahuan-chaca is a shed,
with one side open, and we slept in company with three Indians and
a woman on their way to get in a coca-harvest in the Hatun-yunca,
who were living very well on salt mutton, eggs, and potatoes.
The river rushing down the valley winds along the small breadth of
level land, striking first against the precipitous cliffs on one side, and
then sweeping over to the other, so that a road in the bottom of the
valley would require a bridge at almost every hundred yards. It has,
therefore, been necessary to excavate a path in the sides of the
mountains, high above the river, which in some places has a breadth
of three feet only, with a perpendicular cliff on one side, and a
precipice six or seven hundred feet deep on the other; while, in
others, it zigzags down amongst loose stones, where one false step
would be immediate destruction. But the scenery continued to
increase in beauty, and the cascades were really splendid:—

"A land of streams! some, like a downward smoke,

Slow-dropping veils of thinnest lawn, did go;
And some thro' wavering lights and shadows broke,
Rolling a slumbrous sheet of foam below."

The river dashed noisily through the centre of the gorge, and the
masses of green on either side were toned down by many flowers in
large patches, bright purple Lasiandræ, orange Cassiæ, and scarlet
Salviæ. I also saw an Indigofera growing in this part of the ravine.
A mile from the hut of Cahuan-chaca is the confluence of the river
Huascaray; and a league lower down is the little shed or tambo of
Cancallani. Here bamboos and tree-ferns first appear, and coca is
cultivated in terraces which are fringed with coffee-plants, with their
rich green foliage and crimson berries. I observed that the huts in
the middle of these patches of coca or maize had no doors, showing
the confidence of the inmates in the honesty of the numerous
passers-by, who go to and fro between Sandia and the more distant
coca estates.[314] I passed the estate of Chayllabamba, with terraces
of coca at least fifty deep, up the sides of the mountains; and
Asalay, a coffee estate, with groves of orange and chirimoya-trees,
the extreme point reached by M. Hasskarl, the Dutch collector, in
1854. At the confluence of the rivers Asalay and Sandia
perpendicular cliffs rise abruptly from the valley to a stupendous
height on both sides, and the path winds up in a serpentine slippery
staircase, to creep along the edge of the steep grassy slopes or
pajonales, far above the tropical vegetation of the ravine. Winding
along this path, we came to the tambo of Paccay-samana, on the
grassy pajonal, the mountains rising up on the opposite side of the
ravine only about sixty yards distant; yet the river, in the bottom of
the gorge, was many hundreds of feet below. There were thickets
with masses of bright flowers in the gullies, and glorious cascades
shimmering in the sunlight on the opposite mountain-sides.
It was at this spot that we first encountered chinchona-plants. A
number of young plants of C. Calisaya, var. β Josephiana, were
growing by the side of the road, with their exquisite roseate flowers,
and rich green leaves with crimson veins. The rock is a metamorphic
slate, unfossiliferous, slightly micaceous, and ferruginous, with
quartz occurring here and there: the soil a stiff brown loam. Above
the tambo there was a small thicket of gaultherias, called ccarani in
Quichua, and Melastomaceæ with bright purple flowers (Lasiandra
fontanesiana), in a shallow gully, surrounded by the rich broad-
bladed grass of the pajonal. Here there were some fine plants of the
chinchona named by Dr. Weddell C. Caravayensis; and further on
more plants of C. Josephiana, called ychu cascarilla by the natives.
The height of this spot is 5420 feet above the sea. A tree-fern and
many Trichomanes were growing with the chinchonæ. Paccay-
samana is sixteen miles from Sandia.
Animal life did not appear to be very abundant. There were plenty of
large doves, some ducks near the river, and a brilliant woodpecker. I
also saw great numbers of large swallow-tailed butterflies, purple
with light-blue spots on the upper wings; and others with white
upper wings edged with jet black and rows of white spots, the lower
wings orange.
Beyond Paccay-samana there were several more plants of C.
Josephiana, rising out of masses of maiden-hair and Polypodia. After
following the edge of the pajonal for about a mile, we descended by
a precipitous zigzag path and crossed over the river Pulluma, at its
confluence with the Sandia. Here the road to the Hatun-yunca or
Valle Grande branches off up the mountain of Ramas-pata, while our
way continued down the ravine. The scenery is here remarkably
beautiful. Lofty mountains, with their bright cascades, are clothed to
their summits with rich grass, while their gullies are filled with
flowering trees and shrubs. Half-way up, in many directions, the
stone terraces of coca rise tier above tier, fringed with ferns and
begonias, and filled with the delicate coloured green coca-branches,
diversified occasionally by the darker hues of the coffee. The ravine
is filled with masses of purple Melastomaceæ, and the river is
fringed with tree-ferns, plantains, and bamboos.
This purple Melastomacea (Lasiandra fontanesiana), called in
Quichua panti-panti, in the brilliancy and abundance of its flowers,
bears the same relation to this part of the Peruvian Andes as the
rhododendron does to the Himalayas. The effect in masses is much
the same, but the Lasiandra appears to me to be a more graceful
and delicate tree, with a more beautiful flower. In this ravine we
have the shrub chinchonæ on the high grassy slopes, perhaps the
finest coffee in the world near the banks of the river, and a little
galium by the road-side—all chinchonaceous plants.
At noon on April 26th we rested in the tambo of Ypara, in the centre
of coca cultivation, and in the afternoon, crossing the river by a
wooden bridge, we had to travel along the skirts of the mountains,
at a considerable height, in the region of the pajonales. No gullies or
large cascades cut up the face of these mountains, which were
entirely exposed to the full glare of the sun, and here, though there
was a profusion of purple Melastomaceæ in some of the shallow
indentations, there were no chinchonæ. Towards evening we came
to a lofty spur of the mountain, called Estanqui, at a great height
above the ravine, whence there was a most extensive view. To the
left was the valley of Sandia, with little coca-farms nestling in all the
sheltered gullies; and I could just make out the boys and girls far far
below, like specks, busy with the coca-leaves in the drying-yards. In
front there was a distant view of the hills in the direction of San Juan
del Oro, covered with virgin forest; while at our feet, and a thousand
feet below us, was the confluence of the rivers Sandia, Llaypuni, and
Huari-huari, which unite to form the great river Ynambari.
It was my intention, after marking down all the eligible plants of the
shrubby Calisaya, to be taken up on our return, to make for the
forest-covered valley of Tambopata, which is full of chinchona-trees;
and I therefore left the ravine of the Sandia river at this point, and,
by a rapid descent, went down from the grassy uplands to a region
of tropical forest, full of palms and tree-ferns. We thus reached the
banks of the Huari-huari. This river flows through a deep and very
narrow ravine, lined with forest, for about 500 feet, above which rise
grassy mountains to an immense height. Though only 30 feet
across, and confined by dark polished rocks, the Huari-huari is very
deep, and decidedly a more important stream than the Sandia, at
their junction.
We established ourselves under a rock, where there was no room to
pitch the tent, and thus our first night of camping out commenced,
for previously we had slept in the road-side tambos. The Indians
carried little earthen pots for cooking, in their ccepis, and got up a
fire of dry sticks with great rapidity. I had a delicious bath in the
river, where the tall forest trees overshadowed the water on either
side. At night the moon streamed its floods of light over the forest,
and the brilliant sparks from myriads of fire-flies shone from the
trees in every direction up the side of the opposite mountain; but in
the early morning the sky clouded over, and a heavy drizzling rain
began to fall, which prevented sleep, and made us wish for day.
From this encampment our way led up the precipitous sides of the
mountain, to the grassy pajonales which divide the valleys of Sandia
and Tambopata; but I will here halt awhile to give a brief account of
the cultivation of that plant, of which we had lately seen so much,
and which enabled me to ascend the mighty passes of the Andes on
foot with ease and comfort—the strength-giving, invigorating coca.
A general geographical description of all this country has been given
in the preceding chapter.
During my stay at Sandia the indications of the thermometer were
as follows, between the 20th and 25th of April:—
Mean temperature 63⅕°
Minimum temperature at night 50½
Highest observed 65
Lowest 47
Range 18
 CHAPTER XIV.
COCA-CULTIVATION.
The coca-leaf is the great source of comfort and enjoyment to the
Peruvian Indian; it is to him what betel is to the Hindoo, kava to the
South Sea Islander, and tobacco to the rest of mankind; but its use
produces invigorating effects which are not possessed by the other
stimulants. From the most ancient times the Peruvians have used
this beloved leaf, and they still look upon it with feelings of
superstitious veneration. In the time of the Incas it was sacrificed to
the Sun, the Huillac Umu or high priest chewing the leaf during the
ceremony; and, before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was used, as
the cacao in Mexico, instead of money. After the conquest, although
its virtues were extolled by the Inca Garcilasso de la Vega,[315] and
by the Jesuit Acosta,[316] some fanatics proposed to proscribe its
use, and to root up the plants, because they had been used in the
ancient superstitions, and because its cultivation took away the
Indians from other work. The second council of Lima, consisting of
bishops from all parts of South America, condemned the use of coca
in 1569 because it was a "useless and pernicious leaf, and on
account of the belief stated to be entertained by the Indians that the
habit of chewing coca gave them strength, which is an illusion of the
devil."[317]
In speaking of the strength the coca gives to those who chew it,
Garcilasso do la Vega relates the following anecdote. "I remember a
story which I heard in my native land of Peru, of a gentleman of
rank and honour, named Rodrigo Pantoja, who, travelling from Cuzco
to Rimac (Lima), met a poor Spaniard (for there are poor people
there as well as here) who was going on foot, with a little girl aged
two years on his back. The man was known to Pantoja, and they
thus conversed. 'Why do you go laden thus?' said the knight. The
poor man answered that he was unable to hire an Indian to carry
the child, and for that reason he carried it himself. While he spoke
Pantoja looked in his mouth, and saw that it was full of coca; and, as
the Spaniards abominate all that the Indians eat and drink, as
though it savoured of idolatry, particularly the chewing of coca,
which seems to them a low and vile habit, he said, 'It may be as you
say, but why do you eat coca like an Indian, a thing so hateful to
Spaniards?' The man answered, 'In truth, my lord, I detest it as
much as any one, but necessity obliges me to imitate the Indians,
and keep coca in my mouth; for I would have you to know that, if I
did not do so, I could not carry this burden; while the coca gives me
sufficient strength to endure the fatigue.' Pantoja was astonished to
hear this, and told the story wherever he went; and from that time
credit was giving to the Indians for using coca from necessity, and
not from vicious gluttony."
The Spanish Government interfered with the cultivation from more
worthy motives, and mitas of Indians, for the purpose of collecting
coca-leaves, were forbidden in 1569, owing to the reputed
unhealthiness of the valleys.[318] Finally Don Francisco Toledo,
viceroy of Peru, permitted the cultivation with voluntary labour, on
condition that the Indians were well paid, and that care was taken of
their healths. This most prolific of Peruvian legislators issued no less
than seventy ordenanzas on this subject alone, between the years
1570 and 1574. Coca has always been one of the most valuable
articles of commerce in Peru, and it is used by about 8,000,000 of
the human race.
The coca-plant (Erythoxylon coca)[319] is cultivated between 5000
and 6000 feet above the level of the sea, in the warm valleys of the
eastern slopes of the Andes, where almost the only variation of
climate is from wet to dry, where frost is unknown, and where it
rains more or less every month in the year. It is a shrub from four to
six feet high, with lichens, called lacco in Quichua, usually growing
on the older trunks. The branches are straight and alternate; leaves
alternate and entire, in form and size like tea-leaves; flowers solitary
with a small yellowish-white corolla in five petals, ten filaments the
length of the corolla, anthers heart-shaped, and three pistils.
Sowing is commenced in December and January, when the rains
begin, which continue until April. The seeds are spread on the
surface of the soil in a small nursery or raising-ground called
almaciga, over which there is generally a thatch roof (huasichi). At
the end of about a fortnight they come up; the young plants being
continually watered, and protected from the sun by the huasichi.
The following year they are transplanted to a soil specially prepared
by thorough weeding, and breaking up the clods very fine by hand;
often in terraces only affording room for a single row of plants, up
the sides of the mountains, which are kept up by small stone walls.
The plants are generally placed in square holes called aspi, a foot
deep, with stones on the sides to prevent the earth from falling in.
Three or four are planted in each hole, and grow up together. In
Caravaya and Bolivia the soil in which the coca grows is composed of
a blackish clay, formed from the decomposition of the schists, which
form the principal geological features of the mountains. On level
ground the plants are placed in furrows called uachos, separated by
little walls of earth umachas, at the foot of each of which a row of
plants is placed; but this is a modern innovation, the terrace
cultivation being the most ancient. At the end of eighteen months
the plants yield their first harvest, and continue to yield for upwards
of forty years. The first harvest is called quita calzon, and the leaves
are then picked very carefully, one by one, to avoid disturbing the
roots of the young tender plants. The following harvests are called
mitta ("time" or "season"), and take place three times and even four
times in the year. The most abundant harvest takes place in March,
immediately after the rains; the worst at the end of June, called the
mitta de San Juan. The third, called mitta de Santos, is in October or
November. With plenty of watering, forty days suffice to cover the
plants with leaves afresh. It is necessary to weed the ground very
carefully, especially while the plants are young, and the harvest is
gathered by women and children.
The green leaves, called matu, are deposited in a piece of cloth
which each picker carries, and are then spread out in the drying-
yard, called matu-cancha, and carefully dried in the sun. The dried
leaf is called coca. The drying-yard is formed of slate-flags, called
pizarra; and, when the leaves are thoroughly dry, they are sewn up
in cestos or sacks made of banana-leaves, of twenty pounds each,
strengthened by an exterior covering of bayeta or cloth.[320] They
are also packed in tambores of fifty pounds each, pressed tightly
down. Dr. Poeppig reckoned the profits of a coca-farm to be forty-
five per cent.
The harvest is greatest in a hot moist situation; but the leaf
generally considered the best flavoured by consumers, grows in drier
parts, on the sides of hills. The greatest care is required in the
drying; for too much sun causes the leaves to dry up and lose their
flavour, while, if packed up moist, they become fetid. They are
generally exposed to the sun in thin layers.
Acosta says that in his time the trade in coca at Potosi was worth
500,000 dollars annually; and that in 1583 the Indians consumed
100,000 cestos of coca, worth 2½ dollars each in Cuzco, and 4
dollars in Potosi. In 1591[321] an excise of 5 per cent. was imposed
on coca; and in the years 1746 and 1750 this duty yielded 800 and
500 dollars respectively, from Caravaya alone. Between 1785 and
1795 the coca traffic was calculated at 1,207,430 dollars in the
Peruvian viceroyalty; and, including that of Buenos Ayres, 2,641,487
dollars.
In the district of Sandia, in Caravaya, there are two kinds of coca,
that of Ypara and that of Hatun-yunca, which has a larger leaf. The
yield is 45,000 cestos a year. In the yungus of La Paz, in Bolivia, the
yield is about 400,000 cestos. The coca-trade is a government
monopoly in Bolivia, the state reserving the right of purchasing from
the grower, and reselling to the consumer. This right is generally
farmed out to the highest bidder. In 1850 the coca-duty yielded
200,000 dollars to the Bolivian revenue.
The approximate annual produce of coca in Peru is about 15,000,000
lbs.,[322] the average yield being about 800 lbs. an acre. More than
10,000,000 lbs. are produced annually in Bolivia, according to Dr.
Booth of La Paz; so that the annual yield of coca throughout South
America, including Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Pasto, may be
estimated at more than 30,000,000 lbs. At Tacna the tambor of 50
lbs. is worth 9 to 12 dollars, the fluctuations in price being caused by
the perishable nature of the article, which cannot be kept in stock
for any length of time. The average duration of coca in a sound
state, on the coast, is about five months, after which time it is said
to lose flavour, and is rejected by the Indians as worthless.
The reliance on the extraordinary virtues of the coca-leaf, amongst
the Peruvian Indians, is so strong, that, in the Huanuco province,
they believe that, if a dying man can taste a leaf placed on his
tongue, it is a sure sign of his future happiness.[323]
No Indian is without his chuspa or coca-bag, made of llama-cloth,
dyed red and blue in patterns, with woollen tassels hanging from it.
He carries it over one shoulder, suspended at his side; and, in taking
coca, he sits down, puts his chuspa before him, and places the
leaves in his mouth one by one, chewing and turning them till he
forms a ball. He then applies a small quantity of carbonate of
potash, prepared by burning the stalk of the quinoa-plant, and
mixing the ashes with lime and water; thus forming cakes called
llipta, which are dried for use, and also kept in the chuspa.[324] This
operation is called acullicar in Bolivia and Southern Peru, and
chacchar in the North. They usually perform it three times in a day's
work, and every Indian consumes two or three ounces of coca daily.
In the mines of the cold region of the Andes the Indians derive great
enjoyment from the use of coca; the running chasqui, or messenger,
in his long journeys over the mountains and deserts, and the
shepherd watching his flock on the lofty plains, has no other
nourishment than is afforded by his chuspa of coca, and a little
maize. The smell of the leaf is agreeable and aromatic, and when
chewed it gives out a grateful fragrance, accompanied by a slight
irritation, which excites the saliva. Its properties are to enable a
greater amount of fatigue to be borne with less nourishment, and to
prevent the occurrence of difficulty of respiration in ascending steep
mountain-sides. Tea made from the leaves has much the taste of
green tea, and, if taken at night, is much more effectual in keeping
people awake. Applied externally coca moderates the rheumatic
pains caused by cold, and cures headaches. When used to excess it
is, like everything else, prejudicial to the health, yet, of all the
narcotics used by man, coca is the least injurious, and the most
soothing and invigorating.
The active principle of the coca-leaf has, a few years ago, been
separated by Dr. Niemann, and called cocaine. Pure cocaine
crystallizes with difficulty, is but slightly soluble in water, but is easily
dissolved in alcohol, and still more easily in ether.[325]
I chewed coca, not constantly, but very frequently, from the day of
my departure from Sandia, and, besides the agreeable soothing
feeling it produced, I found that I could endure long abstinence from
food with less inconvenience than I should otherwise have felt, and
it enabled me to ascend precipitous mountain-sides with a feeling of
lightness and elasticity, and without losing breath. This latter quality
ought to recommend its use to members of the Alpine Club, and to
walking tourists in general, though the sea voyage would probably
cause the leaves to lose much of their virtue. To the Peruvian Indian,
however, who can procure it within a few weeks of its being picked,
the coca is a solace which is easily procured, which affords great
enjoyment, and which has a most beneficial effect.[326]
 CHAPTER XV.
CARAVAYA.
Chinchona forests of Tambopata.

On the morning of April 27th we crossed a rude bridge over the

Huari-huari, and began to make our way up the face of the steep
mountain on the other side, first through a thick forest, and then up
into the grassy highlands, until, after several halts, we at length
reached the summit of the ridge, though a mountain-peak still rose
up in our rear. From this point there was a most extensive panoramic
view. A sea of ridges rose one behind the other, with stupendous
snowy peaks in the background, and, more than a thousand feet
below, the rivers of Sandia and Huari-huari, reduced to mere
glittering threads, could be seen winding through the tortuous
ravines. We had now reached the pajonales, and were on a ridge or
back-bone between the rivers of Laccani and San Lorenzo, two
tributaries of the Huari-huari; a grass-covered and comparatively
cold region, interspersed with thickets, forming the crest of the
tropical forests which line the sides of the ravines through which the
rivers wind, far below.
When there is sunshine, these pajonales form a very pleasant
landscape: the broad expanse of grass, dotted over with a graceful
milk-white flower called sayri-sayri, is intersected by dense thickets,
some in the gullies and watercourses, and others in clumps, like
those in an English park, the palms and tree-ferns raising their
graceful heads above the rest of the trees. Here and there a black
pool of sweet water is met with at the edge of the thicket, with
chinchona and huaturu-trees drooping over it. Everywhere there is
an abrupt boundary to the foreground in the profound forest-
covered ravines, with splendid views of mountain ranges in the
distance.
The vegetation of the thickets in these pajonales consists of palms,
tree-ferns, Melastomaceæ (Lasiandra fontanesiana) with bright
showy flowers, exceedingly pretty Ericaceæ (Gaultheriæ), Vacciniæ,
the huaturu or incense-tree in great quantities, and Chinchonæ,
chiefly consisting of C. Caravayensis (Wedd.), with a few plants of
Calisaya Josephiana, but the latter are much more rare here than in
the neighbourhood of Paccay-samana. The C. Caravayensis, a
worthless species, has panicles of beautiful deep roseate flowers,
large coarse hairy capsules, and lanceolate leaves, above smooth
with purple veins, and hairy on the under side. It can probably bear
greater cold than any other chinchona.[327]
The afternoon was passed in searching for plants of the shrubby
Calisaya, but with little success. During our examination of the
thickets we found a single specimen, evidently belonging to the
Calisaya species, but in the form of a tree, and not of a shrub. Its
height was eighteen feet six inches; its girth, two feet from the
ground, eight and a half inches; and the position in which it was
growing was 5680 feet above the level of the sea. I was uncertain
whether it belonged to the tree variety (Calisaya vera, Wedd.), or to
the shrub (Calisaga Josephiana); for Dr. Weddell only gives the
height of the latter at eight or ten feet.
Near the banks of one of the black pools, overhung by spreading
branches, we found a shed, a roof of coarse grass raised on four
sticks four and a half feet high, and here we encamped for the night.
It had been made by some party of incense-collectors from Bolivia,
who wander through these wilds. Towards sunset it began to pour
with rain, and continued through the night.
From this point to the Tambopata valley the road was unknown to
my Indians, and had not been traversed since the time of the bark-
trade, which came to an end fifteen years ago. It was supposed that
any path which might once have existed would be entirely choked up
by the forest, and I therefore started early in the morning, with
Andres Vilca, to reconnoitre. The backbone of the ridge along which
we travelled was not level, but up and down like a saw, and very
rough work. After walking for a league the ridge ended where a
transverse range of hills, at a lower elevation, connects the
mountains on the further sides of the rivers of San Lorenzo and
Laccani, and, closing up the ravines, contains their sources. This
range, at right angles with the one over which we had journeyed, is
called the Marun-kunka, and is covered with dense forests. It was
necessary to force our way through this formidable obstruction, and
we plunged into it at once. Our progress was vigorously opposed by
closely matted fallen bamboos for the first few hundred yards, and
afterwards we followed the course of a torrent, deeply cut in the
rock, and forming a passage four to six feet deep, and about three
feet across, with masses of ferns and the roots of enormous forest-
trees interlacing across overhead, and two feet of exceedingly
tenacious yellow mud underfoot. In many places it was almost dark
at midday, while in others the rays of the sun succeeded in forcing
their way through the ferns, and throwing a pale light across the
otherwise gloomy passage. It was a weird unearthly scene. After
several hours of very laborious travelling we at length forced our
way across the Marun-kunka, and came out upon another pajonal,
on the eastern side, whence there was a grand view of the forest
scenery towards Tambopata, and the snowy peaks of the cordillera
above Quiaca and Sina to the right.
The afternoon was again devoted to searching for plants of Calisaya
Josephiana in the thickets; where the C. Caravayensis was very
plentiful, together with several plants of the shrubby Calisaya, and
four or five trees of the normal tree Calisaya, from 20 to 30 feet
high. The elevation of this place was 5600 feet above the sea. Later
in the day the journey was continued over a most difficult country,
sometimes over grassy pajonales, and at others painfully struggling
through forests like those on the Marun-kunka. In one of these
forests I came upon a Calisaya-tree, 38 feet high, and 1 foot 3
inches in girth at a distance of 3 feet from the ground, which was
several feet deep in dead leaves, chiefly the smooth leathery leaf of
the huaturu-tree. At length we commenced the descent into the
valley of Tambopata, 1200 feet down slippery rocks and grass, then
through a belt of forest, until we suddenly emerged on an open
space on the banks of the large rapid river, where there was a
bamboo hut. A little coca and sugar-cane was planted, but the
occupant was absent. With touching confidence he had left his door
open, so my Indians established themselves comfortably, while Weir
and I pitched the tent.
The river of Tambopata, descending from the farm of Saqui near the
frontier of Bolivia, here flows in a northerly direction. Up the stream
I could see a few little clearings, but looking down nothing appeared
but the virgin forest. A most magnificent range of mountains, with a
fine growth of forest trees, rises up on either side, and the rapid
swollen river rushed through the centre of the ravine. The rock of all
the ranges of hills between the Huari-huari and Tambopata rivers is
a yellow clay-slate, with masses of white quartz cropping out on the
pajonales.
Early in the morning we continued our journey down the valley,
through a forest of grand timber, passing the little hut of Tambopata
which Dr. Weddell had mentioned to me as having been the great
rendezvous for cascarilleros or chinchona-bark collectors, at the time
of his visit. After wading across the rapid little river of Llami-llami,
which enters the Tambopata on the left bank, we came to a small
clearing, planted with sugar-cane, the property of a very energetic
and obliging old Bolivian, named Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda. He
was living in a shed, open on two sides, and with a young son, and
two or three Indians, was actively clearing, planting sugar-cane, and
making rum in an extemporized distillery of his own manufacture.
This little farm was the extreme outpost of civilisation in this
direction, and had only been commenced since December 1859.
Gironda was cultivating sugar-cane, maize, and edible roots; and, at
the time of my visit, he was just commencing his michca, or small
sowing of maize. His people were driving holes in the ground with
long poles, about a foot deep, into which they drop four to six
grains, and cover over. The holes are four feet apart, for here the
maize grows to an immense height. The agricultural tools were of a
most primitive kind. The ground is first broken and cleared with a bit
of old iron, fastened, at an acute angle, on a short handle. It is
further broken up by an attempt at a spade, an oblong piece of iron,
bent at one end round a long pole. The weeds and brushwood are
cleared away by an instrument like the first, only turned a different
way, both being secured to their handles by leathern thongs. They
reap with the blade of an old knife, and where the clods require to
be broken up very fine, as in coca plantations, it is done by hand.
The only use that Gironda puts his small supply of sugar-cane to, as
yet, is making spirits and a small quantity of treacle. The cane is
expressed by a very primitive mill of three upright rollers of hard
wood, worked by a single capstan-bar and a mule, the juice flowing
into a gutter, and running thence, through a bamboo, into a large
jar. The juice is then placed in two long canoes, hollow trunks of
trees, where it is allowed to ferment. In about eight days the
fermentation is over, and it is ready for distilling. This sugar-beer is
called huarapu, and is rather good. The juice is then poured into a
large jar, over an oven, and above the mouth of this jar he places
the broken side of another smaller one, covering the joining round
with mud. From the mouth of the second jar a bamboo is led
through a large canoe to the mouth of a third jar. The fire is lighted
in the oven, the canoe is filled with cold water to condense the
vapour as it comes up through the bamboo, and the work of
distilling begins; the clear colourless rum soon commencing to flow
out of the bamboo into the receiving-jar. The sugar-cane is of the
purplish-brown kind, which is said to ripen quickest.
Gironda also raises a few edible roots, such as yucas (Jatophra
manihot), aracachas[328] (Conium maculatum), camotes or sweet
potatoes, and ocas. He gave me the following information respecting
the climate and seasons in the valley of Tambopata, which is worthy
of attention, as this is the very centre of the C. Calisaya region.

January.—Incessant rain, with damp heat day and night. Sun

never seen. Fruits ripen.
 February.—Incessant rain and very hot. Sun never seen. A coca
harvest.
March.—Less rain, hot days and nights, little sun. Bananas yield
most during the rainy season.
April.—Less rain; hot, humid nights, and little sun in the
daytime.
May.—A showery month, but little heavy rain. This is the month
for planting coca and sugar-cane, and what is called the michca,
or small sowing of maize, as well as yucas, aracachas, camotes,
and other edible roots. Coffee-harvest begins.
June.—A dry hot month. Much sun and little rain. Coca-harvest
early in the month. Oranges and paccays ripen. Cool nights, but
a fierce heat during the day.
July.—The hottest and driest month, but with cool nights. Very
few showers. Time for sowing gourds, pumpkins, and water-
melons.
August.—Generally dry. Trees begin to bud. A month for
planting.
September.—Rains begin. Time for blossoming of many trees.
Coca-harvest.
October.—Rains increasing. Maize-harvest, and time for the
"sembra grande," or great sowing of maize.
November.—Heavy rains. A coca-harvest.
December.—Heavy rains. Pumpkins ripen.

The inhabitants of the valley of Tambopata consist of Gironda, his

two little boys, one Victorio Jovi, Villalba, and the cascarillero named
Martinez. Another cascarillero, named Ximenes, has lately died. They
live with their families at a place called Huaccay-churu, about half a
mile up the Llami-llami river, where there are a few huts, and a small
clearing. Gironda's little farm is the last inhabited spot; beyond is the
illimitable virgin forest, stretching away for hundreds, nay thousands
of miles, to the shores of the Atlantic. This forest has not been
traversed since 1847, when the bark trade ceased, and it is quite
closed up.
By the desertion of one of my Indians on the day we left Sandia, the
other three and Pablo Sevallos were barely able to carry the
provisions and other necessaries, so that, on reaching Gironda's
clearing, which is called Lenco-huayccu,[329] I found that I had only
sufficient food to last for six days. Gironda himself was little better
off, and was living on roots, and chuñus or potatoes preserved by
being frozen in the loftiest parts of the Andes. I determined,
however, to penetrate into the forest, in search of chinchona-plants,
for six days, and to trust to Gironda's kindness to supply me with
provisions to enable me to return to Sandia.
I was so fortunate as to secure the services of Mariano Martinez, an
experienced cascarillero, who had acted as guide to Dr. Weddell, on
the occasion of his visit to the valley of Tambopata in 1846. He was
thoroughly acquainted with all the different species of chinchona-
trees, and, reared from a child in these forest solitudes, he was a
most excellent and expert woodman, intelligent, sober, active, and
obliging.
On May 1st we prepared to enter the dense entangled forest, where
no European had been before, and no human being for upwards of
thirteen years, except the Collahuayas and incense-collectors. Our
party consisted of seven: the three Indians, Weir, Pablo, Martinez,
and myself. The Indians, each with their chuspas of coca, and a
chumpi or belt round their waists, carried the ccepis or bundles of
provisions; Pablo bore the tent; and we were all armed with
machetes, or wood-knives, to clear the way. My people were all
dressed in coarse cotton cloth, and I wore a leathern hat, red
woollen shirt, fustian trousers, and the indispensable polccos, or
shoes made of bayeta or felt, always used in these forests. We were
all mustered and ready to start on the verge of Gironda's clearing,
which is surrounded by tall forest trees, with the river rushing noisily
past, and the opposite mountains covered to their summits with fine
timber, when half a dozen pale-faced men emerged from the tangled
thicket in our front. They looked wan and cadaverous like men risen
from the dead, and worn out by long watching and fatigue. They
turned out to be Collahuayas, collectors of drugs and incense, who
penetrate far into the forests to obtain their wares, and come forth,
as we then saw them, looking pale and haggard.
These Collahuayas, called also Chirihuanos on the coast of Peru,
Yungeños, and Charasanis, are a very peculiar race. They come from
three villages in the forest-covered ravines of the Bolivian province
of Larecaja, called Charasani, Consata, and Quirbe; and their
knowledge of the virtues of herbs has been handed down from
father to son from time immemorial. They traverse the forests of
Bolivia and Caravaya collecting their drugs; and then set out as
professors of the healing art, to exercise their calling in all parts of
America, frequently being two and three years away from their
homes, on these excursions. With their wallets of drugs on their
backs, and dressed in black breeches, a red poncho, and broad-
brimmed hat, they walk in a direct line from village to village,
exercising their calling, and penetrating as far as Quito and Bogota
in one direction, and to the extreme limits of the Argentine Republic
in the other. Their ancestors did the same in the time of the Incas,
and Garcilasso de la Vega gives some account of the medical
treatment adopted by the ancient Peruvian physicians. They were in
the habit of letting blood and purging, they administered the
powdered leaf of the sayri (tobacco) for headaches, mulli (Schinus
molle) for wounds, and a host of other simple herbs for other
ailments. Both Garcilasso[330] and Acosta[331] mention their
knowledge of the virtues of sarsaparilla, yet it is remarkable that the
Collahuayas should never have discovered the febrifugal qualities of
chinchona bark.
We saluted these hard-working physicians, and then entered the
forest from which they had just emerged. A short walk brought us to
the river Challuma,[332] a tributary of the Tambopata, which we
waded across. Martinez told me that this was the extreme point
reached by Dr. Weddell, and that he came here to see a tree of C.
micrantha growing.
Beyond the Challuma there is no road at all, and the really serious
forest work began; two hornets stinging me on the temple and back
of the neck, as I forced my way through the first bush. Martinez
went in front as pioneer, clearing away obstructions with his
machete, and the rest of our little party followed. Between lordly
trees of great height the ground was entirely choked up with
creepers, fallen masses of tangled bamboo, and long tendrils which
twisted round our ankles, and tripped us up at every step. Ten miles
on open ground is only equal to one over such country as this. In
many places we had to scramble through the same dense forest,
along the verge of giddy precipices which overhung the river. Often
we came upon tracks where a giant of the forest had fallen, bearing
all before it, and finally dashing over the cliff into the river below.
The Tambopata was boiling and surging over a rocky bed, at times
far below us, while at others we took advantage of a short strip of
rocky beach to escape the forest. Thus we struggled on until sunset,
when we reached a stony beach, and encamped for the night. This
had been a most fatiguing march. In some places we were a quarter
of an hour forcing and cutting our way through a space of twenty
yards, and the halt was most welcome. It was a wild scene as the
darkness closed round: the camp-fire and Indians on the beach, the
dense gloomy forest close behind, the boiling river in front, and
forest-clad mountains rising up on the other side.
From this, the first day of our forest-life, until the 14th of May, being
just a fortnight, we were actively engaged in the examination of the
chinchona region, and in the collection of plants. As the best way of
recording the results of our investigations, I now propose to give a
detailed account of our proceedings from day to day; and, in the
following chapter, to recapitulate our observations with special
reference to the climate, soil, and general habit of those species of
chinchonæ which came immediately under our notice. I owe much
to the intelligent assistance of our guide Martinez, who, to great
experience in woodcraft, added a lynx's eye for a Calisaya-plant; and
it required no little quickness and penetration to distinguish these
treasures, amidst the close entanglement of the undergrowth, in the
dense forests. Martinez spoke Spanish very imperfectly, and, without
a knowledge of Quichua, I should have found much difficulty in
conversing with him; but he had a most complete and thorough
knowledge of all forest-lore, and was acquainted with the native
name of almost every plant, and with the uses to which they were or
might be applied.
At dawn the Indians found the marks of a jaguar on the beach close
to the tent; and a huge snake wriggled through the fallen trees as
we re-entered the forest. The brilliant colours and great variety of
butterflies were very striking. I particularly noticed one, bright blue
and crimson above, with the underside marked with a pattern, as if
drawn by a crow-quill on a snow-white ground, edged with deep
blue. After struggling through the forest for about a mile we came to
the foot of the tremendous precipices, one on either side of the river,
which Martinez called Ccasa-sani. That on our (the western) shore
rises up perpendicularly from the water to a height which we
estimated at 500 feet, ending in a rocky peak. Its sides are masses
of bare polished rock, except in the rear, and in some crevices,
where vegetation finds a foothold. Amongst other trees the paccay
(Mimosa Inga), with its cottony fruit, was drooping over the bubbling
waves. The river, surging furiously over and around huge masses of
rock, dashed noisily on between the two precipices.
We had to ascend the western precipice of Ccasa-sani by a frightful
kind of ladder, formed of ledges in the rock, or half-rotten branches
of trees, here and there having to cross a yawning chasm on the
fallen stems of tree-ferns rotting from age. Near the summit we had
a glorious view of the forest-covered mountains, running up into
sharp peaks, with graceful palms rising above the other trees on
their crests, and standing out against the sky. Several Calisaya-trees
were growing on the summit, with bunches of young capsules, in
company with the leathery-leafed huaturu, and the Aceite de Maria
(Elæagia Mariæ, Wedd.). The latter is a tree about thirty feet high,
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