Macro Molecules
Macro Molecules
Global Edition
16
Nucleic Acids and
Inheritance
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
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Figure 16.1
Figure 16.1a
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a) DNA is copied during DNA replication, and cells can
repair their DNA
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The Search for the Genetic Material: Scientific Inquiry
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a) When he mixed heat-killed remains of the pathogenic
strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some
living cells became pathogenic
Figure 16.2
Experiment
Living S cells Living R cells Heat-killed S cells Mixture of heat-
(pathogenic (nonpathogenic (nonpathogenic killed S cells and
control) control) control) living R cells
Results
Living S cells
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a) In 1944, Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin
MacLeod announced that the transforming substance
was DNA
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Figure 16.3
Phage
head
DNA
Tail
sheath
Tail fiber
Genetic
material
100 nm
Bacterial
cell
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a) In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed
that DNA is the genetic material of a phage known as
T2
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Figure 16.4
Experiment
Batch 1: Radioactive sulfur (35S) in phage protein
1 Labeled phages 2 Agitation frees outside 3 Centrifuged cells
infect cells. phage parts from cells. form a pellet.
Radioactive 4 Radioactivity
protein (phage protein)
found in liquid
Centrifuge
Pellet
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Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus ( P) in phage DNA
Radioactive
DNA
Centrifuge
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Figure 16.4a
Experiment
Batch 1: Radioactive sulfur (35S) in phage protein
1 Labeled phages 2 Agitation frees 3 Centrifuged cells
infect cells. outside phage form a pellet.
parts from cells.
Radioactive
protein
Centrifuge
Pellet 4 Radioactivity
(phage protein)
found in liquid
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Figure 16.4b
Experiment
Batch 2: Radioactive phosphorus (32P) in phage DNA
1 Labeled phages 2 Agitation frees 3 Centrifuged cells
infect cells. outside phage form a pellet.
parts from cells.
Radioactive
DNA
Centrifuge
Pellet 4 Radioactivity
(phage DNA)
found in
pellet
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Animation: Hershey-Chase Experiment
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Figure 16.5
Sugar– 5ʹ end Nitrogenous
phosphate bases
backbone
Thymine (T)
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C)
Phosphate
Guanine (G)
3ʹ end
Sugar
DNA (deoxyribose)
Nitrogenous
nucleotide base
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a) Two findings became known as Chargaff’s rules
a)The base composition of DNA varies between species
b)In any species the number of A and T bases are equal
and the number of G and C bases are equal
b) The basis for these rules was not understood until the
discovery of the double helix
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Figure 16.6
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Figure 16.6a
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Figure 16.6b
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Figure 16.7
5ʹ end
C G
C G Hydrogen bond 3ʹ end
G C
G C T A
3.4 nm
T A
G C G C
C G
A T
1 nm C G
T A
C G
G C
C G A T
A T 3ʹ end
A T
0.34 nm
T A 5ʹ end
(a) Key features of (b) Partial chemical structure (c) Space-filling
DNA structure model
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Figure 16.7a
C G
C G
G C
G C
3.4 nm
T A
G C
C G
A T
1 nm
T A
C G
G C
C G
A T
A T
0.34 nm
T A
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Figure 16.7b
5ʹ end
Hydrogen bond
3ʹ end
T A
G C
C G
A T
3ʹ end
5ʹ end
(b) Partial chemical structure
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Figure 16.7c
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Animation: DNA Double Helix
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Video: Surface Model of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
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a) At first, Watson and Crick thought the bases paired
like with like (A with A, and so on), but such pairings
did not result in a uniform width
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Figure 16.UN02
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a) Watson and Crick reasoned that the pairing was more
specific, dictated by the base structures
b) They determined that adenine (A) paired only with
thymine (T), and guanine (G) paired only with
cytosine (C)
c) The Watson-Crick model explains Chargaff’s rules: in
any organism the amount of A = T, and the amount of
G=C
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Figure 16.8
Sugar
Sugar
Adenine (A) Thymine (T)
Sugar
Sugar
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Concept 16.2: Many proteins work together in DNA
replication and repair
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Figure 16.9-1
A T
C G
T A
A T
G C
(a) Parental
molecule
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Figure 16.9-2
A T A T
C G C G
T A T A
A T A T
G C G C
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Figure 16.9-3
A T A T A T A T
C G C G C G C G
T A T A T A T A
A T A T A T A T
G C G C G C G C
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Figure 16.10
First Second
Parent cell replication replication
(a) Conservative
model
(b) Semiconserva-
tive model
(c) Dispersive
model
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a) The first replication produced a band of hybrid DNA,
eliminating the conservative model
b) A second replication produced both light and hybrid
DNA, eliminating the dispersive model and supporting
the semiconservative model
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Figure 16.11
Experiment
1 Bacteria cultured 2 Bacteria transferred
in medium with 15N to medium with 14N
(heavy isotope) (lighter isotope)
Results
3 DNA sample 4 DNA sample Less dense
centrifuged centrifuged
after first after second
replication replication More dense
Conclusion
Predictions: First replication Second replication
Conservative
model
Semiconservative
model
Dispersive
model
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Figure 16.11a
Experiment
1 Bacteria cultured 2 Bacteria transferred
in medium with 15N to medium with 14N
(heavy isotope) (lighter isotope)
Results
3 DNA sample 4 DNA sample Less dense
centrifuged centrifuged
after first after second
replication replication More dense
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Figure 16.11b
Conclusion
Predictions: First replication Second replication
Conservative
model
Semiconservative
model
Dispersive
model
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DNA Replication: A Closer Look
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Getting Started
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Figure 16.12
(a) Origin of replication in an E. coli cell (b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic cell
Origin of Parental (template) Origin of
replication strand replication Eukaryotic chromosome
Daughter
(new) strand Parental (template)
Double-stranded strand
Replication DNA molecule Daughter (new)
Bacterial
fork strand
chromosome
Double-
Replication
stranded
DNA molecule bubble Replication
Bubble
fork
Two daughter
DNA molecules
0.25 µm
0.5 µm
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Figure 16.12a
(a) Origin of replication in an E. coli cell
Origin of Parental (template) strand
replication Daughter
(new) strand
Bacterial Replication
chromosome fork
Double-stranded
DNA molecule
Replication
bubble
Two daughter
DNA molecules
0.5 µm
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Figure 16.12aa
0.5 µm
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Figure 16.12b
(b) Origins of replication in a eukaryotic cell
Origin of replication Eukaryotic chromosome
Bubble Replication
fork
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Figure 16.12ba
0.25 µm
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a) At the end of each replication bubble is a replication
fork, a Y-shaped region where
new DNA strands are elongating
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Figure 16.13
Primase
Topoisomerase
3ʹ
RNA
5ʹ
3ʹ primer
5ʹ
Replication
3ʹ fork
5ʹ
Helicase
Single-strand binding
proteins
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a) DNA polymerases cannot initiate synthesis of a
polynucleotide; they can only add nucleotides to an
existing 3′ end
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Synthesizing a New DNA Strand
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Figure 16.14
New strand Template strand
5ʹ 3ʹ 5ʹ 3ʹ
Sugar A T A T
Phosphate Base
C G C G
G C DNA G C
poly-
OH merase
3ʹ A T A
T OH
P P Pi
P C 3ʹ C
P Pyro-
OH phosphate
Nucleotide
5ʹ 5ʹ
2 Pi
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Antiparallel Elongation
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Figure 16.15
Overview
Origin of replication
Leading strand Lagging strand
Primer
Leading strand
Lagging strand
Overall
directions
1 DNA pol III starts to of replication Origin of replication
synthesize leading 3ʹ
strand.
5ʹ
RNA primer
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ Sliding clamp
DNA pol III
Parental DNA 5ʹ
3ʹ
5ʹ
5ʹ
3ʹ 2 Continuous
3ʹ elongation in the
5ʹ to 3ʹ direction
5ʹ
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Figure 16.15a
Overview
Origin of replication
Leading strand Lagging strand
Primer
Leading strand
Lagging strand
Overall directions
of replication
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Figure 16.15b
5ʹ
2 Continuous
3ʹ 3ʹ
elongation in the
5ʹ to 3ʹ direction
5ʹ
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a) Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA
polymerase synthesizes a leading strand
continuously, moving toward the replication fork
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Figure 16.16
Overview
Lagging Origin of replication
Leading strand Lagging
strand strand
2
1
Leading
strand RNA primer
Overall directions for fragment 2
of replication 5ʹ Okazaki 4 DNA pol III
1 Primase makes 3ʹ fragment 2 makes Okazaki
3ʹ
RNA primer. 2 fragment 2.
Origin of
5ʹ replication 3ʹ
3ʹ 1
5ʹ 3ʹ 5ʹ
Template 5ʹ
strand 5ʹ
2 DNA pol III 3ʹ 5 DNA pol I
3ʹ RNA primer makes Okazaki replaces RNA
for fragment 1 fragment 1. with DNA.
2
1 3ʹ
5ʹ 5ʹ
1 3ʹ 5ʹ 3ʹ
5ʹ
6 DNA ligase
5ʹ forms bonds
3 DNA pol III 3ʹ
between DNA
3ʹ detaches. fragments.
2
Okazaki
fragment 1 1 3ʹ
5ʹ 5ʹ
1 3ʹ
5ʹ Overall direction of replication
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Figure 16.16a
Overview
Lagging Origin of replication
Leading strand Lagging
strand strand
2
1
Leading
strand
Overall directions
of replication
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Figure 16.16b-1
1 Primase makes
3ʹ
RNA primer.
Origin of
replication
5ʹ 3ʹ
Template 5ʹ 3ʹ
5ʹ
strand
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Figure 16.16b-2
1 Primase makes
3ʹ
RNA primer.
Origin of
replication
5ʹ 3ʹ
Template 5ʹ 3ʹ
5ʹ
strand
2 DNA pol III
3ʹ RNA primer makes Okazaki
for fragment 1 fragment 1.
5ʹ
1 3ʹ 5ʹ 3ʹ
5ʹ
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Figure 16.16b-3
1 Primase makes
3ʹ
RNA primer.
Origin of
replication
5ʹ 3ʹ
Template 5ʹ 3ʹ
5ʹ
strand
2 DNA pol III
3ʹ RNA primer makes Okazaki
for fragment 1 fragment 1.
5ʹ
1 3ʹ 5ʹ 3ʹ
5ʹ
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Figure 16.16c-1
RNA primer
for fragment 2
5ʹ Okazaki 4 DNA pol III
3ʹ fragment 2 makes Okazaki
2 fragment 2.
1 3ʹ
5ʹ
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Figure 16.16c-2
RNA primer
for fragment 2
5ʹ Okazaki 4 DNA pol III
3ʹ fragment 2 makes Okazaki
2 fragment 2.
1 3ʹ
5ʹ
5ʹ
3ʹ 5 DNA pol I
replaces RNA
with DNA.
2
1 3ʹ
5ʹ
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Figure 16.16c-3
RNA primer
for fragment 2
5ʹ Okazaki 4 DNA pol III
3ʹ fragment 2 makes Okazaki
2 fragment 2.
1 3ʹ
5ʹ
5ʹ
3ʹ 5 DNA pol I
replaces RNA
with DNA.
2
1 3ʹ
5ʹ
6 DNA ligase
5ʹ forms bonds
3ʹ between DNA
fragments.
2
1 3ʹ
5ʹ
Overall direction of replication
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Figure 16.17
Overview
Leading Origin of
strand replication
Lagging
Leading strand strand
template 3ʹ
Leading
Single-strand Lagging strand
strand 5ʹ
binding proteins
Leading strand Overall directions
Helicase of replication
5ʹ DNA pol III
3ʹ Primer
3ʹ 5ʹ
3ʹ Primase
Parental 5 DNA pol III
5ʹ Lagging
DNA 3ʹ DNA pol I
4 strand DNA ligase
5ʹ
3 2
3ʹ
1
Lagging strand 5ʹ
template
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Figure 16.17a
Overview
Leading Origin of
strand replication
Lagging
strand
Leading
Lagging strand
strand
Overall directions
of replication
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Figure 16.17b
Leading strand
template
Single-strand
binding proteins
Leading
Helicase
strand
5ʹ DNA pol III
3ʹ Primer
3ʹ 5ʹ Primase
3ʹ
Parental 5
DNA
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Figure 16.17c
Lagging strand 5ʹ
template
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Table 16.1
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Table 16.1a
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Table 16.1b
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Figure 16.18
3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
5ʹ
Connecting protein
Helicase
DNA pol III
Lagging 3ʹ 5ʹ
strand Lagging strand
5ʹ 3ʹ
template
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Proofreading and Repairing DNA
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Figure 16.19-1
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
Nuclease
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
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Figure 16.19-2
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
Nuclease
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
DNA
polymerase
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
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Figure 16.19-3
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
Nuclease
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
DNA
polymerase
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
DNA
ligase
5ʹ 3ʹ
3ʹ 5ʹ
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Evolutionary Significance of Altered DNA Nucleotides
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Figure 16.20
5ʹ
Ends of parental Leading strand
DNA strands Lagging strand
3ʹ
Next-to-last
Last fragment fragment
Lagging strand RNA primer
5ʹ
3ʹ
Parental strand Removal of primers and
replacement with DNA
where a 3ʹ end is available
5ʹ
3ʹ
Second round
of replication
5ʹ
New leading strand 3ʹ
New lagging strand 5ʹ
3ʹ
Further rounds
of replication
Shorter and shorter daughter molecules
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Figure 16.20a
5ʹ
Ends of parental Leading strand
DNA strands Lagging strand
3ʹ
Next-to-last
Last fragment fragment
5ʹ
3ʹ
Parental strand Removal of primers and
replacement with DNA
where a 3ʹ end is available
5ʹ
3ʹ
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Figure 16.20b
5ʹ
3ʹ
Second round
of replication
5ʹ
New leading strand 3ʹ
New lagging strand 5ʹ
3ʹ
Further rounds
of replication
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Important Biological
Macromolecules
Biology for Majors
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Proteins
Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and
have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules.
Each cell in a living system may contain thousands of proteins, each with a
unique function and structure.
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Amino Acids
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Peptide Bonds
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Protein Structure
To understand how the protein gets its final shape or conformation, we need to
understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary
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Primary Structure
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Secondary Structure
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Tertiary Structure
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Quaternary Structure
Some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits,
and the interaction of these subunits forms the quaternary structure.
Weak interactions between the subunits help to stabilize the overall structure.
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Denaturation
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Protein Folding
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Protein Types and Functions
Type Examples Functions
Provide nourishment in
Legume storage proteins,
Storage early development of the
egg white (albumin)
embryo and the seedling
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Lipids
Major types include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
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Fats
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Types of
Fatty Acids
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Omega Fatty Acids
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Waxes
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Phospholipids
Phospholipids have a
glycerol or sphingosine
backbone to which two
fatty acid chains and a
phosphate-containing
group are attached.
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Phospholipids in Membranes
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Steroids
Steroids are another class of lipids. Their basic structure has four fused carbon rings.
Cholesterol is a type of steroid and is an important constituent of the plasma
membrane, where it helps to maintain the fluid nature of the membrane. It is also
the precursor of steroid hormones such as testosterone.
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Carbohydrates
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Monosaccharides
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Monosaccharide
Rings
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Disaccharides
Monosaccharides are
linked by glycosidic bonds
that are formed as a result
of dehydration reactions,
forming disaccharides and
polysaccharides with the
elimination of a water
molecule for each bond
formed.
Common disaccharides
include lactose, maltose,
and sucrose.
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Polysaccharides
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Cellulose
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Polysaccharides (continued)
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Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life.
They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the
functioning of the cell. The two main types of nucleic acids are
1.deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
2.ribonucleic acid (RNA)
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Nucleotides
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Molecular
Structure of
Nucleotides
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Base Complimentary Rule
Only certain types of base pairing are allowed. This is known as the base
complementary rule.
In this way, the DNA strands are complementary to each other. During DNA
replication, each strand is copied, resulting in a daughter DNA double helix
containing one parental DNA strand and a newly synthesized strand.
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RNA
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mRNA
Messenger RNA or mRNA, carries the message from DNA, which controls all of
the cellular activities in a cell.
If a cell requires a certain protein to be synthesized, the gene for this product is
turned “on” and the messenger RNA is synthesized in the nucleus.
The RNA base sequence is complementary to the coding sequence of the
DNA from which it has been copied but with the base U instead of T.
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rRNA
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a major
constituent of ribosomes on which the
mRNA binds.
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tRNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is one of the smallest of the four types of RNA, usually 70–90
nucleotides long.
It carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. It is the base
pairing between the tRNA and mRNA that allows for the correct amino acid to
be inserted in the polypeptide chain.
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microRNA
microRNAs are the smallest RNA molecules and their role involves the
regulation of gene expression by interfering with the expression of certain
mRNA messages.
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Remains in the
Location Leaves the nucleus
nucleus
DNA is double-
stranded “ladder”:
Structure sugar-phosphate Usually single-stranded
backbone, with base
rungs.
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The Central Dogma of Life
This is known as the Central Dogma of Life, which holds true for all organisms.
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Comparing Macromolecules
Basic
Macromolecule Formula, key Monomer Examples Uses
features
CHON
Storage; Signals;
−NH2 +
Enzymes, some Structural; Contractile;
Proteins −COOH +R Amino acids
hormones Defensive; Enzyme;
group
Transport; Receptors
C:H:O
Greater than Energy storage;
Fatty acid and Butter, oil, cholesterol,
Lipids 2:1 H:O Protection; Chemical
glycerol beeswax
(carboxyl messengers; Repel water
group)
Glucose, Fructose,
C:H:O
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Starch, Glycogen, Energy storage; Structure
1:2:1
Cellulose
CHONP
pentose,
Nucleic Acids nitrogenous Nucleotides DNA, RNA Genetic information
base,
phosphate
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Dehydration Synthesis
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Hydrolysis
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Energy and Macromolecules
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Quick Review
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