A 1.

2 Nucleic Acids

Learning objectives and guiding questions:

“How does the structure of nucleic acids allow hereditary information to be stored?”

“How does the structure of DNA facilitate accurate replication?”

DNA as the genetic material of all living Some viruses use RNA as their genetic material but viruses are not
A.1.2.1 considered to be living.
organisms
In diagrams of nucleotides use circles, pentagons and rectangles to
A.1.2.2 Components of a nucleotide represent relative positions of phosphates, pentose sugars and bases.

Sugar–phosphate bonding makes a continuous chain of covalently bonded

Sugar–phosphate bonding and the sugar–
A.1.2.3 atoms in each strand of DNA or RNA nucleotides, which forms a strong
phosphate “backbone” of DNA and RNA
“backbone” in the molecule.
Bases in each nucleic acid that form the basis of a Students should know the names of the nitrogenous bases.
A.1.2.4
code
RNA as a polymer formed by condensation of Students should be able to draw and recognize diagrams of the structure
A.1.2.5
nucleotide monomers of single nucleotides and RNA polymers.
In diagrams of DNA structure, students should draw the two strands
DNA as a double helix made of two antiparallel antiparallel, but are not required to draw the helical shape. Students
strands of nucleotides with two strands linked by should show adenine (A) paired with thymine (T), and guanine (G) paired
A.1.2.6
hydrogen bonding between complementary base with cytosine (C). Students are not required to memorize the relative
pairs lengths of the purine and pyrimidine bases, or the numbers of hydrogen
bonds.
Include the number of strands present, the types of nitrogenous bases and
the type of pentose sugar. Students should be able to sketch the distinction
A.1.2.7 Differences between DNA and RNA
between ribose and deoxyribose. Students should be familiar with
examples of nucleic acids.
Role of complementary base pairing in allowing Students should understand that complementarity is based on hydrogen
A.1.2.8 genetic information to be replicated and bonding.
expressed
Diversity of possible DNA base sequences and Explain that diversity by any length of DNA molecule and any base
A.1.2.9 the limitless capacity of DNA for storing sequence is possible. Emphasize the enormous capacity of DNA for storing
information data with great economy.
Conservation of the genetic code across all life Students are not required to memorize any specific examples of variations.
A.1.2.10
forms as evidence of universal common ancestry

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DNA as the genetic material of all living organisms

Do you remember? All living things have 3 cellular features in common:

• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Genetic material in the form of DNA

Prokaryotic cells have circular DNA in an area referred to as nucleoid. Eukaryotic cells have DNA in the linear
form of chromosomes inside a membrane bound nucleus. Viruses are not living things, but they also can have
DNA as genetic material. Commonly, viruses also have RNA (ribose nucleic acid) inside their viral capsids to carry
genetic information.

There are 4 major types of biological molecules upon

which life is based – Lipids, Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates
and proteins. Nucleic acids include nuclear and organelle
DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts, and the different
types of RNA (ribosomal, messenger, transfer RNA).

Nucleic acids have two primary functions. Describe them:

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Components of a nucleotide:

Both types of nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are made up of monomers (individual building blocks) called
nucleotides to form a long-chained polymer. Which parts is a nucleotide made of?

The building blocks of DNA and RNA, the nucleotides, are very similar.

• Both have a phosphate group, sugar and nitrogenous base

• But RNA has a ribose sugar, while DNA has a deoxyribose.
• RNA has the nitrogenous base Uracil instead of Thymine
• Both nucleotides have the bases Cytosine, Adenine and Guanine
There are 4 different nitrogenous bases that make up DNA and RNA. Why are they “nitrogenous”?

Which ones are found in DNA:

Which ones are found in RNA:

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Diagrams of the DNA and RNA nucleotides:

The building blocks of DNA and RNA, the nucleotides, are very similar. Both have a sugar, phosphate and base.
However, RNA has a ribose sugar, while DNA has a deoxyribose.

Draw a nucleotide of DNA and one of RNA, using the shapes of a pentagon (sugar), circle (phosphate), rectangle (base).
Make sure to label all structures shown including the bonds:

DNA: RNA:

The sugar-phosphate bonding and sugar phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA:

The individual nucleotides (the monomers) of a

DNA or RNA strand are linked together to
polymers in long chains through a condensation
reaction (releasing water). This reaction forms
covalent bonds between nucleotides and long
continuous strands with a characteristic sugar-
phosphate backbone.

A condensation reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which two molecules are combined to form a single
molecule, with the loss of a water molecule.
Describe the condensation reaction occurring between two
nucleotides in DNA and RNA in the formation of a single strand:

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Bases in each nucleotide that form the basis of a code:

In a strand of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) the sequence of

the nitrogenous bases forms the basis of the genetic
code. Specifically, The order of bases in the DNA of a gene
codes for the order of amino acids in a protein.

DNA as a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides:

DNA is not just a single

strand, but a double
helix: It has two
strands that twist
around each other in
an antiparallel way.
Each strand is made of
single units called
nucleotides. It has a
sugar-phosphate
backbone. The bases
join the two strands
by hydrogen bonds.

The two strands run antiparallel. They run in opposite directions. (One from 5’ → 3’, and the other from 3, → 5,
with the respective numbers connotating the numbered carbon atom in the deoxyribose sugar ring.
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Watch the video (https://youtu.be/o_-6JXLYS-k ) and pay attention to the key features of the DNA double helix. When drawing the structure of the DNA make sure to
specifically refer to the antiparallel strands, hydrogen bonding, sugar-phosphate backbone, sugar-phosphate bonding and complementary base pairs:

Draw an annotated structure of the DNA double helix, indicating all the important features mentioned in the video clip:

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Complementary base pairing:
Complementary base-pairing describes the manner in which the nitrogenous bases of the DNA molecules
align with each other. Adenine always pairs with Thymine, Guanine always pairs with Cytosine.

Why is complementary base-pairing important?

Hydrogen bonds:

A hydrogen bond is an electrostatic force of

attraction between the hydrogen which is
covalently bonded to an electronegative atom
(N, O, F) and an electronegative atom with a
lone pair of electrons. It is a relatively weak
force, which can be broken by heat or cut
apart by enzymes.

It is because of hydrogen bonds that are

complementary base pairs form in its specific
arrangement, that is between Guanine and
Cytosine (3 H-bonds) and Adenine and
Thymine (2 H-bonds), respectively.

The DNA double helix is

a tightly bonded strand
held together by
hydrogen bonds and
running in antiparallel
directions. The
sequence of the
nitrogenous bases form
the blueprint of life and
provide all the
instructions required to
construct the building
blocks of cells.

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Comparing the structures of DNA and RNA:

Watch the video (https://youtu.be/JQByjprj_mA) and using the table below compare and contrast the structures
of DNA and RNA:

DNA RNA
Type of sugar

Number of strands

Type of bases
Differences

Relative length of
strands

Where found inside the

cell

Variety of Molecules

Type of molecule
Similarities

Function

Components

Bonds

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Diversity of DNA base sequences and the capacity of DNA for storing information

Genetic information is stored in the base sequence of one of the two strands of a DNA molecule. Any sequence
of bases is possible. There are 4 different bases which can be arranged in any order: A, C, G, T

Practice questions:

How many different possibilities is there for a sequence of two bases? (e.g. AC, AT, AG…)

How many different possibilities are there for a sequence of 3 bases? (e.g. ACT, AGG, ACC…)

In Homo sapiens, the smallest chromosome (and therefore the shortest DNA molecule) is the Y
chromosome which has 57 227 415 base pairs. If the human genome has 3.08 billion base pairs in total,
what % of this does the Y chromosome contain?

The bacterium Carsonella ruddii has just 173 904 base pairs in its genome, with an estimate of 224 genes. Of
these, 194 code for proteins. A surprisingly low 7.3% of the bases are guanine. Calculate the percentage of
bases that are adenine, cytosine and thymine.

Bacteria can store genetic information in small circular DNA molecules called plasmids. A plasmid with 1 440
base pairs has been found in the bacterium Acetobacter pasteurianus. The main chromosome of this
bacterium has 3.155 Mb (Mb = megabase pairs). What is the ratio between the length of the plasmid and
the length of the main chromosome?

Can you find examples of DNA molecules from animals, bacteria, viruses or plasmids that are shorter than
the examples given here? Can you find an example of DNA with less than 7.3% guanine?

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Conservation of the genetic code across all life forms as evidence of universal common ancestry

The sequence of bases in DNA or RNA contains information

in a coded form. The information is decoded during protein
synthesis. Groups of three bases are called codons and code
for one specific amino acid. Because nearly all organism
(bacteria, plants, animals, fungi…) have the same genetic
code, it is said to be universal and most like the basis of
common ancestry.

Scientists have genetically engineered plants which can glow by

transferring genes from a firefly, which are subsequently
expressed by the plant. https://news.mit.edu/2017/engineers-
create-nanobionic-plants-that-glow-1213

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