Molecules - A 1.

1 Water

Learning objectives and guiding questions:

“What physical and chemical properties of water make it essential for life?”

“What are the challenges and opportunities of water as a habitat?”

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Water as the medium of life

Life has originated in the water, with first cells enclosing a small volume of it in a
membrane, where solutes dissolved, and chemical reactions occurred. The
interaction of molecules in water is the basis of all life.

Over 70% of Earth’s surface is water, with most of the water found in oceans (96.5%). Water forms a large
proportion of living organisms. So, what makes water such an important medium of life?

1. It is a stable medium for aquatic organisms to live

and without water life would not exist on Earth.
2. Water is crucial for organism because it makes up
the fluid (cytoplasm) in all cells and within
organelles. This is where metabolic reactions occur -
enzymes rely on the collisions between molecules to
catalyse reactions.

Cytoplasm inside
cells provides
perfect conditions
for metabolic
reactions of
molecules.

3. Water is found between cells of multicellular

organism as interstitial fluid. Because water is a
good solvent it allows the transport of
substances into and out of cells, or in the blood
in form of plasma.

4. Membranes enclose an
aqueous medium and
provide an isolated space
with specific conditions
(e.g. pH). This is used for
several different cellular
processes. Early cells
evolved membranes to
separate their insides
(cytoplasm) from the
ocean water. Cell
membranes
(phospholipid bilayers)
naturally form in
aquaeous medium
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Water chemistry:
Water molecules have polar covalent bonds – this is due to the unequal attraction of
electrons towards the nuclei of the involved atoms. The oxygen atom has a larger
nucleus with 8 protons than hydrogen with only 1 proton. Because of this, the
shared electrons from the covalent bond and unshared electrons are pulled closer to
the nucleus of the oxygen atom. The unequal sharing of electrons in the covalent
bond between oxygen and hydrogen causes a partial positive charge over H( +) and
a partial negative charge over O (-) and gives the bond a defined polarity.
Draw a molecule of water showing bonding and non-bonding electrons, and highlight the polar covalent bond:

The polar covalent bonds within the water molecule allow the formation of hydrogen bonds between water
molecules. Explain how hydrogen bonds are brought about:

Draw 3 - 4 water molecules and show the hydrogen bonds between them:

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Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and consequences for organisms

Cohesive forces of water molecules are caused by the

hydrogen bonds between them. A single hydrogen bond is a
weak intermolecular force of attraction, but the summative
force of all hydrogen bonds is very strong. Each water
molecule hydrogen bonds with four others in a tetrahedral
arrangement, making water cohesively “stick together”.

Surface tension is a
consequence of the
cohesive forces due to
hydrogen bonding
between water molecules.

Surface tension causes droplet formation in water. It is established because the

molecules on the outside of a water body form hydrogen bonds with the water
molecules below them. These molecules have no neighboring molecules above
them to bond with, so they have stronger attractive forces upon their nearest
neighbours on and below the surface of water, making them contract inwards.

How is surface tension of importance for small animals?

How does cohesion allow the transport of

water under tension in plants? Explain:

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Adhesion and its impacts for organism

Adhesion is the attraction between the polar ends of water molecules and
polar surfaces. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds between each other
and polar materials such as membranes, containers, spiderwebs, cellulose in
xylem vessel or cell walls or any other hydrophilic substances.

The formation of a meniscus of

aqueous solutions in test tubes is
the result of adhesive forces
between polar water molecules
and the polar surface of the glass
tube. Nonpolar liquids (e.g.
mercury) do not form a meniscus.

Adhesion and cohesion are not the same thing. Can you explain how they are different?

Because water is attracted to polar or charged materials, it can also be drawn through narrow tubes such as
xylem vessel in the stems of trees without the water column breaking. This effect is called capillary action and
also shown in porous solids (soil, paper, cellulose fibers) or narrow glass columns, which act as capillary tubes.

Why is capillary action helpful in soil?

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 Capillary action due to adhesion is very
useful in plants. Water adheres to polar
and hydrophilic cellulose molecules in the
cell wall of plants.

If a xylem vessel becomes air-filled,

adhesion between water and the wall of
the vessel can help the vessel to refill with
water. This is required by plants in spring
after the winter months, where xylem
vessels become temporarily air filled to
prevent frost damage.

How does capillary action help plants to be kept continuously moist, even when exposed to air?

Solvent properties of water:

Water is a good solvent because it is a

polar molecule, and it will therefore
dissolve polar solutes easily. An ionic solid
such as Sodium chloride (NaCl) will break
into its ions in water since polar attractions
cause the water molecules to surround
and isolate the solute molecules.

Explain how NaCl (Sodium chloride) dissolves in water. Refer to the

polarity of water, charges on ions and formation of hydration shells:

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Because water is a good solvent, it is a
medium for metabolic and enzyme
catalyzed reactions. Enzymes require
some water to maintain shape and
stability, enabling them to function.

Hydrogen bonds form between enzyme

binding sites and their substrates
allowing reactions to take place.

Depending on how well substances can dissolve in water they can be classified as either hydrophilic or
hydrophobic. Use the table below to distinguish between the two and provide examples:
Hydrophilic “Water-loving” Hydrophobic “Water-hating”
Explanation
Examples

Proteins are composed of polypeptides, which are Substances such as the phospholipid bilayer of cell
long chain of amino acids joined together. membranes have hydrophobic (water hating) and
hydrophilic (water loving) features.
Additional information

Their respective variable side groups orientate themselves This is important; as the membrane forms a protective, partially
towards or away from the water, depending on their permeable barrier around the cell’s content and allows for the
associated polarity or charge. This then determines the separation of metabolic reaction.
specific 3D shape of a polypeptide or protein.

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Summarizing the solubility of some important biological molecules:
Molecule & structure Chemical features Soluble or insoluble in water?
Sugars (Glucose, Fructose, Lactose…) Glucose or Fructose as
examples for simple sugars
are polar and hydrophilic due
to the many -OH (hydroxyl)
groups which are found on his
molecule.

Fructose
Amino Acids Amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins. There are
20 common amino acid, each
is characterized by a different
chemical side group. The side
chain (R-group) can be
charged, polar or nonpolar.

Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide Most gases such as nitrogen

oxygen and carbon dioxide
are entirely nonpolar and
hydrophobic.

Fats & lipids

Fat molecules are entirely
nonpolar due to the long fatty
acid tails which do not have
any polarity.

Hormones (Testosterone, Estrogen…) Most hormones are based on

a steroid backbone derived
from cholesterol and are
largely hydrophobic and non-
polar.

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Physical properties of water:

1. Buoyancy:
Buoyancy is the ability of any fluid (liquid or gas) to provide vertical
upwards force on an object placed in or on it. When the (buoyant) force
which water exerts on a body is equal to the weight of the object, it floats.

Buonyancy depends on object density. Living organisms have

an overall density close to water and tend to float, making
water a suitable habitat.

The buoyancy of water is also useful in

winter. Ice is less dense than water and
floats at the surface, becoming the barrier
that protects the liquid water below from
the colder air. This way, invertebrates can
survive the cold winter months.

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic

and unicellular organism living in
salt- or freshwater environments and
using sunlight to make their food.

Birds have hollow bones which are less dense

than the bones of most terrestrial animals.
Air is less buoyant than water, so they must
have specific adaptations to stay midair.

The images above show a cyanobacteria with gas filled vesicles inside their cells, a bird midair, and fish with
swim bladders. How are these organisms adapted to life in air or water by taking advantage of buoyancy?

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 2. Viscosity

Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. It is

due to internal friction caused when one part of
a fluid moves relative to another part and usually
the consequence of the type of bonding within
the substance, or solutes which are dissolved.

Viscosity depends on the types of bonds or forces of attraction

between particles. In liquids, water has relatively weak forces
of attraction compared to olive oil or honey. The viscosity of
substances changes with the amount of solute dissolved in it.

A fluid moving relative to a body exerts a drag force on the

body, partly because of friction caused by viscosity. Compare
the viscosity of air and water and how animals adapt to it:

3. Specific heat capacity of water

It takes a lot of energy for the temperature of water to change, while the temperature of air changes much
faster. This is expressed through the specific heat capacity. Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy
needed to change the temperature of 1g water by 1°C is 4.18 Joule (J).

Explain why the specific heat capacity for

water is so high:

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 Water is a liquid over a wide range of
temperatures. This is a consequence of
the high specific heat capacity.

To change the temperature of water,

the kinetic energy and molecular
motion must be increased. During
phase changes, the molecular motion
does not increase. Instead, the energy
is going into breaking hydrogen bonds.

The temperature of large bodies of water remains therefore relatively stable, which makes it an ideal habitat
for a lot of organisms, which only tolerate a narrow range of conditions.

The graph on the right

shows the temperature
changes in water and air
on a summer day.

Explain why there is such a big difference in temperatures between water and air and how that is useful?

It takes a lot of energy for water to change temperature.

This means that, when water evaporates, a lot of
energy is required to break the hydrogen bonds
between water molecules.

Why does this (the high specific heat capacity of water & associated
latent heat of vaporization) make water an effective coolant?

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 4. Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the rate at which heat passes through materials. The rate at which heat passes through
water is relatively high, so in cold water, warm-blooded animals quickly transfer heat energy to water loosing
energy fast. Air conducts heat less quickly because particles are less closely together. These materials are
therefore insulators of heat.

The speed at which heat passes through materials depends on the collision of particles and electrons.

The physical properties of air and water are

different – mostly because of their differing
densities (air has an 800 times lower density of 1.2
kg/m-3 compared to water with 997.0 kg/m-3).

Gases (air) are usually insulators and poor

conductors of heat, because the particles are far
away apart and collisions and heat transfer occur
less frequently. In water, the conductivity is
higher, because particles are closer together.

Organism quickly loose energy when in colder

waters. How are arctic animals adapted to reduce
heat loss by conduction to the surrounding?

Summarize the physical properties for air and water:

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Comparing the adaptations to physical properties of animals:

The ringed seal (Pusa hispida) lives almost exclusively in the cold seas and on the ice of the Arctic Basin. The
black-throated loon (Gavia arctica) also lives in the cold Arctic, spending time in the water, on land and in the
air. These two animals have physical and behavioral adaptations to the physical properties of both air and
water in respect to viscosity, buoyancy, thermal conductivity, and specific heat capacity.

Complete the table to compare animal adaptations to the physical properties of air and water
The mammal: Ringed seal (Pusa hispida) The bird: Arctic loon (Gavia artica)

Adaptatations Adaptations

Buoyancy

Viscosity

Thermal
conductivity

Specific
heat
capacity

Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth

There is a lot of water on Earth – where does it have its origin?

Scientists believe that water sources on Earth are a consequence

of asteroid collision, which have taken place in the first few 100
million years after Earth’s formation. These asteriods most likely
also contained a lot of water in the form of hydrated minerals.

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Watch the film and answer the questions:

When was the Earth formed?

What is the most widely supported hypothesis for the origin of the vast amounts of water on Earth?

For a long time, scientists thought that comets, which contain far more water than asteroids, were thought to
have delivered water to Earth Why has this idea been refuted?

Asteroids only collide with Earth about once every 20 million years and usually do not contain much water.
Larger bombardment in the history of the Earth seems to have taken place even after the moons formed. Pieces
of evidence which seem to support the idea of asteroid bombardment are found within two 4.5-million-year-
old meteorites containing water which were found on Earth. The “molecular fingerprint” in terms of its isotope
ratio matches the ones of our oceans.

The Earth’s crust also contains a remarkable amount of gold. How does this further support the hypothesis that
asteroid brought the water to the Earth?

After its delivery by asteroids, how was the water retained on the Earth’s surface rather than evaporating and
being lost back into space? Comment in particular on:

Distance of Earth from the sun (Goldilock zone):

Size of the Earth and resulting gravity and magnetic field:

Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth

For water to stay on Earth (or any planet) after

its appearance, it must be at the right
temperature, as if the temperature is to high
water would evaporate. If it were too low, all the
water would freeze. The right temperature is
therefore the one which allows water to stay at
a liquid zone. The temperature is determined by
the distance of a planet away from a star.

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When astrobiologists search for signs of life on distant planets, they look for evidence of water. Why?

Read the article and discuss why a planet in the habitable zone is not necessarily a place for extraterrestrial life.
https://1drv.ms/b/s!Au8ZKE_EDcrQjolYW46pTiQlBvtdEg?e=VttWIc

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