1.

Introduction

IP Addressing Overview

An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier assigned to devices on a network. It enables

devices to communicate with each other over the internet or local networks.

 IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): The fourth version of IP, most widely used.
 IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): The successor to IPv4, designed to overcome IPv4 limitations
such as address exhaustion.

2. IPv4

Key Features

 Address Length: 32-bit (4 bytes)

 Notation: Dotted decimal (e.g., 192.168.1.1)
 Address Space: Approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses
 Header Length: 20-60 bytes
 Routing: Based on hierarchical addressing
 Fragmentation: Supported by sender and intermediate routers

IPv4 Address Format

IPv4 addresses consist of four octets (8 bits each):

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Example: 192.168.1.1
Binary: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001

 Classes: Divided into classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on leading bits.

o Class A: 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
o Class B: 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255
o Class C: 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255
o Class D: 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255 (Multicasting)
o Class E: 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.255 (Experimental)

IPv4 Header Format

Field Size (bits) Description

Version 4 Version of IP (4 for IPv4)
Header Length 4 Length of the header in 32-bit words
Type of Service 8 Quality of Service (QoS) parameters
Field Size (bits) Description
Total Length 16 Total size of the packet
Identification 16 Identifies fragments of the same datagram
Flags 3 Controls fragmentation
Fragment Offset 13 Position of the fragment
Time to Live (TTL) 8 Limits packet lifespan
Protocol 8 Indicates the protocol used (e.g., TCP: 6, UDP: 17)
Header Checksum 16 Error-checking for the header
Source Address 32 IP address of the sender
Destination Address 32 IP address of the receiver
Options (optional) Variable Additional header options

Example

 IP Address: 192.168.1.1
 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
o CIDR Notation: /24
 Network Address: 192.168.1.0
 Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.255

Working Example

1. A device with IP 192.168.1.10 sends a request to 192.168.1.20.

2. The request packet is routed using the subnet mask to identify the destination within the same
network or across networks.

3. IPv6

Key Features

 Address Length: 128-bit (16 bytes)

 Notation: Hexadecimal, separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)
 Address Space: 340 undecillion unique addresses
 Header Length: Fixed at 40 bytes
 Routing: Simplified with no fragmentation by routers
 Security: Built-in IPSec support

IPv6 Address Format

 Divided into 8 groups of 4 hexadecimal digits:

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Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
Compressed: 2001:db8:85a3::8a2e:370:7334

 Types of IPv6 Addresses:

o Unicast: One-to-one communication
o Anycast: One-to-nearest communication
o Multicast: One-to-many communication

IPv6 Header Format

Field Size (bits) Description

Version 4 Version of IP (6 for IPv6)
Traffic Class 8 Similar to IPv4's Type of Service
Flow Label 20 Identifies flow of packets
Payload Length 16 Length of the payload
Next Header 8 Indicates the next protocol header
Hop Limit 8 Limits the number of hops
Source Address 128 IPv6 address of the sender
Destination Address 128 IPv6 address of the receiver

IPv6 Features vs IPv4

 No NAT (Network Address Translation)

 Auto-configuration
 Efficient routing
 Enhanced multicast support
 No broadcast (uses multicast)

Working Example

1. Device 2001:db8::1 sends a packet to 2001:db8::2.

2. Routers forward the packet based on the Next Header and Hop Limit fields.
3. The destination processes the packet.

4. Comparison: IPv4 vs IPv6

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32-bit 128-bit
Address Space 4.3 billion addresses Virtually unlimited
Header Size Variable (20-60 bytes) Fixed (40 bytes)
Address Notation Dotted decimal Hexadecimal with colons
Security Optional (IPSec support) Mandatory (IPSec included)
Fragmentation Allowed Not performed by routers
QoS Support Limited Advanced (Traffic Class)
Feature IPv4 IPv6
NAT Required Yes No
Broadcast Yes No (uses multicast)

5. Diagram

IPv4 Header Diagram

+-------------------------------------+
| Version | IHL | Type of Service |
+-------------------------------------+
| Total Length |
+-------------------------------------+
| Identification |
| Flags | Fragment Offset |
+-------------------------------------+
| TTL | Protocol | Header Checksum |
+-------------------------------------+
| Source Address |
+-------------------------------------+
| Destination Address |
+-------------------------------------+
| Options (if any) |
+-------------------------------------+

IPv6 Header Diagram

0 1 2 3
+-------------------------------------------------+
|Version| Traffic Class | Flow Label |
+-------------------------------------------------+
| Payload Length | Next Header | Hop Limit |
+-------------------------------------------------+
| Source Address |
+-------------------------------------------------+
| Destination Address |
+-------------------------------------------------+

Chart of Network Protocols

Category Protocol Description Port(s) Working

Application HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol, 80 Client sends a request to the web
Layer used for web communication. server; server responds with
Category Protocol Description Port(s) Working
content.
Encrypts HTTP requests and
Secure version of HTTP using
HTTPS 443 responses for secure
encryption (TLS/SSL).
communication.
Establishes control connection;
File Transfer Protocol, used 21 (control),
FTP transfers data via separate data
for transferring files. 20 (data)
connection.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, Sends emails from clients to mail
SMTP 25
for sending emails. servers or between servers.
Post Office Protocol, retrieves Downloads email from a mail
POP3 110
emails from a server. server to a client.
Internet Message Access Allows email access and
143, 993
IMAP Protocol, manages emails on management directly on the
(secure)
a server. server.
Domain Name System,
Resolves domain names into IP
DNS translates domain names to IP 53
addresses for routing.
addresses.
Dynamic Host Configuration Automatically assigns IP
67 (server),
DHCP Protocol, assigns IP addresses addresses to devices in a
68 (client)
dynamically. network.
Remote terminal access for Provides command-line access to
Telnet 23
network devices (insecure). a remote device.
Encrypts the connection for
Secure Shell, secure remote
SSH 22 secure remote command
terminal access.
execution.
Simple Network Management Used for managing and
161, 162
SNMP Protocol, monitors network monitoring network devices like
(traps)
devices. routers and switches.
Transmission Control Provides reliable data delivery
Transport
TCP Protocol, connection-oriented N/A through handshaking and
Layer
communication. acknowledgments.
User Datagram Protocol,
Fast but unreliable data delivery
UDP connectionless N/A
without handshaking.
communication.
Divides data into packets and
Network Internet Protocol, routes
IP N/A sends them to the destination
Layer packets across networks.
using routing tables.
Internet Control Message
Used for troubleshooting (e.g.,
ICMP Protocol, error reporting and N/A
ping).
diagnostics.
Address Resolution Protocol, Finds the physical address of a
ARP N/A
resolves IP to MAC addresses. device from its IP address.
Reverse ARP, maps MAC Used by diskless devices to obtain
RARP N/A
addresses to IP addresses. an IP address.
Category Protocol Description Port(s) Working
Internet Group Management
Enables communication to
IGMP Protocol, manages multicast N/A
multiple devices in a group.
groups.
Data Link Protocol for wired LAN Provides data transfer over a
Ethernet N/A
Layer communication. physical medium.
Point-to-Point Protocol, used Supports authentication,
PPP for direct connections N/A compression, and error
between two nodes. detection.
Frame WAN protocol for packet- Relays frames between endpoints
N/A
Relay switched networks. in a network.
Routing Open Shortest Path First, link- Calculates the shortest path using
OSPF 89
Protocols state routing protocol. Dijkstra’s algorithm.
Border Gateway Protocol, Determines the best paths for
BGP used for routing between 179 data packets across different
autonomous systems. networks.
Routing Information Protocol,
Uses hop count to find paths
RIP distance-vector routing 520
between networks.
protocol.
Network File System, shares Provides access to remote files as
File Sharing NFS 2049
files over a network. if they were local.
Server Message Block, file Enables file and printer sharing in
SMB 445
sharing and printer access. Windows environments.
Apple Filing Protocol, file Provides file-sharing services for
AFP 548
services for macOS. Apple devices.
Dynamic
Real-Time Protocol, delivers Supports streaming media over IP
Streaming RTP (typically
audio/video in real-time. networks.
5004)
Allows clients to control
Real-Time Streaming Protocol,
RTSP 554 streaming media (play, pause,
controls media streams.
stop).
Protocol for audio, video, and Used in VoIP and video
H.323 Dynamic
data communication. conferencing.
Provides authentication and
VPN & Internet Protocol Security,
IPSec N/A encryption for secure data
Security secures IP communication.
exchange.
Secure Sockets Secures communication for
SSL/TLS Layer/Transport Layer N/A HTTPS, IMAP, and other
Security, encrypts data. protocols.
Secures private network
Virtual Private Network
OpenVPN 1194 connections over public
protocol.
networks.
Multipurpose Internet Mail
Encodes non-text email content
Email MIME Extensions, supports N/A
like images and videos.
multimedia in emails.
Category Protocol Description Port(s) Working
Extended SMTP, enhances Adds authentication and
ESMTP 587
SMTP functionality. encryption support to SMTP.

Additional Notes

1. Dynamic Ports:
o Ports between 49152–65535 are used for dynamic or private purposes.
o Applications select them automatically for client-side communication.
2. Reserved Ports:
o Ports 0–1023 are reserved for well-known protocols.
3. Protocol Layers:
o Application Layer protocols interact directly with software applications.
o Transport Layer protocols (TCP/UDP) manage data delivery.
o Network Layer protocols (IP, ICMP) handle data routing.
o Data Link Layer protocols manage device-to-device communication.

Diagrams

Protocol Layer Diagram

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+----------------------------------------------------+
| Application Layer: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc. |
+----------------------------------------------------+
| Transport Layer: TCP, UDP |
+----------------------------------------------------+
| Network Layer: IP, ICMP, ARP |
+----------------------------------------------------+
| Data Link Layer: Ethernet, PPP |
+----------------------------------------------------+
| Physical Layer: Cables, Switches, etc. |
+----------------------------------------------------+

Let me know if you’d like detailed descriptions or examples of specific protocols!

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Common Network Errors and Issues

Network errors can occur at various layers of the OSI model. Here’s a detailed breakdown of network
errors, their causes, effects, and resolutions:

1. Application Layer Errors

Error Description Cause Resolution

HTTP 404 - Not Server cannot find the Incorrect URL or resource Verify URL or restore the
Found requested resource. moved/deleted. resource.
HTTP 500 - Internal Server encountered an Server misconfiguration or Check server logs and fix
Server Error unexpected condition. application error. configurations.
Domain name cannot be Incorrect DNS server or Update DNS settings or
DNS Lookup Failed
resolved to an IP address. invalid domain name. verify domain name.
Email Authentication Unable to send/receive Invalid SMTP credentials or Recheck credentials or
Failed emails. server down. server availability.

2. Transport Layer Errors

Error Description Cause Resolution

Connection TCP connection fails due to Server overload, network Check server status, reduce
Timeout no response from the server. congestion, or firewall. load, configure firewall.
UDP packet sent to a closed Incorrect destination port Verify port and firewall
Port Unreachable
port. or blocked by a firewall. rules.
Packets are resent Network congestion or Optimize network or
Retransmissions
repeatedly. packet loss. troubleshoot congestion.

3. Network Layer Errors

Error Description Cause Resolution

IP Address Two devices have the same Incorrect manual IP Assign a unique IP to each
Conflict IP address. configuration. device.
Data packets fail to reach Network congestion, faulty Check hardware and
Packet Loss
the destination. hardware, or interference. reduce traffic load.
Packet gets stuck in an Correct routing table
Routing Loop Misconfigured routing tables.
endless routing loop. configuration.
4. Data Link Layer Errors

Error Description Cause Resolution

Data frames from multiple High network traffic or Use switches and reduce
Frame Collisions
devices collide. faulty network design. traffic in collision domains.
MAC Address Duplicate MAC addresses Faulty network interface Replace faulty NIC or
Duplication detected on the network. cards (NICs) or spoofing. investigate the source.

5. Physical Layer Errors

Error Description Cause Resolution

Signal Weak or distorted signal causes Poor cabling or long Use high-quality cables
Degradation data corruption. distances. or repeaters.
Cable Loss of connectivity due to cable Physical damage or loose Check and replace
Disconnection unplugged or broken. connections. cables.
Devices (routers, switches) stop Faulty hardware or power Replace or repair
Hardware Failure
functioning. issues. hardware.

6. Common Network Troubleshooting Commands

Command Function Example

ping Tests connectivity to a remote device. ping 8.8.8.8
tracert/traceroute Traces the path packets take to a destination. tracert google.com
ipconfig/ifconfig Displays network configuration and IP address. ipconfig /all
nslookup Resolves domain names to IP addresses. nslookup example.com
netstat Displays active connections and listening ports. netstat -an
arp Displays or modifies the ARP table (IP to MAC mappings). arp -a
telnet Tests connectivity to a specific port. telnet example.com 80

7. Network Diagnostic Tools

Tool Description
Wireshark Packet sniffer for analyzing network traffic.
PingPlotter Graphical tool for diagnosing packet loss and latency.
Netcat Utility for testing port connectivity.
Nmap Network scanner for discovering hosts and services.