Mechanical Drives

1
Student Reference

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H19146
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Tableof Contents
Module1: Introductionto MechanicalDriveSystems .......................................................5
Segment 1: Mechanical Power Transmission Safety ................................................. ..... 5
Segment 2: Machine Installation ................................................................................. 18
Segment 3: Motor Mounting ......................... ...................................... ............... ....... ... 23
Segment 4: Shaft Speed Measurement .......... ......... ........... .................. ............. ........... 43
Module2: Key Fasteners ...................................... ............................................................ 45
Segment 1: Keyseat Fasteners ...................................................................................... 45
Segment 2: Key Assembly ............................................................................................ 60
Segment 3: Torque and Power Measurement ............................................................. 69
Segment 4: Mechanical Efficiency .................. .... .................... ................. .......... .......... 73
Module3: PowerTransmissionSystems .......................................................................... 79
Segment 1: Introduction to Shafts ........................ ............................................. ........... 79
Segment 2: Introduction to Bearings ........................................................................... 86
Segment 3: Introduction to Couplings ......................................................................... 93
Segment 4: Shaft Alignment ............... ........... ......... ........................... ................ ........... 97
Module4: Introductionto V-BeltDrives ........................................................................ 107
Segment 1: Belt Drive Concepts .................................................................................. 107
Segment 2: V-Belt Operation ...................................................................................... 118
Segment 3: Belt Tensioning ........................................................................................ 132
Segment 4: Belt Tension Measurement .................................................... ................. 136
Module5: Introductionto ChainDrives ......................................................................... 139
Segment 1: Chain Drive Concepts .............................................................................. 139
Segment 2: Chain Drive Operation ............................................................................ 146
Segment 3: Chain Tensioning ..................................................................................... 158
Segment 4: Chain Tension Measurement .......... ......... ............ ......... .... ............ .... ...... 162
Segment 5: Fixed Center Chain Installation .............................................................. 163
Module6: SpurGearDrives ............................................................................................ 167
Segment 1: Gear Drive Concepts ................................................................................ 167
Segment 2: Gear Drive Designs .................................................................................. 175
Segment 3: Spur Gear Operation ............................................................................... 182
Segment 4: Spur Gear Installation ............................................................................. 199
Segment 5: Spur Gear Analysis .................................................................................. 206
Module7: MultipleShaftDrives .................................................................................... 208
Segment 1: Multiple Shaft Gear Analysis .................................................................. 208
Segment 2: Multiple Shaft Drive Installation ............................................................ 220
Segment 3: Sleeve Couplings ..................................................................................... 224
Glossary ..........................................................................................................................
228

H19146 Mechanical Drives 1.

H19146 Mechanical Drives 1
Module1 Introductionto MechanicalDriveSystems

Segmentl MechanicalPowerTransmissionSafety
Objective1 Describe the Function of a Mechanical Power Transmission
System and Give an Advantage

Components of a Mechanical Power

Transmission System
A mechanical power transmission system is
a device composed of linkages, shafts,
bearings, gears, pulleys, or other component
s whose purpose is to transmit and control
the force and motion from one device to
another.
The device from which the transmission
system receives power is called the driver, or
prime mover, and the device it transmits
power to is called the driven device.

Oulput to Tank
OtherTypes of PowerTransmissionSystems --
In this example, a V-belt drive system
transmits power from an electric motor to an
air compressor.
Three other methods to transmit power
besides the mechanical power transmission
are electrical, thermal, and fluid.
An example of electrical power transmission
is an electric motor. A gas engine is an
example of thermal power transmission.
Hydraulic or pneumatic actuators are
examples of fluid power transmission.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 5

Example of OtherTypes of Power Transmission Systems
In most cases, the mechanical system is used in combination with one of these other
forms of power.
For example, the machine shown here uses an electric motor to convert electrical
power into mechanical power in the form of a rotating shaft.
The mechanical system then transmits the power to another rotating shaft to drive a
compressor, which converts the mechanical power into fluid power.

CoupledTransmission Systems
Coupling the electric motor directly to the
shaft of the compressor is another approach.
This does not eliminate the mechanical
system as you might think. It just changes it
from a belt drive system to a direct coupled
system.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Coupled

Transmission Systems
Some reasons to use a more complex
mechanical system than a direct coupling
system are:
• To increase or decrease the speed
• To increase or decrease the torque or force
• To change the direction of motion
• To extend the power to a location that is
remote to the driver or prime mover
• To change the type of motion from rotary
to linear
• To control the acceleration and
deceleration of the motion

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 6

Objective2 Describe Five Methods of Rotary Mechanical Power
Transmission and Give an Application of Each

MechanicalPower Transmission Directions

Mechanical power is transmitted in either a
linear or rotary direction. Rotary power
transmission in the form of a shaft-to-shaft
transmission is by far the most common.

LinearPowerTransmission

Axial Transmission

Two Categories of Rotary Power

Transmission
Two categories of rotary power transmission
are:
• Axial
• Shaft-to-Adjacent-Shaft

Shaft-to•Adjacent•Shaft Transmission

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 7

AxialPowerTransmission
Two commonly used methods of axial power
transmission are coupling and clutch.
The coupling connects two shafts together.
The most common application of the
coupling is to connect a driver to a driven
component, as in an electric motor and
pump.
Another application is to extend the length
of a shaft by connecting it to another shaft.

ClutchDescription
A clutch, like the coupling, connects two
shafts together. The difference is the clutch
allows the two shafts to disconnect and
connect to each other while they are running.
A common application of a clutch is
overrunning. An example of overrunning is a
fan driven by a diesel engine.
When the diesel engine shuts down, it stops
very quickly. A clutch is used to disconnect
the fan so that it can coast to a stop. The
clutch prevents putting strain on the engine
caused by stopping the fan suddenly.

ThreeTypes of Shaft-to-Adjacent-Shaft
PowerTransmission
There are three types of shaft-to-adjacent-shaft power transmission:
• Belt Drive
• Chain Drive
• Gear Drive

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 8

BeltDrive
A belt drive uses a belt made of either
synthetic or natural rubber that is stretched
around two rotating smooth hubs.
Belt drives are commonly found on
compressors and fans.

ChainDrive
The chain drive works similarly to the belt
drive, except that it uses a metal chain
wrapped around two hubs that have teeth.
Chain drives are commonly found on small
vehicles.

GearDrive
The gear drive uses rotating hubs that have
teeth meshed together.
Gear drives are used when the distances
between shafts are very close, the direction
of motion must take a right angle turn, the
change in speed and torque is very high, or
the drive must be sealed.
Gear drives are commonly found in
gearboxes, machine tool drives, and rollers.

Similaritiesof ThreeTypesof Shaft-to-Adjacent-Shaft

PowerTransmissions
All three types of drives are commonly used to increase or decrease the speed and
torque transmitted to the drive shaft by selecting different sizes for the hubs.
Also, all three drives extend the power to a location different than that of the driver.
Chain and belt drives are usually used when the distances between shafts are greater.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 9

Objective3 Describe Six Rules of Safe Dress for Working with Power
Transmission Equipment

WorkplaceSafety
Workplace safety is important in every job.
Jobs that involve mechanical equipment can
be very dangerous because there are moving
parts that transmit high forces.
Many experienced mechanical workers have
missing fingers or hands as a result of their
work around mechanical systems. However,
you can help avoid this by practicing dress
safety rules.

Six Dress SafetyRules

The purpose of dress safety rules is to keep you or your clothing from getting caught in
the moving parts of a machine.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 10

Wear safety glasses at all times.

Avoid wearing loose-fitting clothes.

Remove ties, watches, rmgs, and other

jewelry.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 11

Tie up long hair or put it in a cap or under
your shirt.

Wear heavy-duty leather shoes. Steel-toed

shoes are recommended. Canvas shoes are
not acceptable.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 12

Roll up long sleeves or wear short sleeves.

Glovesand RunningMachinery
Do not wear gloves around machinery when
it is running. Gloves can get caught in the
moving components and pull your hand into
the machine.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 13

Objective4 Describe Eight Mechanical Transmission Safety Rules

Eight Mechanical Transmission Safety Rules

In addition to dress rules, there are other
rules you should follow while working with
machinery. These include:
• Make sure machine power is off and its
power switch is locked out by a
lockout/tagout device.
• Do not enter the machine's area of
operation until the machine is completely
stopped.
• Always keep your tools clean and organized.
• Do not work on wet floors.
• Make sure all guards are in place before
operating the machine.
• Always get help when lifting heavy parts.
• Make sure that you announce that you are
going to start a machine before doing so to
give others a chance to clear the area.
• Make sure that no one is in the area before
starting a machine.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 14

Objectives Describe the Operation of the Lockout/Tagout System

Howto Performa LockoutjTagout

One of the greatest dangers to a mechanic,
electrician, or technician is to have another
person power up equipment while they are
working on it.
In order to avoid this possible danger, lock
out all power sources when performing
maintenance on the equipment so that it
cannot be turned on accidentally.
This is accomplished by using a two-step
process called lockout/tagout.
• Lockout
• Tagout

Lockout
Lockout is the process of blocking the energy
flow from a power source to a piece of
equipment and ensuring that it remains
blocked.
A lockout device such as a lock, block, or
chain at the power source prevents a piece of
equipment from receiving power from the
source.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 15

Tagout
Tagout involves placing a tag on the power
source that warns others not to restore
power. The tags must clearly state: Do not
operate.
Tags must be applied by hand. There are
special occasions to use a tagout without a
lockout. However, take special care because
a tagout is not a physical restraint like a
lockout.

Installing and Removinga Lockout/Tagout

Any person who is going to work around or
on the piece of equipment should perform a
lockout/tagout. The only person who should
remove a lockout/tagout is the person who
installed it.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 16

MultipleLockouts
In a case where there are several persons
servicing a piece of equipment, a multiple
lockout is used so that each person has their
own lockout on the equipment.
In order to restore the power, everyone must
remove their own locks. This ensures that
everyone is clear of the equipment before
starting it.
All companies are required to develop a
lockout/tagout procedure and must train the
employees on the procedure.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 17

Segment2 MachineInstallation
Objective6 Describe the Function of a Foundation and Give Three Types

Definition and Purpose of a Foundation

A foundation is the structure that supports
the machine. The foundation for a machine
is important to its life and performance.
It must be designed to perform three
functions:
• Supl?ortthe load of the machine without
settling
• Maintain the alignment between coupled
components
• Absorb any vibrations created by the
machine or surrounding equipment

MountingBolt Location
Three Types of Foundations
The foundations of most heavy equipment
consist of one of three materials:
• Solid concrete
• Reinforced concrete
• Structural steel
The solid concrete foundation is best.
However, reinforced concrete or structural
steel foundations are less expensive.
A typical concrete foundation is shown here.
As you can see, anchor bolts are imbedded in
the concrete to attach the machine to the
foundation.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 18

Objective7 Describe the Function and Construction of a Bedplate

The Importanceof a Bedplate

It is very important to mount the driver of
the mechanical transmission in such a way
that it can be aligned with the mechanical
devices it is to drive and that its alignment is
maintained during operation.
A machine that has independent
components that must be aligned with each
other should not be mounted directly to a
foundation.
Instead, mount the machine to a bedplate,
which is, in turn, mounted to a foundation.

The Descriptionof a Bedplate Anchor Bolt

Bedplate

The bedplate is a solid piece of metal, I j<=--

usually made of steel. It provides a rigid,
level surface for mounting, which helps with
components' alignment.
The bedplate is anchored to the foundation
with anchor bolts and is filled in with grout.
Grout is a type of concrete that provides
s~~P.ort to the bedplate, giving it more
ng1dity.
Before anchoring the bedplate, however, it
should first be leveled. Leveling means to
make the surface of the bedplate parallel to
the ground. The bedplate can be leveled by
shimming it with double-wedge shims or
with flat shims.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 19

Objective8 Describe the Function of a Spirit Level and Give an
Application

An Exampleof a SpiritLevel
The device most often used to check the level
of a surface, such as a bedplate, is a spirit
level, or level. A typical example is shown
here.

The Functionof a SpiritLevel

There are many applications where it is
important to orient a surface so that it is
either parallel or perpendicular to the
ground. Straight Edge

This is commonly done in building

construction with walls and floors, as well as
in industry with machinery.

SpiritLevelMeasurements
The spirit level is usually designed so that you can measure the perpendicularity as well
as the parallelism of a surface with the ground.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 20

Objective9 Describe the Operation of a Spirit Level

The Componentsof a SpiritLevel Ground Edges

A spirit level consists of a bar withJrecision

ground metal edges and liquid-fille tubes.
The precision ground edges act as straight
edges to place against the surface being
checked. The liquid-filled tubes are oriented
both parallel and perpendicular to the
straight edge surfaces. Liquid-Filled Tubes

Each tube has a bubble in it and is inscribed

with two alignment marks. These bubbles
and alignment marks are used to determine
if the surface is parallel to the ground or
perpendicular to the ground.

HorizontalUse of a SpiritLevel Bubble

Use the spirit level to measure both vertical
and horizontal surfaces.
(ll)
Use the horizontal bubble to measure the
parallelism of a horizontal surface to the
ground.
Parallel
When the bubble is positioned precisely
between the two marks, the surface is
parallel to the ground. Bubble

Not Parallel

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 21

 Bubble Bubble
VerticalUse of a SpiritLevel
In a similar manner, you can see here how to
measure the perpendicularity of a vertical
surface to the ground.
" ,
~
"
i
//

I.--,-,--,---,:
'
',.,

~,~_..,//
\

Use a vertical bubble to do this. When the

bubble is positioned precisely between the Not Perpendicular Perpendicular
two marks, the surface is perpendicular to
the ground.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 22

Segment 3 Motor Mounting
Objective10 Describe Three Types of Motor Mounts and Give an
Application of Ea-ch

Three Types of Motor Mounts

The motor that drives a mechanical transmission can be mounted to a bedplate in one
of three ways:
• Foot Mount
• C-Face Mount
• Adjustable Mount

Foot Mount
The foot mount is a simple and common
method of mounting an electric motor. A
foot mount consists of tabs or feet, attached
at the four corners of the motor.
Each foot has a mounting hole allowing the
motor to be fastened to a bedplate with a
bolt. The foot mounts of a larger motor are
usually made from a steel plate and are
welded to the base of the motor.
Smaller motors often have a one-piece steel
plate with four holes in it.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 23

C-FaceMount
One of the problems with a foot mount is
that the motor must be carefully aligned
with the other components connected to it.
The C-face mounting method solves this
problem by mounting the driven component
directly to the motor face.
This requires the motor and the driven
component to have a special face called a
C-face, which has a flange and bolt holes.
The C-face still requires some alignment but
it is a much less tedious process than with
the foot mount.
The C-face mounting is commonly used with
turbine pumps. It is also used with pumps
that are small enough to hang from the
motor and the application is compatible with
direct drive.
The gearbox is another application where
the C-face is used, except that the motor can
often hang from the gearbox.

AdjustableMount Adjustment
Wheel
An adjustable motor mount is a third
method of motor mounting used with a foot
mount. With the adjustable motor mount
the motor is mounted on a bedplate.
The adjustable motor mount contains a
screw that can move the motor back and
forth on one axis. This allows the motor to
be moved without having to loosen the
mounting bolts.
The adjustable motor mount is often used
when it is necessary to routinely change the
position of the motor to change tension on a
belt or chain drive.
All service lines such as power, air, and
water must have enough flexibility to move
with the machine as it adjusts.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 24

Objective11 Describe How Fasteners Are Used to Attach a Motor Mount to
a Bedplate

Hex Head Bolt

FlatWasher"'- I
The Componentsof a Fastener Foot Mount

Bolt'~ '
Mounting a motor starts with selecting a
fastener to use to attach the motor to the
bedplate. Most often you should use a hex
head bolt with two flat washers, a lock
washer, and nut.
The plain, flat washer makes sure that the
bolt will not pull through the mounting hole,
and the lock washer makes sure that the nut
does not become loose.
Nut

Thread LockingAdhesive Description

As an alternative to the lock washer, you can
use Loctite® 242 thread-locking adhesive. It
is intended for general-purpose use for one
quarter inch diameter and larger screws.
The fastener can be removed with hand tools.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 25

Objective 12 Describe How to Select Fastener Size and Type for a Motor
Mount

Six FastenerFeatures
When selecting a fastener to use with a
motor mount, take care to pick the correct
fastener. There are several features to
consider when selecting a fastener:
• Diameter
• Grade
• Thread Type
• Length
• Wasber Thickness
• Nut Thickness/Grade

Diameter
The bolt size should be as large as possible to
fit through the hole in the foot mount and
still allow a little room for alignment.
This means that you should select a bolt
diameter that fills up most of the mounting
hole, but not all. For example, a 7/16-inch
bolt could be used for a 1/2-inch hole.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 26

Grade
The bolt's grade should be either a grade 5 or, for heavier applications, a grade 8. This
is because the higher grade of bolt has a larger value of strength.
The markings on the bolt head identify the grade of the bolt. The grade of the bolt is
the number of raised lines on the head plus two.

Gr~de Marking on Bolt

SAE Number Tensile Strength
Head

2 64,000 psi

5 105,000 psi

6 130,000 psi

8 150,000 psi

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 27

.. - -
Three raised lines indicate a grade 5. Zero
raised lines indicate a grade 2.
A nut should have the same grade as the bolt.
Dots identify the grade of a nut.

'.f
~Bolt Mar~ngs
I

ThreadType
The coarse thread type (UNC) is commonly
used for motor mounting applications.
Assembly and disassembly of the UNC is
quicker than the fine thread type (UNF)
because it has fewer threads per inch.

Coarse Thread Fine Thread

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 28

Length
The initial length of the bolt is determined
by the thickness of the parts, washers, and
nut. Once this has been determined, the final
length is selected as the next longer standard
bolt length. Common sized bolt lengths are
typically available in 1/4-inch increments.

WasherThickness
Determine the thickness of washers by
measuring them or by using a catalog
specification. Remember that a lock washer
lies flat when locked down by the nut.

Before Tightening

After Tightening

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 29

.. - -
 oltSlze

NutThickness/Grade
Inside Diameter (I.D.) of Threads
The nut thickness varies depending on the
size of the bolt. For most applications, the . (Root Diameter)

thickness of the nut should equal the root

diameter of the bolt's threads.
Only use thicker or thinner nuts in special
cases, such as when there is limited
assembly space.

i114"

J
Nuts can be obtained in the same grades as Manufacturer's
bolts. A nut should not be used that has a Insignia

lower grade than the bolt it is used with. The

grade markings on nuts are typically raised
dots or slashes arranged in a pattern Grade 2
determined by engineering standards.
120°

Grade 5

60°

Grade 8

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 30

Objective13 Describe How to Mount and Level an Electric Motor

Preparation for Motor Mounting and

Leveling
First select the fasteners. Then mount and
level the motor. During the mounting
process, also check the motor mounting for:
• Shaft Run-Out
• Shaft End Float
• Soft Foot

The Soft Foot Condition

Soft foot is a condition where one or more of
the mounting feet are not level with the
others or where the base plate is not level in
all places. This causes the motor to not rest
on all four feet.
An uneven mounting surface or an uneven
motor mount can cause a soft foot. Small
motors often have a soft foot because their
foot mounts are made of thin metal and
warp easily.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 31

. - -
SoftFoot ConditionCommonCauses
Here are some other types and causes of a soft foot condition.

Short Leg TIited Leg AngledPad

Shim Problems Rough/DirtySurface

ProblemsThatOccurDue to a SoftFoot
There are several mishaps that can occur
due to a soft foot. Therefore, a soft foot must
be c_orrected before placing a motor into
service.
The nuts securing the feet to the base may
loosen. This can result in looseness and
misalignment that causes vibration that is
dangerous to you and to the machinecy.
Metal fatigue may occur at the soft foot and
cracks can develop, or the soft foot could
even break off.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 32

Howto Checkand Correcta Soft Foot
To fix a soft foot, simply shim the one short
leg, or soft foot, so that the motor rests
solidly on all four feet. In general, machines
should not have a soft foot greater than
0.002 inch.

CorrectingSoft Foot
Check and correct a soft foot using a two-step process:
• Initial Soft Foot
• Final Soft Foot

InitialSoft Foot
Before setting the machine in place, remove
all dirt, rust, and burrs from the bottom of
the machine's feet, the shims to be used, and
the mounting base at the areas where the
machine's feet will rest.
Set the machine in place but do not tighten
the mounting bolt nuts.
Attempt to pass a thin feeler gauge
underneath each of the four feet. A foot is
soft if the feeler gauge passes beneath most
of it and only contacts a small point or one
edge.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 33

. - -
If the feeler passes beneath a foot, determine
the exact amount of gap beneath the foot
with a feeler gauge and place this amount of
shims beneath that foot. Consider this the
initial soft foot correction.

FinalSoft Foot
Tighten the motor mounting nuts. Place the
stem of a dial indicator vertically above the
foot that is to be checked for a soft foot. Set
the dial indicator to zero.
Completely loosen the mounting bolt nuts
on that foot only. Watch the dial indicator
for foot movement during the loosening
process.
Retighten the hold-down nut and repeat the
entire process once more to be sure no
movement is present.
Move the dial indicator and holder to the
next foot to be checked and repeat the
process. Remember to securely tighten all
other feet when checking a foot for a soft
foot condition.

If one of the feet raises from the base more than 0.002 inch for large motors or
0.010 inch for small motors when the hold-down nut is loosened, place an amount of
shim stock equal to the amount of deflection shown on the dial indicator beneath the
foot.
If more than one foot rises, shim the one with the most rise. Repeat this process for
each machine foot.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 34

Description of Shaft Run-Out
Another step to perform as part of the motor
mounting process is to check the motor shaft
for run-out and end float.
Check run-out by placing a dial indicator on
the shaft and rotating the shaft. The total
variation in the reading is called the total
indicator reading (TIR).
The run-out is one half of the TIR. Do not
use the motor if the run-out exceeds 0.002
inch.
High run-out means either the motor shaft is
bent or the bearings are worn. Run-out can
be checked at any time during the
installation process.

Description of End Float

Also, check the motor for end float or end
play. End float is the amount of free
movement the shaft can make along its axis.
If end float is excessive, use of the motor can
cause misalignment.
Check end float by placing an indicator on
the end of the shaft and move the shaft in
and out. Compare the end float to the
manufacturer's specifications. A typical end
float is 0.001 inch, but can vary.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 35

... - -
Importanceof Levelingthe Motor
It is important in most cases to level the
electric motor drive before beginning the
alignment of the motor with the components
it is going to drive.
Leveling the motor makes it easier to align
the motor later because any additional shims
needed to raise the motor to the height of
the other equipment can be added equally to
each foot.

Levelingthe Motor
Leveling a motor end to end is a five-step
process.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems

Stepl
Place a small level on top of the motor shaft.

Step2
Place one or more of the leaves of a feeler
gauge under one end of the level, whichever
ones are necessary to make the horizontal
bubble centered.

Length Ratio Formula

Stepg LB
R=-
L1,
Calculate the ratio of the distance between
the centers of the motor mounting bolts and R = LengthRiiti◊
the length between one end of the level and Ls .:: EffectiveLevei Length{in}
the edge of the feeler gauge leaf. Le = MountingBolt,;Cer.tBrDistance{in)

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 37

.. - -
 Shim Thickness Needed Formula
Step4 Ts=RxTr

Multiply the feeler gauge leaf thickness by Ts = sh:m Toicl<MssNeooed(in)

the length ratio of step three. R = Sh:mRafo
T F = Thic:kness
of itle reeler Gaug~~n,

Steps
Shim under the low end of the motor by an
amount equal to your calculation in step 4.

LevelingProcess
This leveling process does not precisely level the motor, but it "roughs in" the position
of the motor to make it easier when you later align it with another piece of equipment.
The leveling process just described is also used to level entire machines, machine
foundations, and bedplates.

Feeler Gauge
Bedplate

--
CD
12"

e
~vol/

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems

--
Mountingand Levelingthe Motor
Eight steps are required to level a motor,
including checking for soft foot and run-out.

Stepl
Clean the motor base, shims, and mounting
surface of all burrs, rust, and dirt.

Step2 MountingHole

Position the motor over the mounting holes

on the bedplate.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 39

- --
Step8
Check the motor for run-out and end float.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 42

------
Segment4 ShaftSpeedMeasurement
Objective14 Describe Two Methods of Measuring Motor Shaft Speed and
Give an Application

The Definitionof MotorSpeed

Motor speed is the measure of how fast the
motor shaft is rotating. For example, the
motor shaft shown here is turning at the rate
of one revolution per second.
The rotational speed of a motor is usually
given in units of revolutions per minute
(rpm). Therefore, the speed of this motor is
sixty revolutions per minute (60 rpm).

TwoTypes of Tachometers
Instruments designed to measure motor speed are called tachometers. There are
several types of tachometers, each based on a different method of measurement.
Two common types of tachometers are:
• Contact Tachometer
• Photo Tachometer

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 43

-
ContactTachometer
The contact tachometer works much the
same as a car speedometer. It has an
internal gear system that converts the
rotating motion of a shaft into a reading
shown on the tachometer.
To take a reading with the contact
tachometer, hold the rubber-tipped shaft
against the spinning motor shaft. This
causes the tachometer shaft to spin at the
same speed as the motor shaft. The reading
on the tachometer will then indicate the
rotational speed.

PhotoTachometer
The photo tachometer uses a beam of light
pointed at a piece of reflective tape on the
motor's shaft. The photo tachometer counts
the number of times the tape passes through
the light.
Once the photo tachometer determines the
speed, it is shown on the display. This
method has an advantage over the contact
tachometer because you do not come in
direct contact with the motor shaft. However,
some models have attachments that enable
you to take direct readings if necessary.

H19146 Introduction to Mechanical Drive Systems 44

Module2 KeyFasteners

Segment1 KeyseatFasteners
Objective1 Describe the Function and Operation of a Key Fastener

Functionof a KeyFastener
A key fastener secures the shaft to other
devices such as couplings, sheaves, and
gears. Its job is to make sure that the drive
shaft and the driven component are locked K.eyset~ Shaft
together and do not slip on each other.
A key fastener consists of up to three parts.

Key
A key is simply a piece of metal that is snugly fitted between two grooves, which are
machined in a shaft and the hub of a component to which it is to be connected.

Keyseat- Shaft
The groove in the drive shaft is called a keyseat.

Keyseat- Hub
The groove in the hub is also known as a keyseat or sometimes a keyway.
In many cases, hubs have one or more set screws that can apply extra force to the key
to lock the hub in place.

H19146 Key Fasteners 45

- .. -
GibHead
The gib head key is a tapered square key
with a head on it. The head provides a way to
easily remove the key if only one side of the
assembly is accessible.
A tapered key without a head is a plain taper
key.

Offset
The offset or step key is a type of square key
that has a different width on one side of the
key. This allows the key to connect a
coupling hub and shaft that have different
keyseat sizes.
It is also used for repair and salvage of
keyseats that have become larger through
wear.

H19146 Key Fasteners

Woodruff
The woodruff key is shaped like a half moon.
It is used for light duty applications because
it gives more holding strength (more shear
area) without requiring a large portion of the
shaft to have a key seat machined in it.
It is also used with tapered shafts because it
reduces the tendency of the key to tip when a
load is applied.

H19146 Key Fasteners 49

Objective3 Describe How Keys and Keyseats Are Specified

Keyand K.eyseatSpecifications
Keys are made from standard stock sizes which are available from machine parts
suppliers. Suppliers use the following features to specify keys and keyseats:
• Nominal Width & Height
• Width & Height Tolerance
• Length
• Material Type

Key
Width

Key Height
or- r
Hub
Width

t ubLJ
K yseat
I
eight f7
Shaft
Width
ShattLJ
Keyseat
I
Height

H19146 Key Fasteners 50

 NominalWidthof KeysandKeyseats
The nominal width is the width of both the key stock and the keyseat, without
accounting for tolerance. Key stock is available in a variety of standard widths and is
usually selected from a table like the one shown.
The manufacturer of the equipment normally machines the keyseats into the shaft and
hub. However, many drive components are also available with no keyseats to allow the
user to custom machine the keyseats.

Nominal Shaft Diameter Nominal Key Size Nominal Keyseat Depth

Heigbt,H H/2
Over To (Incl.) Width,W
Square Rectangular Square Rectangular
5/16 7/16 3/32 3/32 .... 3/64 ....
7/16 9/16 1/8 1/8 3/32 1/16 3/64
9/16 7/8 3/16 3/16 1/8 3/32 1/16
7/8 1-1/4 1/4 1/4 3/16 1/8 3/32
1-1/4 1-3/4 5/16 5/16 1/4 5/32 1/8
1-3/8 2 3/8 3/8 1/4 3/16 1/8
1-3/4 2-1/4 1/2 1/2 3/8 .... 3/16
2-1/4 2-3/4 5/8 5/8 7/16 5/16 7/32
2-3/4 3-1/4 3/4 3/4 1/2 3/8 1/4
3-1/4 3-3/4 7/8 7/8 5/8 7/16 5/16
3-3/4 4-1/2 1 1 3/4 1/2 3/8
4-1/2 5-1/2 1-1/4 1-1/4 7/8 5/8 7/16
5-1/2 6-1/2 1-1/2 1-1/2 1 3/4 1/2
6-1/2 7-1/2 3-3/4 1-3/4 1-1/2* 7/8 3/4
7-1/2 9 2 2 1-1/2 1 3/4
9 11 2-1/2 2-1/2 1-3/4 1-1/4 7/8
All dimensions are given in inches. For larger shaft sizes, see ANSI Standard. Square keys preferred for shaft
diameters above heavy line; rectangular keys, below.
* Some key standards show 1-1/4 inches; preferred height is 1-1/2 inches.

H19146 Key Fasteners 51

... ---
NominalHeightof Keysand Keyseats
The nominal key height is the height of the key stock, without accounting for tolerance.
For a square key, the nominal height is the same as the nominal width.
The nominal keyseat height, however, is not the same as the key height. The nominal
keyseat height is normally chosen to be half the key height because the key must
extend into the keyseats of both the hub and the shaft.
In the case of a square key, the nominal height is the same as the nominal width.

Shaft
Key
__ ___,,_
___,_,...-- ____ Keyseat
Height !

I Height

H19146 Key Fasteners 52

 Widthand HeightTolerances
The width and height tolerances are the allowable variations of the width and height
dimensions of the key and keyseat from the nominal width or height as shown in the
table.
Width tolerances are necessary to avoid a fit that is too loose or too tight between the
key and keyseat. A loose fit can cause shearing and a tight fit can cause failure due to
stress cracks in the shaft or hub.

Nominal Shaft Diameter Nominal Key Size Nominal Keyseat Depth

Height,H H/2
Over To (Incl.) Width,W
Square Rectangular Square Rectangular
5/16 7/16 3/32 3/32 .... 3/64 ....
7/16 9/16 1/8 1/8 3/32 1/16 3/64
9/16 7/8 3/16 3/16 1/8 3/32 1/16
7/8 1-1/4 1/4 1/4 3/16 1/8 3/32
1-1/4 1-3/4 5/16 5/16 1/4 5/32 1/8
1-3/8 2 3/8 3/8 1/4 3/16 1/8
1-3/4 2-1/4 1/2 1/2 3/8 .... 3/16
2-1/4 2-3/4 5/8 5/8 7/16 5/16 7/32
2-3/4 3-1/4 3/4 3/4 1/2 3/8 1/4
3-1/4 3-3/4 7/8 7/8 5/8 7/16 5/16
3-3/4 4-1/2 1 1 3/4 1/2 3/8
4-1/2 5-1/2 1-1/4 1-1/4 7/8 5/8 7/16
5-1/2 6-1/2 1-1/2 1-1/2 1 3/4 1/2
6-1/2 7-1/2 3-3/4 1-3/4 1-1/2* 7/8 3/4
7-1/2 9 2 2 1-1/2 1 3/4
9 11 2-1/2 2-1/2 1-3/4 1-1/4 7/8
All dimensions are given in inches. For larger shaft sizes, see ANSI Standard. Square keys preferred for shaft
diameters above heavy line; rectangular keys, below.
* Some key standards show 1-1/4 inches; preferred height is 1-1/2 inches.

H19146 Key Fasteners 53

... - --
ToleranceClassifications
The tolerances of the key and keyseat can have one of two types of fits as determined
by ANSI: either class 1 or class 2.
Class 1 is a looser fit than class 2. In a normal application, the fit you used with a key
should be a class 1 fit so it will be the only fit discussed.

Shaft Ke

H19146 Key Fasteners 54

- ... - ..... _., - ..

Class1 Fit
A class 1 fit is a type of clearance fit called a sliding fit. This means that there is a slight
clearance between the key and the keyseat (typically 0.001 to 0.002 inch clearance) but
the clearance should not be detectable by tmicn.
The key should be able to be pushed into the keyseat with your thumb.
The class 1 tolerances for square and rectangular keys and keyseats for various sizes of
shafts are given in the table shown. This table, as well as the one for a class 2 fit, are in
the Machinery's Handbook. An example of what they will look like is provided here in
the table.
You should use the fit table to determine the proper key for a given keyseat.

SideFit TopandBottomFit
KeyWidth
TypeofKey WidthTolerance DepthTolerance
FitRange* FitRange*
Over To(Incl.)§ Key Keyseat Key Keyseat HubKeyseat
+0.000 +0.002 o.004CL +0.000 +0.000 +0.010 o.032CL
1/2
-0.002 -0.000 0.000 -0.002 -0.015 -0.000 o.005CL

+0.000 +0.003 o.005CL +0.000 +0.000 +0.010 o.032CL

1/2 3/4 -0.002 -0.000 0.000 -0.002 -0.015 -0.000 o.005CL

+0.000 +0.003 o.oo6CL +0.000 +0.000 +0.010 o.033CL

3/4 1
-0.003 -0.000 0.000 -0.003 -0.015 -0.000 o.005CL
Square
+0.000 +0.004 o.007CL +0.000 +0.000 +0.010 o.033CL
1 1-1/2
-0.003 -0.000 0.000 -0.003 -0.015 -0.000 o.005CL

+0.000 +0.004 o.ooSCL +0.000 +0.000 +0.010 o.034CL

1-1/2 2-1/2
-0.004 -0.000 0.000 -0.004 -0.015 -0.000 o.005CL

+0.000 +0.004 o.010CL +0.000 +0.000 +0.010 o.036CL

2-1/2 3-1/2
-0.006 -0.000 0.000 -0.006 -0.015 -0.000 o.005CL

All dimensions are given in inches.

*Limits of variation. CL = Clearance

Key
MatchingKeysandKeyseats -

Key tolerances are either:

(--~
• Undersize I
• Oversize
~
Keyseat
• Over/Undersize
Keyseats are machined into the shaft and
hub with class 1 tolerance, so that there is a
clearance fit. Many times the manufacturer
of the shaft or hub machines the keyseat, so
your only job is to select the key stock
)
tolerance.

H19146 Key Fasteners 55

 Key Width Tolerance
Undersize .500 - .001 - .500 + .000
.499 in. - .500 in.
Undersize key stock fits the tolerance
specification shown for a class 1 fit. It has a
Keyseat Width Tolerance
zero upper tolerance.
For example, a typical undersize tolerance is
0.000 to -0.001 inch. This tolerance type is
the most commonly used because it ensures
that there is always some clearance.
The undersize tolerance is also called a
negative tolerance or minus tolerance.
The text in red is the width desired for the
key or keyseat.

Key Width Tolerance

Oversize .500 + .000 - .500 + .002
.500 in. - .502 in.
An oversize key tolerance means that the
lower tolerance is zero. A typical oversize
tolerance is +0.002 to 0.000 inch. ("~. K··• ~
eysea. Width Tole~ance
~ ~ .• 500m.-.503m.
Oversize key stock is used when the keyseats
are worn and have therefore become larger Keyseat '~"-l j
than the normal specification allows.
The oversize key allows the shaft to still be
used. Another term used for this tolerance
type is a plus tolerance.
The text in red is the width desired for the
key or keyseat.

H19146 Key Fasteners

---- - -
 Key Width Tolerance
Over/Undersize .500 - .0005 - .500 +
.4995 in. - .5005 in.
Over/undersize tolerance means that there
is both an upper and lower tolerance. A
typical example is +0.0005 to -0.0005 inch. ~ Keysea~Width Tole~ance
~ ~.500m.-.503m.
This tolerance works best when you want a
tighter-than-normal fit. An example of an
application is with a reversing motor.
The text in red is the width desired for the
key or keyseat.

Key andKeyseatLength
Another feature that must be specified is the
length of the key.
While the nominal length of the key is
important, it is not a critical dimension. The Keyseat
ll
J
general guideline is to make the key long
enough to fit flush on one side of the hub
and a little shorter than the length of the
keyseat on the shaft to ensure that the key
cannot slide around in the keyseat.
Keys are available in various lengths.
However, keys are normally cut to length
from longer lengths of key stock, such as a
typical stock length of 12 inches.

H19146 Key Fasteners 57

Key StockMaterialType
Keys are purposely chosen to be of a softer
material than the shaft so that they will
shear first if the shaft is overloaded.
Common key materials include:
• Cold rolled steel, e.g. C1018
• Zinc-plated cold rolled steel
• High carbon steel, e.g. C1095
• Brass

H19146 Key Fasteners 58

-------
- - ...
 The most common material is cold rolled
steel. This material may be zinc plated for
corrosion resistance.
Stainless steel, typically 316 or 18-8, is
common for the same reason. In marine
applications, brass is also used.
For higher load applications, where tighter
tolerances and higher strength are needed, a
high carbon steel can be used. This steel is
often annealed to make it easier to machine
and has a tighter size tolerance.

H19146 Key Fasteners 59

.. - --
..........,__
Segment2 KeyAssembly
Objective4 Describe How to Measure the Actual Size of a Key and Keyseat

Sizing Keysand Keyseats

Selecting the right size for a key is very
important. Accurate measurement of the
keyseat and the right size key stock are
crucial in selecting the proper key.
There are three measuring tools that are
used to measure the key and keyseat.
• Dial Caliper
• Micrometer
• Rule

\
\
Dial Caliper
The dial caliper has the ability to measure
the inside width of a keyseat and the depth
of the keyseat.
These measurements allow you to determine
the width and height of the key.

H19146 Key Fasteners 60

Micrometer
Either the micrometer or the caliper is
suitable to measure both the width and
height of the key stock used to make the key.
The micrometer is a more accurate
measuring device than the dial caliper and is
more commonly used for this application.

A key stock that is purchased from a supplier has a specific tolerance. For example,
square key stock (e.g. zinc-plated, cold-drawn C1018 steel key stock) is typically sold
with a tolerance of +0.003, 0.000 in.
Therefore, it is usually only necessary to verify that the nominal size of the key stock is
correct because the tolerance of the key stock has already been specified.

Rule
A rule measures the length of a keyseat. This
measurement is difficult using a micrometer
or the dial caliper.
Because the length is not critical, a rule is
the easiest and quickest method of
determining the keyseat's approximate
length.

H19146 Key Fasteners 61

..-
Objectives Describe Six Types of Set Screws

Six Types of Set Screws 00g Point

A set screw is a threaded fastener used to Flat Point

hold components together. These fasteners Cup Point

generally do not have a head.

There are various types of set screws
available.
• Cup Point Cone Point Soll Tipped
• Flat Point
• Dog Point Oval Point
• Oval Point
• Cone Point
• Soft Tipped

CupPoint
Cup point set screws have a dished out area on their tip. This cup bites into the shaft
for maximum locking strength.

Flat Point
Flat point set screws are used because they offer the least amount of shaft deformation.
They are typically used on frequently dismantled components.

Dog Point
Dog point set screws have a point that fits into a hole in the shaft. This provides not
only locking strength, but also provides precise locating of the components in reference
to each other.

OvalPoint
Oval point set screws do not create excessive indentations in the shaft. However, they
are best when the set screw will contact the shaft at an angle.

H19146 Key Fasteners 62

ConePoint
Cone point set screws are used for permanent mounting of components on shafts. The
point bites into the shaft to create a high axial and torsional locking strength.

Soft:Tipped
Soft tipped set screws have a different material on the point, typically nylon and brass.
This material conforms to the shape of the shaft. This provides adequate locking
strength for many applications and prevents damaging or scarring of soft shafts.

H19146 Key Fasteners

Objective6 Describe How to Assemble a Hub to a Shaft Using a Key
Fastener

Assembling a Shaft and Hub with a Key

Fastener
Assembling a shaft and hub with a key
fastener is a very easy task if the components
are sized correctly.
• Step 1: Check the Hub
• Step 2: Clean the Keyseats
• Step 3: Slide the Key onto the Shaft
Keyseat
• Step 4: Insert Key into the Hub Keyseat
• Step 5: Re-Insert Key into the Shaft
Keyseat
• Step 6: Align the Hub and Shaft
• Step 7: Slide the Hub onto the Shaft
• Step 8: Tighten the Set Screw

Step 1: Checkthe Hub

__ Set Screw Hole

Check to see if the hub has a set screw hole A

-~-
drilled in its side. A set screw can provide an ¾
extra holding force on the key to hold it in
position. If there is a set screw, make sure to .#'

back it out so that it is not extending into the

shaft hole.

H19146 Key Fasteners

----- - ...
Step 2: Cleanthe Keyseats
Clean the shaft keyseat and the hub keyseat
with a wire brush to make sure that no dirt
or burrs are in the keyseats.

Step g: Slidethe Keyonto the ShaftKeyseat

Slide the key onto the keyseat of the shaft.
The key should fit into the keyseat without
forcing it. If it is too tight, take it out and
measure it to see which part is out of
tolerance. You can either replace the key,
machine the keyseat, or sand the key.
Sanding the key is normally not
recommended because it is difficult to sand
it evenly. If you choose to sand it, use a belt
sander, not a grinder.
Also, check the key for play when it is in the
keyseat by wiggling it. There should be no
play. If there is, replace the key.

H19146 Key Fasteners

Step 4: InsertKeyinto the Hub Keyseat
Remove the key from the shaft keyseat and
insert it into the hub keyseat. It also should
slide in without forcing it and have no play.

Step 5: Re-InsertKeyinto the ShaftKeyseat

Remove the key from the hub and insert into
the shaft keyseat. Line it up flush with the
end of the shaft.

H19146 Key Fasteners 66

Step 6: Align the Hub and Shaft
Pick up the hub in your hand and line it up
in front of the shaft so that the hub's keyseat
is in line with the key on the shaft.

Step 7: Slide the Hub onto the Shaft

Slide the hub onto the shaft until the end of
the hub is flush with the end of the shaft.
The hub should slide without using tools. If
it doesn't, pull it off and check the
dimensions.
llubflvsh
wltl>Sh■lt

H19146 Key Fasteners

Step 8: Tightenthe Set Screw
Tighten the set screw onto the key.
Sometimes you may use two set screws to
keep the first one from backing out when the
shaft is turning.

Hub Removal
The best way to remove a hub from a shaft is
to use a bearing puller. This unit pushes on
the end of the shaft while it pulls on the hub.
This method will remove the hub without
damaging the components.
Another method of removing a hub is to use
a key punch and soft hammer to tap the key
out. The hub is then removed by hand.
However, a hammer should never knock out
the hub directly. This will destroy the hub. Puller

H19146 Key Fasteners 68

Segment 3 Torque andPower Measurement

Objective7 Describe Two Methods of Loading a Mechanical Drive System

Loadinga MechanicalDriveSystem
In some cases, an external device loads
certain mechanical devices in order to
measure the performance characteristics at
various loads.
There are two common methods used to
load a mechanical drive system:
• Prony Brake
• Dynamometer

PronyBrake
The prony brake is one device that is used to
load a motor. This device also has the ability
to tell you how much load is applied to the
motor.

H19146 Key Fasteners

The prony brake drum couples to the motor shaft and rests inside a canvas friction belt.
As the canvas belt tightens against the brake drum using the wingnut, the load on the
motor is increased. This applies a force to the pivot arm.

Brake Drum Canvas Friction Belt

H19146 Key Fasteners 70

 The force is measured by a spring scale that
is placed at a specific distance from the
center of the motor shaft. This is the radius
distance. You can then use the force reading
from the scale and the radius distance to
calculate the torque.

Dynamometer
A dynamometer is another type of device
that places a load on a motor and measures
the amount of power that the motor can
produce. Race car builders use
dynamometers to tune their engines.

H19146 Key Fasteners 71

- ....- -
Objectives Describe How to Calculate Rotary Mechanical Power

DefineRotaryPower
Rotary mechanical power is defined as the
rate or speed at which the rotating power
transmission system turns the load. Since
work is defined as Force x Distance, work in
a rotating system is actually torque.
This means that the power output at a
motor's shaft is found by multiplying the
torque by the speed (rate) as shown.

Rotary Power Formula

P=TsxSs
Where:

P = Rotary Power (hp)

Ts = Shaft Torque (ft-lb or N-m)
Ss = Shaft Speed (rpm)

Units of RotaryPower Motor Power-US Customary

T x S
The units of rotary power are expressed in Po= 5,252
horsepower (hp) in the US customary
system and kilowatts (kW) in the Systems Where:

International (SI) system. They are Po = Output Power (hpi

calculated as shown in the formulas. T =Torque (ft-ibj
S = Speed (rprn)

Motor Power-SI
T >< S
p 0 ---
- 9,549

Where:

Po = Output Power (kW)

T = Torque (N-m)
S = Speed (rpm)

H19146 Key Fasteners 72

 Segment 4 Mechanical Efficiency
Objective9 Describe How to Calculate Mechanical Efficiency and Explain
Its Importance

Mechanical Power Efficiency

DefineMechanicalEfficiency
One of the problems with power EM :: { ; : ) X 100
transmission equipment of any kind is that Where:
the power output is always less than the
power input. This is because there are EM = Mechanical efficiency(%)
frictional effects in the transmission that PO = Output power (hp or kW)
cause some of the power to be lost to heat. P; = Input power (hp or kW)

The ratio of the Power Out to the Power In is

the Power Efficiency. If it is describing the
power lost through a mechanical drive
system, it is the Mechanical Power Efficiency.
It can be calculated as shown in this formula.

MeasuringMechanicalEfficiency
The mechanical power efficiency is
important to any machine. The goal of a
designer is to make it as high as possible, so
that the machine uses as little energy as
possible to perform its task.
How maintenance technicians align and
lubricate a machine also affects its efficiency.
The mechanical efficiency will decrease as
the machine wears. This means that
monitoring the efficiency will tell you when a
machine needs servicing.
The mechanical efficiency of a power
transmission can be determined by
measuring the shaft speed and torque at the
input and the output.
In some cases, the power loss may occur
because of a loss of speed due to slip in the
drive components. In others, the power loss
occurs by lost torque from friction. Lost
torque is the most common source of power
loss.

H19146 Key Fasteners 73

-- ...
-- -
Applicationsof MechanicalEfficiency
In actual application, measuring the
mechanical power at either the input shaft or
the output shaft is hard to do because it is
not easy to measure the torque.
The torque can be measured by using a
torque transducer, an electronic device that
attaches to the shaft, or a dynamometer.
In most cases, you can more easily monitor
the efficiency of the system by measuring the
electric power drawn by the motor. If it
increases over time, you know that the
mechanical drive is losing efficiency.

H19146 Key Fasteners 74

 Objective10 Describe Two Methods of Measuring Shaft Torque and Give
an Application of Each

MeasuringShaftTorque
Measuring the load on the mechanical drive
system is useful because it allows you to
determine how the system is operating. A
problem in the drive system will often cause
a change in the load. For exam_ple,excessive
tension in a V-belt will cause a higher load.
These are two methods you can use to
measure the load on a shaft:
• Current Measurement
• Torque Transducer

240

CurrentMeasurement 220 ,I
200
Torque is related to the electrical current I
supplied to the motor. As motor torque 180
increases, so does electrical current. 160
I
~ N"
1
140
Most motor manufacturers have already c-9
'- C 120
I
tested this relationship and include a graph ~-:::,. I
with the specifications of the motor that 100
shows the torgue vs. current characteristics. 80
I
Torque is determined by comparing 60
J
measured current to the graph. I
40

For example, from the torque vs. current 20

I
graph shown here you can see that if the
measured current is 2 amps, the torque 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

delivered by the motor is approximately Current (amps)

150 in-oz.

Current measurement often is used to

measure motor torque in the field because
the motor is already connected to a load.

H19146 Key Fasteners 75

- ...-- -
 60
TorqueTransducer
50
A torque transducer is a device that is
directly coupled to the shaft and generates 40
an electrical signal that an ammeter or
controller receives. Oil

g 30

The form of the signal is usually either a

±10 VAC or 4-20 mA signal. This signal is 20
proportional to the torque.
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Torque (In-oz)

H19146 Key Fasteners

Objective11 Describe Three Methods of Measuring Electric Motor Current

MeasuringElectricalCurrent
Measuring the electric motor's input current
is a way to monitor the efficiency of a
mechanical drive system. As the efficiency
decreases, the motor's current will increase.
This shows that the load of the drive has
increased.
There are three methods by which motor
current can be measured:
• Clamp-on ammeter
• Hand-held ammeter
• Built-in ammeter

Clamp-OnAmmeters
A clamp-on ammeter can be opened and
placed around a wire in which you want to
measure the current.
This is very convenient because it allows you
to measure current without disconnecting
the circuit to connect the meter in series.
This aspect is very important for AC power
applications where the current level is often
quite high and very dangerous.

H19146 Key Fasteners 77

HandheldAmmeter
A handheld ammeter is a meter in which
metal probes must be in series with the
circuit in order to read current. To read the
current the circuit must be broken and the
ammeter must be inserted.
Precautions must be taken with a handheld
ammeter. Placing the ammeter across a live
component can short out the component,
blow an ammeter fuse, or even cause the
ammeter to explode.
These meters often come in the form of
multimeters. Multimeters have the
advantage of being able to measure voltage
and resistance along with current.

Built-InAmmeters
Built-in ammeters are given their name
since they are a permanent part of the circuit.
Since they are built into the machine's panel
they are also referred to as panel ammeters.
Built-in ammeters are used in applications
where the current can be continually
monitored.

H19146 Key Fasteners

Module3 PowerTransmissionSystems

Segment1 Introductionto Shafts

Objective1 Describe the Function of a Shaft and Give an Application

The Definitionof a Shaft

A shaft is a cylindrical piece of material,
usually steel, that transmits mechanical
power in the form of torque and rotating
motion from one location to another.

The Operationof a Shaft

A shaft is a basic yet important component.
Shafts transmit power to a location outside
the machine, such as in an electrical motor
or gas turbine.
Shafts can also be extensions to other shafts.
An example of this is a drive shaft on a car,
which transmits the power from the
transmission in the front of the car to the
differential gearbox in the rear.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 79

An Applicationof a Shaft
Still, a third and very common application of
a shaft is to provide a means of operating the
working components of the machine. Shafts
are attached to rotating members of
machines to perform the work.
For example, a drill spindle consists
basically of a shaft with a cutter tool
attached to it, as shown here.
Another application is a case in which a
roller is a part of the shaft as in a roller press
or a papermaking machine.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 80

Objective2 List Four Types of Shaft Materials and Give an Application of
Each

ChoosingShaftMaterial
Most machine shafts are made of some type
of steel determined by the amount of load
the shaft has to carry and the conditions of
the work environment.
If you are replacing a shaft in a machine,
make sure that you are using the same
material. Do not assume that two materials
that look the same are the same.

FourTypesof ShaftMaterials
These are some examples of common shaft materials:
• Cold Rolled Steel
• Hardened Steel
• Chrome Plated Steel
• Stainless Steel

ColdRolledSteel
Cold rolled steel is the most common of all
shaft materials because it is cheap and easy
to machine.
It is available in different strengths
according to its carbon content. Cold rolled
steel is used in most applications.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 81

HardenedSteel
Hardened steel is cold rolled steel that is
heat-treated in some manner to increase its
strength. It is used in heavy-duty
applications such as high-speed drive shafts.

ChromePlatedSteel
Chrome plated steel is cold rolled or
hardened steel that has been given a coating
or plated with chrome.
Chrome is a metal that is resistant to rusting
and other corrosive applications. It is often
used on rollers in presses.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 82

Stainless Steel
Stainless steel resists rusting and is very
strong. It combines the features of hardened
steel and chrome plating.
In fact, stainless steel has some chrome in it.
Use a stainless steel shaft where you need
resistance to a corrosive environment, a
better surface finish, or a stronger surface
than chrome plating can provide.
Applications of stainless steel include
machines where the equipment must be
washed often with cleaning fluids, which can
cause chrome to flake off.

OtherTypes of Shaft Materials

In addition to these examples, shafts are
made from many other types of materials.
If you are designing a machine that uses
shafts, you must consider the cost of the
material, ease of machining, size, and the
type of duty.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems

Objective3 Describe How Shafts Are Specified

Shaft Specifications
Shaft specifications include the type of material, nominal diameter, diameter tolerance,
straightness, and length.

Diameter Tolerance (in.) Straightness (in./ft)

Nominal Standard
Accuracy Accuracy
Standard Accuracy
Diameter (Class"L") (Class "S")
o.2495to o.249oto 0.001 to
1/4 0.251 to 0.249 Unspecified
0.2490 0.2485 0.002

0.3765 to 0.3745 to o.374oto 0.001 to

3/8 Unspecified
0.3735 0.3740 0.3735 0.002
0.5015 to o-4995to o.499oto 0.001 to
1/2 Unspecified
0.4985 0.4990 0-4985 0.002
0.6245 to o.624oto 0.001 to
5/8 0.627 to 0.623 Unspecified
0.6240 0.6235 0.002
0.7520 to 0.7495 to 0.7490 to 0.001 to
3/4 Unspecified
0.7480 0.7490 0.7485 0.002

0.9995 to 0.9990 to 0.001 to

1 1.002 to 0.998 Unspecified
0.9990 0.9985 0.002
1.2525 to 1.2495 to 1.249oto 0.001 to
1-1/4 Unspecified
1.2475 1.2490 1.2485 0.002
1.5025 to 1.4994 to 1.4989to 0.001 to
1-1/2 Unspecified
1.4975 1.4989 1.4984 0.002
2.003oto 1.9994 to 1.9987to 0.001 to
2 Unspecified
1.9970 1.9987 1.9980 0.002

H19146 Power Transmission Systems

ShaftStock
Since a shaft is made from round stock
material, approximate shaft diameters are
usually the same as the common sizes of
standard round stock. It is also important to
determine the diameter tolerances and
straightness the application requires.
Standard round stock is often not precise
enough so designers select accuracy stock for
most shaft applications.

AccuracyStock
Accuracy stock is precision ground to more
exact tolerances than standard round stock.
Accuracy-type round stock is sold in
standard lengths. Since shafts are usually
shorter than the standard lengths, they are
cut to length. This means the shaft length in
a particular machine can be any length.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 85

Segment 2 Introductionto Bearings
Objective4 Describe the Function of a Bearing and Give an Application

TheFunctionandan Applicationof Bearings

The function of a bearing is to support and
guide a moving machine member with a
minimum amount of friction.
To understand why bearings are needed, it is
important to understand that a machine
member often has loads acting on it in
several directions.
Without bearings to hold the member in
place, the loads would cause the member to
move out of place and cause the machine to
fail.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 86

Objectives Define Three Types of Bearing Loads and Give an Example of
Each

ThreeTypesof BearingLoads
Bearings counteract three types of loads:
• Radial Load
• Thrust Load
• Combination

RadialLoad
A radial or side load acts in a direction that
is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. For
example, the force shown here on the
bearings creates a radial load.
Radial bearings are bearings that carry a
radial load. One source of radial load is the
force from the weight of the power
transmission component itself.
An example is the shaft shown here. The
weight of the shaft creates a force that pulls
downward on the radial bearings.

Tension or compression of the device the

shaft is turning causes another type of radial
load. Examples include the tension caused
by a belt drive and the compression caused
by a roller press.
These forces also create a radial load on the
shaft.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems

ThrustLoad
A thrust load acts in a direction parallel to
the shaft axis and opposite to the direction
of force transmission. These bearings are
called thrust bearings.
The weight of the drive component can also
cause a thrust load. One example is a
machine element, such as a robot body or an
index table, that must rotate parallel to the
ground.
Another example of thrust load is the load
created by a screw drive. As the screw drives
the load, it creates a thrust load on the shaft
in the opposite direction.

Combination
Many applications have a combination load
with both a radial load and a thrust load.
One example is the robot body like the one
shown here.
When the body rotates, the weight of the
machine creates a radial load along with the
thrust load. In fact, most loads that have a
-
RadialLoad
from Rotation
o(Walet

thrust load also have a radial load.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 88

Objective6 Describe How Bearings Are Positioned to Support a Load

Placementof the Load

No matter what the application, you can
apply some basic concepts to understand
where to place bearings in order to support a
load. For radial loads, use at least two
bearings to secure the position of the shaft.
Place the load between the two bearings or
overhang it. An overhung load is often called
a cantilever load.

PositioningBearings
In some cases, the bearings are built into the
machine rather than mounted externally. An
example is an electric motor.
All electric motors have two bearings, one on
each side of the housing, as shown here.
These bearings support the motor's rotor
and shaft.
Electric motors can also support an external
radial load. This permits a mechanical
member to be attached to the shaft without
the use of external bearings.

In contrast, thrust loads only need one

bearing. Place this bearing anywhere on the
shaft in a way such that it can counteract the
direction of the thrust load.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems

Objective7 Describe the Operation of Two Categories of Bearings and
Give an Application of Each

Two Categoriesof Bearings

There are two major categories of bearings used in industry:
• Plain Bearings
• Anti-Friction Bearings

PlainBearings
A plain bearing is a type of bearing in which
the surface of the moving machine
component slides over the bearing surface,
separated only by a lubrication film.
Plain bearings are designed to support either
radial loads or axial (thrust) loads. Journal
bearings are radial load plain bearings for
shafts. One application is on the crankshaft
of a car engine.

Anti-FrictionBearings
Anti-friction bearings, unlike plain bearings,
rotate with the moving machine component.
This is accomplished by using rollers or balls
that rotate within the bearing.
These rollers replace the function of the
lubrication film of the plain bearing.
However, anti-friction bearings must use
lubrication between the rollers.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 90

Objective8 Describe Two Methods of Mounting a Shaft Bearing and Give
an Application of Each

TwoMethodsof ShaftBearingMounts
All bearings require a housing or mounting of some type to hold the bearing in place in
the machine. Mount plain and anti-friction shaft bearings in one of two ways:
• Pillow Block Bearing Mount
• Flange Bearing Mount

PillowBlockBearingMount
A pillow block consists of a housing with two
mounting feet oriented so that you can
mount the shaft to a horizontal or angled
surface. A pillow block can be designed as
either a single assembly or a split assembly.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 91

Flange BearingMount
A flange-type bearing mount consists of a
housing with mounting feet that are oriented
so that the shaft can be mounted to a surface
that is perpendicular to the shaft.
Flanges have either two or four mounting
holes. Some flanges are built into the
housing of the machine itself, as is the case
for an electric motor and pump.

Shaft BearingMounts in Industry

Both the pillow block and flange bearing
mounts are very popular and are common in
industry.
Flange

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 92

Segment 3 Introduction to Couplings

Objective9 Describe the Function of a Coupling and Give an Application

Couplings Used to Connect a Shaft to a

Driven Component
Couplings connect one shaft to another, such
as connecting electric motors and other
prime movers to driven devices like pumps
and gear reducers.

Couplings Used to Extend Shafts

Couplings also can connect two shafts to
create one long shaft. The coupling provides
a secure method of transmitting the torque
and speed from one shaft to another.
Although they appear to perform a rather
simple task, there are many types of
couplings, and their correct installation will
greatly affect the mechanical efficiency and
life of the system.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 93

Objective10 Describe the Function and Application of Four Categories of
Mechanical Couplings

FourCategoriesof MechanicalCouplings
There are four general categories of mechanical couplings:
• Rigid Couplings
• Flexible Couplings
• Universal Joints
• Clutches

Rigid Couplings
Rigid couplings couple two shafts together
rigidly so that the shafts act as a single
continuous assembly. One type of rigid
coupling is a flange coupling, as shown here.
Rigid couplings do not allow misalignment.
They extend the length of a shaft in
applications that need very long shaft
lengths.
Rigid couplings sometimes connect motors
to pumps. This is not recommended because
any misalignment will cause the bearings to
wear out quickly.

FlexibleCouplings Flexible
Couplln
Flexible couplings connect two shafts
together and allow for some misalignment.
In general, flexible couplings consist of two
hubs and some type of flexible component
that connects the two hubs together.
Flexible couplings are used in applications
that require two independently supported
coaxial shafts to be coupled together.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 94

Independently supported shafts are very
difficult to align perfectly. The flexible
coupling allows enough misalignment to
make the alignment process a practical task.
Applications that use flexible couplings
include any electric motor or engine which
must be coupled to a pump or gear reducer.

UniversalJoints
The universal joint allows two shafts that are
not coaxially aligned to be connected. The
universal joint consists of one or two swivel
connections that allow it to direct the shaft
power to a shaft that is oriented at an angle
to the driving shaft.
One example of an industrial application is a
papermaking machine, which requires a
motor to drive a roller that is offset from the
motor shaft.

Clutches
The fourth category of couplings is clutches.
Clutches are designed to allow two turning
shafts to connect and disconnect from each
other.
Clutches are used to start machines in an
unloaded condition, prevent reverse rotation,
and act as a safety device if the shaft torque
overloads.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 95

Objective11 Describe the Operation of a Flexible Jaw Coupling

Howthe FlexibleJaw CouplingWorks

The flexible jaw coupling is a type of flexible
coupling that uses a rubber-like insert called
a spider to connect the two hubs.
Each hub has jaws that mesh with the spider.
When the driver coupling half rotates, its
jaws press on the spider, which in turn
presses on the jaws of the driven coupling
half, causing it to turn.
The flexible jaw coupling is called an
elastomer-in-compression, which is a
member of the elastomeric family.
The hubs of a jaw coupling are constructed
of aluminum, cast iron, or steel, depending
on the power rating. They can be mounted
with either a key fastener or bushing.

Compositionof the FlexibleJaw Coupling

The spider can be made of Buna N (Nitrile)
rubber, urethane, Hytril, or even metals
such as bronze. They are usually designed as
a one-piece construction, but can be
supplied as pieces.
The advantage of this type of coupling is that
it allows more misalignment than most
flexible couplings because of the elastic
properties of the elastomer spider. However,
it is usually used for low to medium power
or speed applications.
Other names for this coupling are a jaw and
spider coupler, elastomeric jaw coupling, or
simply a jaw coupling.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems

Segment4 Shaft Alignment

Objective12 Describe the Purpose of Shaft Alignment and Give Two Types
of Misalignment

DriverShaft Centerline
The Definitionof ShaftAlignment
The centerlines of two shafts connected by a
flexible coupling should be brought into line
with each other before operating the shafts.
This process is called shaft alignment.

Typesof ShaftMisalignment
Shaft alignment helps reduce vibration and
extend the life of the couplings, bearings, '
Angular Misalignment ParallelMisalignment(Offset)
and seals. Excessive vibration is known to be
a main cause of early failure of equipment.
Shaft alignment corrects angular and
parallel misalignment, which can appear
anywhere in a 360° circle, but is usually
measured on the horizontal and vertical
planes.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 97

Objective13 Describe a General Procedure for Shaft Alignment and Give
Four Measurement Methods

The Process of ShaftAlignment

The general procedure for aligning two
shafts is to check and correct for angular and
parallel misalignment in the vertical and
horizontal planes. Also, the coupling gap
must be set when horizontal angular
misalignment is corrected.

Five Checks and Corrections for Shaft

Alignment
There are five checks and corrections for
shaft alignment:
• Vertical Angular
• Vertical Parallel
• Horizontal Angular
• Coupling Gap
• Horizontal Parallel

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 98

VerticalAngular
To correct the vertical angular misalignment,
add shims to the front or back of the motor,
depending on the location of the
misalignment.
If the gap between the couplings is greater at
the top of the coupling, raise the back of the
motor with shims. If the gap between the
coupling hubs is greater at the bottom, raise
the front of the motor with shims.

VerticalParallel ertlcalParalel
nt

Vertical parallel alignment means to make ' -:~,

',

the height of the two shafts the same.

To correct for vertical parallel misalignment,
raise or lower the entire motor. Do this by
adding or removing shims equally on all four
motor feet, as shown here.

HorizontalAngular
To correct the horizontal angular
misalignment, loosen the motor foot mount
and slightly turn it in the direction that
corrects the misalignment.
Horizontal
AngUlat
Misalignment
Adjustm11nt

CouplingGap
The coupling gap is the distance between the
two coupling hubs. Set the coupling gap to
the coupling manufacturer's specification.
This specification is designed to permit the
coupling to assemble correctly. Since
measuring horizontal angular misalignment
means measuring the coupling gap, it is
natural to adjust the gap at the same time.
Simply angle the motor and move it forward
or back.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 99

HorizontalParallel
To correct for the horizontal parallel
misalignment, loosen the motor foot mounts
and move all four feet an equal amount, as
shown here.
Correcting horizontal parallel alignment
often upsets the horizontal angular
alignment, so repeat horizontal angular
alignment and horizontal parallel alignment
procedures until the measurements are
within the tolerances before tightening the
bolts.

vertical Angular Alignment

Explanation of Vertical Alignment

Precedence
The two vertical alignment checks are done
first because they require shims to be added
to the motor's feet. Doing this last would
upset the horizontal alignments.
For this reason, shaft alignment is also
called coupling alignment. However, it is
important to remember that the real goal is
the alignment of the shafts.

Vertical Parallel Alignment

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 100

FourMethodsof MeasuringMisalignment
These are four methods of measuring the
amount of misalignment, in order from least
accurate to most accurate:
• Straight Edge and Feeler Gauge Method
• Face and Rim Method
• Reverse Indicator Method
• Laser Alignment

StraightEdgeand FeelerGaugeMethod
The straight edge and feeler gauge method is
the least accurate method, but it is very
quick. It is the method most people use to
align a flexible jaw coupling since it can
accep~ more misalignment than most other
couplings.
Use the straight edge and feeler gauge
method to make an initial rough alignment
before performing further alignment
methods.

DecidingWhichMachineto Move
Before beginning the alignment process, first
decide which device is to move and which
will remain in place. These will be referred
to as the machine to be moved (MTBM) and
the stationary machine.
Normally, the driver component is the
MTBM and the driven component is the
stationary machine. This is because the
driver component is usually easier to move.
For example, a pump may not be easy to
move if it has rigid plumbing attached to it.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 101

Shimmingthe Machineto Move
Make sure that the height of the MTBM is
slightly lower than the stationary machine.
This is because the movable component will
rise as it is shimmed during alignment.
To accomplish this, the stationary
component can be shimmed when it is
mounted. A beginning height difference
between the two shafts of 0.010 inch to
0.015 inch is good.

Couplingson the Machineto Move

Also, place the couplings on the shafts and
move the MTBM into a position where the
gap between the coupling hubs is
a_pproximatelythe amount recommended by
the manufacturer.
This is normally done with the coupling
hubs mounted flush with the ends of the
shafts. One or both coupling hubs will then
be secured in place on the shafts, depending
on the coupling design and method of
alignment used.
In some cases, only one hub is secured,
usually the stationary machine, and the
other is pulled back on the shaft so the
coupling face can be measured.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 102

Objective14 Describe the Operation of the Straight Edge and Feeler Gauge
Alignment Method

Straight Edge and Feeler GaugeAlignment

MethodSteps
The general procedure just described is used
by the straight edge and feeler gauge method
to align two shafts. These are the specific
steps to follow:
• Perform Pre-Alignment Steps
• Perform Vertical Angular Alignment
• Perform Vertical Parallel Alignment
• Perform Horizontal Angular Alignment
and Set Coupling Gap
• Perform Horizontal Parallel Alignment

PerformPre-AlignmentSteps
Before starting the alignment process,
perform these pre-alignment steps:
• Perform a lockout/tagout.
• Clean and make free of burrs the motor
and driven machine's baseplate, shims,
and mounting surface.
• Mount the motor and driven machine and
tighten bolts.
• Check both machines for an initial soft foot.
• Check both machines for a final soft foot.
• Check both shafts for run-out and end float.
• Level both shafts.
• Make sure the height of the stationary
machine is higher than the machine to be
moved (MTBM).
• Clean the coupling of dirt or grease and
mount the coupling hubs on the shafts.
• Adjust the positions of the two machines so
that the gap between the couplings halves
is approximately the amount
recommended by the manufacturer.
• Tighten the mounting bolts of the two
machines.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 103

PerformVerticalAngularAlignment
First, mark the two coupling halves with a
chalk or ink mark at a place on the hubs that
is free of nicks or burrs. This is where you
will take all of your measurements during
the alignment process.
Next, rotate the coupling hubs so that the
two chalk marks are both at the 0° position.
Use a feeler gauge to measure the gap
between the two coupling hubs at 0°. Select
the feeler gauge leaf or leaves that will give a
slight drag when passed through the gap.
Make sure you do not insert the feeler gauge
leaves more than 1/ 2 inch. With angular
alignment, your measurement will vary
depending on how far you stick in the leaves.
Next, rotate the coupling hubs so that the
chalk marks are at the 180° position and
measure the gap here. The difference
between the two measurements is the
amount of vertical angular misalignment.

For example, if the top gap is 0.010 inch and

the bottom gap is o. o 17 inch, the
misalignment is 0.007 inch. To correct this
misalignment, shim the front two feet or the
back two.
You can determine the amount of shims
needed by multiplying the misalignment by
the shim ratio. The shim ratio is the ratio of
the mounting bolt distance to the hub
diameter. For example, the shim ratio shown
here is 2 (10 + 5). The amount to shim then
is 0.014 (2 X 0.007).
If the gap is larger at the top, shim the back
two feet. If it is larger at the bottom, shim
the front two feet.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 104

The reason you are rotating the coupling hubs before making each measurement is so
that you can take measurements off of the same places on the hubs each time. This
avoids errors in measurement caused by imperfections on the outside diameters (rims)
of the coupling hubs.
In some cases, one or both of the shafts will not rotate by hand. You can still use this
procedure, but you will not be as accurate.

PerformVerticalParallelAlignment
Before checking the vertical alignment, or
offset, first, measure the hub diameters to
determine if the hubs are the same size.
When hubs have different diameters, the
alignment steps are different.
If they are the same size, rotate the two
marks to the 0° position and measure the
offset. Do this by placing a straight edge on
the hub that is higher and measuring the gap
with a feeler gauge, as shown here.
Next, rotate the coupling hubs so that the
chalk marks are at the 180° position and
measure the gap here. If the two
measurements are the same, this is the
amount of vertical parallel misalignment, or
offset.

If they are different, calculate the average of

the two and use this as the vertical offset.
Shim all four motor feet equally with shims
having the same thickness as the offset you
measured. ' 0.050
'

If the diameters of the two hubs are different,

shim the MTBM so that the hub gap is the
same on both sides, as shown here.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 105

PerformHorizontalAngularAlignmentand
Set CouplingGap
First, center the end-play of the driver shaft
and the driven shaft if they have any. Then
rotate the chalk marks to the 90° position
and use either a steel rule or feeler gauge to
measure the gap, as shown here.
Loosen the mounting bolts and move the
MTBM either in or out to adjust the gap to
the manufacturer's specifications. This
amount will vary, depending on the type of
coupling.
Now rotate the marks to the 270° position
and measure the gap again. Adjust the
position of the motor so that the gap is the
same on both sides at both 90° and 270° and
is within the manufacturer's gap
specification.

PerformHorizontalParallelAlignment
Use a straight edge and feeler gauge to
measure the misalignment when the chalk
marks are at the 90° and 270° positions, as
shown here.
Carefully bump or move the side of the
motor without losing angular alignment
until the offset measurements at 90° and
270° are the same or zero.

Larger motors have jack bolts that allow you

to precisely move the front and the back of
the motor equally.
Recheck the gap and horizontal alignments
until the settings are within the
manufacturer's specifications. Next tighten
down the motor's mounting bolts. Then
recheck all measurements.
If any one of the five measurements is 1
outside its allowable tolerance, repeat the
alignment procedure.

H19146 Power Transmission Systems 106

Module4 Introductionto V-BeltDrives

Segment1 Belt DriveConcepts

Objective1 Describe the Function of the Three Basic Components of a
Belt Drive

Belt DriveComponents
A belt drive consists of three basic
components:
• Belt
• Driver Sheave
• Driven Sheave

Belt
The belt is a continuous loop of material,
usually made mostly of rubber with some
other materials.
The belt is stretched between the two
sheaves and transmits speed and torque by
means of the friction between it and the
sheave grooves.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 107

DriverSheave
The driver sheave, also called a pulley, is a
grooved disc that is attached to the shaft of
the drive or prime mover. It turns with the
drive shaft and causes the belt to move.

DrivenSheave
The driven sheave, a pulley, is a grooved disc
that is attached to the driven shaft. It turns
when the belt moves, which causes the
driven shaft to rotate.

BeltDriveSpeedandTorque
The relative diameters of the driven sheave _/ Driven
and the driver sheave determine the speed
and torque which are transmitted to the
driven shaft.
-~~~~­
The ratio of the sizes of the sheaves can be
selected to either decrease or increase the
speed and the torque delivered to the driven
shaft, but if speed is increased, torque is
decreased, and vice versa.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 108

Objective2 Define Pitch and Explain Its Importance

PitchDefinition
Calculation of the speed and torque
delivered to the driven shaft by an adjacent
shaft drive (either belt, chain, or gear) is
based on a concept called pitch.
Pitch is defined as the distance between a
point and a similar corresponding point.
Exam_ples of pitch are shown for screw
threads, chains, and gears.
Although the V-belt itself does not have an
associated pitch, the belt drive does have
three pitch-derived features which are used
to calculate speed and torque: pitch
diameter, pitch circle, and pitch length.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 109

Objectiveg Define the Pitch Circle, Pitch Diameter and Pitch Length of a
Belt Drive and Explain Their Importance

Two Disc Transmission

Pitch circle, pitch diameter, and pitch length
are based on the concept that speed and '
torque can be transmitted from one shaft to
another shaft.
Imagining the surfaces of two discs in
contact with each other, the friction between
the discs will cause the driver disc to make
the driven disc turn.
Assuming that the discs have no slip
between them, the surface speeds of the
contacting edges of the discs are the same.

Two Disc TransmissionOperation DrivenDisc

J_ l
Driver Disc
In order for the driver disc to turn the driven
disc, the drive motor must create a torque
causing a force where the two discs contact ·~
each other.
This force creates a torque in the driven disc
and is the same on both discs at the point
where they contact each other.
r

Belt DriveTransmission
The belt drive also transmits speed and
torque using the same concepts, except that
the two discs are separated.
The belt acts as an extension which contacts
the two discs, therefore you can treat them
as if they were in contact with each other.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 110

PitchCircleof a Disc DriveSystem
The pitch circle is defined as the circle that
goes through the place on each disc where
the speed and force are transmitted.
In the case of the two discs, the pitch circle
represents the outer surface of each disc.

PitchCircleof a BeltDriveSystem
The pitch circle of the belt drive is not the
outer edge of the hub, but is the place in the
belt representing the center of the force
being transmitted through the belt.
In the case of a V-belt, the pitch circle is
located somewhere inside the outer diameter
of the sheave.
The pitch circle is important only because it
allows you to determine the pitch diameter.

PitchDiameter
The pitch diameter is simply the diameter of
the pitch circle.
This is important because it allows
calculation of the speed and torque being
transmitted to the driven shaft.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 111

PitchLength
Pitch length is the length of the belt that
passes through the pitch circles of the two
sheaves.
The pitch length is important because it is
used to size the belt.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 112

Objective4 Describe How to Calculate the Pulley Ratio and Explain Its
Importance

Pulley Ratio
PulleyRatioDescription
PR =DovN
One of the reasons to use a belt drive is to DovR
make the speed or the torque of the driven \/\Jhere:
shaft different than that of the driver shaft. 0 ovR = Pitch Diameter of Driver Pulley (inches)
0 OVN = Pitch Diameter of Driven Pulley (inches)
This is accomplished by making the relative PR = Pulley Ratio
sizes of the sheaves or pulleys different.
The ratio of the pitch diameters of the two
sheaves is called the pulley ratio and is used
to directly calculate the speed and torque of
the driven shaft, given the driver shaft speed
and torque.

PulleyRatioExample
As an example, look at the belt drive system
shown. The pitch diameters of the driver and
driven pulleys are 2 inches and 6 inches
respectively.
This means that the pulley ratio is 6/2, or 3.
This is often stated as a 3:1 pulley ratio.
It is important to remember that the pulley
ratio is determined using the pitch diameter,
which is not the same as the outer diameter
of a pulley. If you use the outer diameter,
your answer will have a slight error.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 113

Effectof Pulley Ratioon Shaft Speed Case A
To understand why the pulley ratio affects
shaft speed, look at case A.
In this example, the circumferences of the
two discs turn the same amount because the Case B
contacting discs are the same size.
If, however, the discs are not the same size,
as shown in case B, the circumferences will
still turn by the same amount but the
number of revolutions will be different.
In case B, the driven disc is two times the
diameter of the driver disc meaning that its
circumference is also two times as large.
Therefore, for each turn of the driver disc,
the driven disc rotates the circumference of
the driver disc, which is one half the
circumference of the driven disc.
This means that the driven disc only rotates
one half turn.

Effect of Pulley Ratio on Belt Drive Shaft

Speed
The same relationship also applies to belt
drives. As the outer edge of the drive pulley
rotates, the belt transfers an equal amount
of movement to the outer edge of the driven
pulley.
If the pulleys are of different sizes, the
driven shaft rotation speed will be different
than the driver shaft rotation speed.
As shown, the larger pulley decreases the
speed delivered to the driven shaft.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 114

Effectof PulleyRatioon Torque
In a similar manner to speed, the pulley
ratio also affects the torque transmitted to
the driven shaft. To understand why, you
should recall that the force applied to the
surfaces of the two pulleys is the same.
Since the torque radius is the radius of the
pulley, the torque in one pulley will be
different than another if its radius (or
diameter) is different.
This is a common sense concept that you can
use on the job to determine in general how
power is being changed by the mechanical
drive system.

Effectson Torque
In the case of the example shown, the torque in the driver pulley is 5 in.-lbs (Driver
Torque=5x1=5).
The torque in the driven pulley, however, is 15 in.-lbs (Driven Torque=5x3=15). The
larger pulley increased the torque delivered to the driven shaft.
In other words, the larger pulley turns more slowly but has greater torque.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 115

Objectives Describe How to Calculate the Shaft Speed and Torque of a
Belt Drive System

Belt DriveSpeed Belt Drive Speed

S ovR = DovN
The relationship between pulley sizes and
shaft speeds of a belt drive can be expressed SovN DovR
in the formula shown. Where:

The top formula reveals that the shaft speeds S DVR = Driver Rotational Speed (rpm)

are inversely proportional to the pitch S DVN = Driven Rotational Speed (rpm)
diameters. This means that an increase in D DVN = Driven Pitch Diameter (ft or m)
pulley size causes the speed to decrease. D OVR = Driver Pitch Diameter (ft or m)

Notice that the right hand side of the top

formula is the pulley ratio, so the formula Belt Drive Speed
can also be stated as shown in the bottom
formula. SovR = PR
SovN
Where:

S DVR = Driver Rotational Speed (rpm)

S DVN = Driven Rotational Speed (rpm)
PR = Pulley Ratio

Belt Drive Torque

Belt DriveTorque
T DVN = D OVN
The shaft torque formula shown on top is T ovR DovR
similar to the shaft speed formula, exce_pt Whore-

that the torque is directly, not inversely, T DVN = Driven Rotational Torque (f!-ib;; or N-m)
proportional to the pitch diameters. T DVR = Ddver Rotational Torque (ll-,bs or N•m)

0 DVN = Driven Pitch Diameter (ft or m)

As with the shaft speed formula, the torque D DVR = Drrvc;r Pitch Diameter (ft ,}r rn)

formula shown on top can be modified to

use the pulley ratio. Belt Drive Torque
T DVN = PR
T DVR

T OVN = Driae11RotaU011alTorque (tt lbs or N-m)

0

T DVR = Driver Rot»iiontl! T,,1s1t1e(ft·ll}s or N-rn)

PR = Pulley Ratio

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 116

MechanicalPowerRelation
It is important to note that torque and speed
changes transmitted to the driven shaft are
actually related to each other by way of the
mechanical power.
The power that is transferred between the
driver shaft and the driver sheave is the
same as the power transferred between the
driven sheave and the driven shaft, apart
from minor losses.
Since power is equal to speed times torque,
any change in speed caused by a pulley ratio
must carry with it an equal and opposite
change in torque. Otherwise, the law of
conservation of energy would be broken.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 117

Segment 2 V-Belt Operation
Objective6 List Five Types of Belt Drives and Give an Application of Each

BeltDriveTypes
Belt drives are the most common type of adjacent or parallel shaft-to-shaft drives used
because they are quiet, low in cost, and easy to maintain.
These are the five types of belt drives you will most often encounter:
• Flat Belt
• V-Belt
• Timing Belt
• Round Belt
• Ribbed Belt

FlatBelt
The flat belt was the first type of belt drive
used.
It originated during the industrial revolution
of the 19th century when factories
transmitted power to individual machines
with long rotating shafts running the length
of the factory.
The power from these shafts was
transmitted to each machine by means of
two pulleys and a flat belt.

Today, flat belts are rarely used to drive

machines because they are not very efficient,
they are bulky, they are not well suited to
higher motor speeds, and they require more
maintenance than other types of belt drives.
However, flat belts are still commonly used
as conveyors.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 118

V-Belt
The V-belt is a wedge-shaped belt made
from a combination of rubber and textile
material.
The V-belt is designed to grip the walls of a
grooved pulley bJ wedging itself against the
sides of the pulley groove as the belt is
tightened.
These are the advantages of the V-belt over
the flat belt:
• It can operate at higher speeds.
• It can transmit power more efficiently.
• It can transmit power in a smaller size.
• It requires very little maintenance.

The V-belt drive is commonly used in

applications such as fan drives, air
compressors, and car engines.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 119

Timing Belt
One of the general problems of V-belts is
they can slip during operation. The timing
belt solves this problem by using a belt and
pulleys which have notches or teeth.
As the drive pulley turns, its teeth engage the
teeth of the belt and pull it. With this design,
the belt does not slip, and a constant speed
is maintained at the shaft.
Because of the teeth, the timing belt does not
require a high tension as V-belts do, making
its operation more efficient.

The timing belt is used in some car engines

to maintain a constant speed between
devices that must operate together.
It is also used in positioning applications,
such as the axes of robots and electronic
circuit board assembly machines, to
accurately move to various positions.
Timing belts are also called positive drive
belts, synchronous drive belts, and gear belts.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 120

RoundBelt
The round belt uses a circular cross-section.
It is mainly found in very light duty
applications, such as vacuums and printers,
where either the load is light or slip and
efficiency are not important. Its main asset
is low cost.

RibbedBelt
The ribbed belt has ribs that run
longitudinally (along the length) on the belt.
These ribs are designed to seat in mating
grooves in the sheaves.
This type of belt has a greater area of the belt
in contact with the sheave, which means that
there is less wear on the belt or sheaves.
The sheaves are more compact and higher
pulley ratios can be used, typically as high as
40:1.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 121

Objective7 List Three Types ofV-Belts and Give an Application of Each

ThreeV-BeltTypes
There are three main types ofV-belts:
• Fractional Horsepower V-Belt
• Conventional V-Belt
• Wedge V-Belt
Each type of belt is designed for a particular type of power range and duty cycle.
These belts look similar, differing mainly in dimensions and internal construction.

FractionalHorsepowerV-Belt
The fractional horsepower (FHP) V-belt,
also called a light duty belt, is designed for
low-power intermittent applications, below
7.5 hp. A typical application is a small air
compressor or a fan.

ConventionalV-Belt
The conventional V-belt, also called a
standard multiple or standard duty V-belt, is
designed for continuous duty applications
upto 300 hp.
They can be used singly, but are often used
in sets of more than one belt, which is where
the term multiple comes from.
The conventional V-belt is the type of belt
you will find most often in industrial
applications. It is used for many items,
including large air compressors and fans.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 122

WedgeV-Belt
In 1958, a new family ofV-belts called wedge
V-belts, also called heavy duty or
narrow-series V-belts, was jointly developed
by the Gates Rubber Company and the
Dodge Company.
This belt improved the power-carrying
capability of the V-belt for a given cross
section size, allowing smaller sheaves to be
used.
The wedge belt is designed for continuous
duty service and can be used at power levels
up to 500 hp and in either single or multiple
sets.
The wedge belt is used in industrial
applications where either heavy duty shock
loads might occur, there is a need for a
smaller size, or if the load is higher than
what can be handled by a conventional belt.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 123

Objective 8 Describe the Operation of a Fractional Horsepower V-Belt
Drive

V-BeltDriveFunctioning
V-belt drives transmit power by increasing
the distance between the two sheaves so that
tension is created on the belt.
This tension causes the belt to be pulled
down, or wedged, into the groove of the
sheave, creating enough friction to keep the
belt from slipping when the turning sheave
is placed under a load.
It is important to note that the wedging
action of the V-belt creates friction between
the sides of the sheave, not the groove
bottom.
The V-belt should ride high in the groove,
with its top near the top of the sheave.
Normally, the V-belt does not touch the
bottom of the sheave.

FHPV-Belts
Rubber FJfler
Compound
The belt used in a fractional horsepower
(FHP) V-belt drive consists of _polyester or
some other textile-based cording, rubber
filler compound, and a neoprene envelope.
This neoprene envelope makes the outside of
the belt smooth.
Because the FHP belts are made for light
duty service, they are usually smaller; the
cords are weaker and less numerous than in
the conventional and wedge belts.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 124

 FHPSheaves
The sheaves used for FHP drives are usually
made of either stamped steel halves which
are pressed together, die cast zinc, or die
cast aluminum.
The sheaves are normally attached to the
shafts with an integral hub which has the
keyseat built into the sheave. This is called a
finished bore or fixed bore hub.

FHPV-BeltSizing
The FHP belt sizes are designated by a
number and an L in the part number while
conventional belts are designated by just a
letter (A, B, C, D, etc.).
It is important to know that two L belts, the
4L and SL, are the same size as two
conventional belts, the A and B, respectively.
As a result, most manufacturers are phasing
out the 4L and sL belts and using the A and
B belts with FHP sheaves of those sizes.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 125

- --
..____ -
Objective9 Describe How to Install and Align a V-Belt Drive

Installing and Aligning a V-Belt

V-belt drives are easy to install, but it is
important to do it correctly in order for the
belts to last as long as possible.
Regardless of the type of V-belt you are
using, the installation steps are similar.
• Step 1. Mount and Level
• Step 2. Inspect the Sheaves
• Step 3. Mount the Sheaves onto the Shafts
• Step 4. Mount the Belt
• Step 5. Align the Sheaves
• Step 6. Apply Initial Tension to the Belt
• Step 7. Run the Motor Briefly to Seat the
Belts
• Step 8. Stop the Motor and Re-tension the
Belt
• Step 9. Re-tension the Belt

Step 1. Mount and Level

Leveling the shafts is actually part of the
alignment of the sheaves, which is step 5 of
this process.
However, it is easier to place a level on the
shaft before the sheaves are attached.
As a part of this process, the motor and
driven component should also be checked
for a soft foot and excessive run-out.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 126

Step 2. Inspectthe Sheaves
If the sheaves have nicks, burrs, or gouges,
replace them, as this can cause the belt to be
cut.
If a sheave is found to be excessively worn
when checked with a sheave gauge, replace it.

Also, make sure that the sheaves do not have

any dirt, oil, grease, or rust on them.
Dirt and rust can cause the belt to wear
quickly. Oil and grease can attack the belt
material and destroy it.
Use a stiff brush to remove dirt and rust.
Wipe clean all oil and grease.

Step 3. Mountthe Sheavesonto the Shafts

The sheaves should be attached to the shafts
using either a finished bore hub or a bushing.
Bushings are commonly used on industrial
V-belt drives that use conventional or wedge
belts.
After you install the sheaves, make sure that
the sheaves do not wobble by rotating the
shafts and observing their motion. If they
wobble, reinstall them or use other sheaves.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 127

Step 4. Mountthe Belt
To mount the belt, first loosen the mounting
bolts of the motor and slide it toward the
driven shaft.
This will reduce the center distance between
the two sheaves so that the belt can be
slipped loosely over the sheaves without
forcing it.
Next, place the belt over the sheaves.

The belt should never be forced onto the

sheaves.
Doing this will damage the belt, either by
creating a nick in the belt or by breaking or
weakening the internal fibers. In either case,
this can severely shorten the life of the belt.
Also, the belt should never be run on, which
is placing the belt over the sheaves while the
sheaves are rotating, as this has the same
effect as forcing the belt onto the sheaves.

Angular Groove Parallel

Misalignment Misalignment Misalignment
Step 5. Alignthe Sheaves
Just as with couplings, it is important to
align sheaves since misaligned sheaves will
cause the belt and the bearings to wear
quickly.
This misalignment can appear in several
ways. The goal of alignment is to avoid
twisting the belt.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 128

 Step 6. ApplyInitialTensionto the Belt
The proper belt tension is very important to
the life of the drive as some tension is
necessary for the belt to grip the sheave.
If the tension is too high, the bearings and
the belt will also wear quickly.
If the tension is too little, however, the belt
will slip, causing the belt and the sheaves to
wear quickly.

Tensioning the belt is a 3-step process:

• Determine the tension needed
• Apply tension to the belt
• Measure the tension
The belt should be tightened to approximately the correct amount as determined by
several methods, but does not need to be precise at this point because the belt will
stretch after it has been run.

Step 7. Run the Motor Briefly to Seat the

Belts
A new belt will quickly stretch and be forced
lower into the grooves when it runs under a
load.
Both of these actions cause the tension to
decrease.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 129

------- -
Step 8. Stop the Motor and Re-tension the
Belt
After about one minute, stop the drive and
check the tension again.
Adjust the tension so that it is within the
acceptable range.

Step 9. Re-tensionthe Belt

During the first few days of operation, the belt will stretch enough that it should be
re-tensioned again.

Two MethodsUsed to Alignthe Sheaves

Sheave alignment can be done in one of two ways:
• With a Level
• With a String

"' Edg•
S!raigbi

With a Level
The sheaves can be aligned by first leveling
the two shafts using a spirit level. A straight
edge is placed against the faces of the
sheaves to align the sheave grooves, and the
parallelism of the shafts is checked. If this
has already been done as part of mounting
the motor, this step can be skipped.
The faces of the sheaves should be made so 4 cwflf.H'$of sheaves
that they are flush against the straight edge.
When this occurs, the shafts are parallel and
the sheave grooves are aligned.
The faces of the sheaves are aligned when
four corners are in contact with the straight
edge.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 130

With a String
If you do not have a straight edge, or the
distance between sheave centers is too great,
you can use a string.
First attach one end of the string to the shaft
of the driven sheave, then pull the string taut
and straight so that it touches both edges of
the driven sheave.
If the drive sheave's edges do not touch, the
sheaves are misaligned. Adjust the position
of the drive shaft so that the edges of the
drive sheave also touch the string.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 131

Segment 3 Belt Tensioning
Objective10 Describe How to Determine Belt Tension for an Application

___ ,._N·-J.]')~,,...,.
-, ...,."-,:fl ......
• -•----s;"'"""i~';--,
'"I'

BeltDeflectionForce
The first step to perform in order to tension
a belt drive is to determine how much
tension to apply to it.
Belt tension is measured by how much force
is needed to deflect the belt a certain
distance.
This is called the belt deflection force, and
the method that is used to measure belt
tension in this way is called the belt
deflection method.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 132

AllowableBeltDeflectionForce
The amount of belt deflection force is found in tables.
This table is available from belt suppliers and shows the specific force for each belt,
according to the belt's size, sheave size, and whether it is new or old.

Standard V-Belt Tensioning

BeltCross SmallerSheaveDiameter DeflectionForce DeflectionForce
Section Range(in.} NewObs} UsedObs)
2.0 - 2.9 2.6 1.8
3.0 - 3.6 3.4 2.3
A
3.8 - 4.8 4.3 2.9
5.0 - 7.0 5.1 3.4
2.0 - 2.9 3.0 2.0
3.0 - 3.6 4.1 2.8
AX
3.8 - 4.8 5.0 3.3
5.0 -7.0 6.o 4.0
3.4- 4.2 4.0 2.6
B 4.4 - 5.2 6.o 4.0
5-4- 9.4 7.1 5.3
3.4-4.2 5.3 3.5
BX 4-4-5.2 7.1 4.8
5.4-9.4 9.0 6.o

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 133

ForceLimits
The force levels listed in the table refer to the minimum level of tension force.
The upper limit of the acceptable tension force is 50% greater than the lower limit.
Therefore, the tension of the belt should be between the force level listed in the table
and 1.5 times that value.
The ideal tension is the lower of the two values.
It represents the least tension needed to transmit the force and allow no slipping.
If the tension is greater, more energy is lost through friction.

Standard V-Belt Tensioning

Belt Cross SmallerSheaveDiameter DeflectionForce DeflectionForce
Section Range (in.) New Obs) Used Obs)
2.0- 2.9 2.6 1.8
3.0-3.6 3.4 2.3
A
3.8-4.8 4.3 2.9
5.0-7.0 5.1 3.4
2.0 - 2.9 3.0 2.0

3.0 -3.6 4.1 2.8

AX
3.8-4.8 5.0 3.3
5.0 -7.0 6.o 4.0
3.4-4.2 4.0 2.6
B 4.4-5.2 6.o 4.0
5.4-9.4 7.1 5.3
3-4-4.2 5.3 3.5
BX 4.4-5.2 7.1 4.8
5.4-9.4 9.0 6.o

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 134

... -· .--.....
 Objective11 Describe Three Methods of Adjusting Belt Tension

BeltTensioningMethods
Tension is applied to the belt by moving the
driver motor away from the driven shaft.
This can be done with either a pry bar,
punch, or adjustable mounting base.
While moving the motor, make sure to
maintain sheave alignment by holding the
straight edge against the sheaves, or at least
rechecking the alignment after tensioning.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 135

.-.........-,_ ·- -
Segment4 BeltTensionMeasurement
Objective12 Describe Three Methods of Measuring Belt Tension and Give
an Application of Each

TensionMeasurementMethods
Once the belt tension has been initially set, the next step is to measure the tension to
make sure that it is correct.
There are three ways that belt tension can be measured:
• Hand Pressure
• Tension Tester
• Spring Scale and Straight Edge

HandPressure
The most basic way to test the tension is to
use the sense of touch.
To do this, strike the belt with your hand. It
will feel alive and springy when it is
tensioned correctly.
If the tension is too low, the belt will feel
dead. Too much tension will make it feel taut,
with no give at all.
Both fractional horsepower and
conventional belts can be tested this way.
Wedge belts cannot because the tension they
require is too high. They require a tension
tester.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives

 TensionTester
A more accurate method of tension
measurement is the force deflection method,
using a tension tester or belt tension checker.
The tension tester is a handheld device
which measures belt tension by measuring
the force needed to deflect the belt a certain
amount.
To perform the test, the tester should be
placed in the middle of the belt span and
forced down until the belt is deflected by the
proper amount.

The force indicated by the tension tester is then read and compared to a recommended
force deflection range for that particular belt. This is available in a table like the one
shown.
The amount of tension tester deflection depends on how far apart the centers of the
sheaves are (the size of the belt span) and should be 1/64 of the belt span. The belt
span is the distance between the points on the sheaves where the belt touches each
sheave.
The force should be at least as high as the recommended force level but no higher than
50% above it.
The tension tester is the preferred method for checking belt tension for any type of belt.
Proper tension will lead to a longer life of the mechanical components in the system.

Standard V-Belt Tensioning

Belt Cross SmallerSheaveDiameter DeflectionForce DeflectionForce
Section Range(in.) New(lbs) Used(lbs)
2.0- 2.9 2.6 1.8
3.0-3.6 3-4 2.3
A
3.8-4.8 4.3 2.9
5.0-7.0 5.1 3.4
2.0 - 2.9 3.0 2.0

3.0-3.6 4.1 2.8

AX
3.8-4.8 5.0 3.3
5.0 -7.0 6.o 4.0

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives 137

~- ·- -
 3-4-4.2 4.0 2.6
B 4.4-5.2 6.o 4.0
5.4- 9.4 7.1 5.3
3.4-4.2 5.3 3.5
BX 4.4-5.2 7.1 4.8
5.4- 9.4 9.0 6.o

SpringScaleand StraightEdge
The spring scale and straight edge method is
similar to the tension tester in that it is a
type of force deflection method. With this
method, the spring scale is used to deflect
the belt.
The amount of deflection is determined in
the same way as described with the tension
tester, 1/64 of the belt span.
This is measured by placing a straight edge
across the belt span and measuring with a
ruler.

H19146 Introduction to V-Belt Drives

 Module5 Introductionto ChainDrives

Segment1 ChainDrive Concepts

Objective1 Describe the Function of the Three Basic Components of a
Chain Drive

ThreeComponentsof a ChainDrive
A chain drive consists of three basic
components:
• Chain
• Driver Sprocket
• Driven Sprocket

Chain
The chain is a continuous loop of links,
usually having steel rollers, wrapped around
two toothed wheels called sprockets.
The chain transmits speed and torque
between the two sprockets.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 139

~- -- -
DriverSprocket
A sprocket is a disc-shaped component with
teeth that is mounted to a shaft. Sprockets
are normally made of strong, high carbon
steel. They can be attached to shafts using an
integral hub with a keyseat or with a bushing.
The driver sprocket is mounted to the shaft
of the driver or prime mover. When the
driver shaft turns, the driver sprocket turns,
applying its speed and torque to the chain
and causing it to move.

DrivenSprocket
The driven sprocket is mounted to the
driven shaft. It turns when the chain moves,
which causes the driven shaft to rotate.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 140

GearTeethRatioEffects
The relative number of teeth between the driven sprocket and the driver sprocket
determines the speed and torque of the driven shaft. The ratio of the teeth of the two
sprockets can be selected to either increase or decrease either the speed or the torque
delivered to the driven shaft.

Large Oriven Sprocket

Driven Driver
Sprocket Sprocket

targe Ori,;en Sprocket: lower Speed, Higher To,que

small Oriven Sprocket

Ori..,en Driver
Sprock6I Sprocket

Small DrivenSprocket: HigherSp.ed, Lower Torque

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 141

Objective2 Describe How to Calculate Sprocket Ratio and Explain Its
Importance

Calculating
SprocketRatio
Driven Sprocket
The speed and torque that are transmitted to
the driven shaft of a chain drive can be
calculated by using the sprocket ratio.
The sprocket ratio is the ratio of the number
of teeth on the driven sprocket to the
number of teeth on the driver sprocket. 24 Teeth

In the example shown the sprocket ratio is

calculated to be 3.
Sprocket Ratio Formula
NovN
R=--
NoRv
W/Jero:

R = Sprocket Ratio
N OVN = Number of Teetll on Dnven Sprocket
N ORV = Number of Tee!.h on Driver Sprocket

Insert Known Values;

N DVN =24
N ORV =8 ----+- ....

R = NovN
NoRv

Calc:ulate Result:

24
R=-
8
(R=3)

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 142

ChordalAction Direcijon or Chain

Although it might seem that you could

simply use the sprockets' pitch diameters to 'i
Pitch
Circle
determine the sprocket ratio, this is not /

·•
totally accurate.
The chain does not ride completely along the ......
pitch line because each link is a rigid bar
that cannot bend to follow the circular path.
Instead, the chain links remain straight lines
as they move around the pitch circle in a
process called chordal action.
Chordal action is very similar to the motion
a train makes as its straight cars move
through a turn in the tracks.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 143

Objective3 Describe How to Calculate Shaft Speed and Torque of a Chain
Drive System

The RelationshipbetweenSprocketSize and

Speed
The speed of the driven sprocket is
determined by the sprocket ratio. This is
because the rate at which the teeth of the
driven sprocket engage the chain is the same
as the rate at which the driver sprocket teeth
disengage the chain.
If the sprockets in a chain drive system have
different numbers of teeth, the driven shaft's
rotational speed will be different than the
driver shaft's rotational speed.
The shaft with the sprocket having more
teeth will have a slower rotational speed
than the shaft with the sprocket having
fewer teeth.

CalculatingChainDriveSpeed Chain Drive Speed Formula

SoRv = N DVN
The relationship between numbers of
sprocket teeth and shaft speeds of a chain s DVN N ORV
drive can be expressed in the formula shown. Where:

S DRV = Driver Rotational Speecl(rpm)

As you can see, the shaft speeds are inversely S DVN = Driven Rotational Speed {rpm)
proportional to the number of teeth. This N OVN = Number of l eeth on Driven Sprocket
means that an increase in sprocket size, N ORV = Number of Teeth on Driver Sprocket
which means more teeth on the sprocket,
causes the speed to decrease. Chain Drive Speed Formula

Notice that the right-hand side of the SoRv =R

formula is the sprocket ratio so the formula SovN
can also be stated as shown. Where:

=
S ORV Dnver Rotational Speed (rpm)
=
S DVN Driven Rotational Speed (rpm)
R = Sprocket Ratio

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 144

ChainDriveTorque
DrivenTorque= 1200in.•lb$
The sprocket ratio also affects the torque
transmitted to the driven shaft. This is
because more teeth mean a larger sprocket
radius and a larger sprocket radius creates
more torque on the shaft.

40 Teeth

CalculatingChainDriveTorque Chain Drive Torque Formula

T OVN = N OVN
The formula to calculate shaft torque is
similar to the shaft speed formula except T ORV NoRv
that the torque is directly proportional to the Where:
number of teeth, whereas speed is inversely T ORV = Driver Rotational Torque (in.-lbs)
proportional. N ORV = Number of Teeth oN ORV Sprocket
N DVN : Number ofTeeth oN DVN Sprocket
As with the speed formula, the torque T DVN = Driven Rotational Torque {in.-lbsj
formula can be modified to use the sprocket
ratio. Chain Drive Torque Formula
TovN =R
T ORV
Where:

T ORV = Driver Rotational Torque (in.-lbs)

R = Sprocket Ratio
T DVN = Driven Rotational Torque (in.-lbs)

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 145

Segment2 ChainDriveOperation
Objective4 List Four Types of Chains and Give an Application of Each

FourTypes of Chains
Chains are popular for many industrial applications. There are four common types of
chains:
• Roller Chain
• Rollerless Chain
• Silent Chain
• Leaf Chain

RollerChain
The roller chain is the most common type of
chain used for mechanical drives. It has
rollers mounted on pins and bushings.
These rollers roll over the teeth of the
sprocket to minimize the friction and
increase the efficiency of the drive.
Machinery drives, conveyor systems, robot
drives, and timing drives all have roller
chains.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

RollerlessChain
Rollerless chains have nearly the same
construction as roller chains, except they
have no rollers.
Rollerless chains are used in lightweight,
low-speed, mechanical drive applications
where the friction between the chain and
Bushing
sprocket would cause little wear.
They are also used in very dirty applications
that would cause roller chain bushings to
wear out too quickly if the chain had rollers.
Examples include hoisting chains or drives
in small cranes.

SilentChain
The silent chain uses an inverted tooth
design to reduce the noise created by the
engagement and release of the sprocket
teeth to the chain.
In addition to being quieter, silent chains are
more efficient, last longer, and can operate
at higher speeds than roller chains. However,
silent chains are much more expensive than
roller and rollerless chains.
Applications such as industrial pumps, fans,
and other heavy machinery use silent chains.

LeafChain
Leaf chains are made up of many plates held
together by pins. They have no rollers and
are not usually used in chain drive
applications. Plates Pins

Chain wrenches, forklifts, and other hoisting

devices normally use leaf chains.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 147

Objectives List Four Types of Roller Chain Drives and Give an
Application of Each

FourTypes of RollerChainDrives
The roller chain is the most common type of chain used in industrial chain drive
systems. There are four basic types of roller chains:
• Single-Strand Chain
• Multiple-Strand Chain
• Double-Pitch Chain
• Offset Chain

Single-StrandChain
The single-strand chain is the most common
roller chain used. A single row of rollers with
plates on each side make up the chain.
Single-strand chains are used for most
general-purpose applications of
low-to-medium power transmissions. This
type of chain is also found on bicycles.

Chain
Multiple-Strand
Applications that transmit a great deal of
power often use multiple-strand chains. The
chains used in multiple-strand chain drives
are the same as those used in single-strand
drives. They are merely joined to create
multiple rows.
Multiple-strand chains are used in
applications with much heavier loads and
higher speeds than a single-strand chain can
handle.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

Double-PitchChain
Double-pitch chain has the same
construction as standard roller chain exce_pt
that the length of its links is twice that of the
single-pitch chain.
Double-pitch chain is normally used when
trying to save money on applications with
low loads and speeds. They are also used in
conveyor drives.

OffsetChain
Whereas standard roller chain contains two
different kinds of links that mate with each
other, offset chain (sometimes called cast
chain) contains only one kind of link.
Because of its offset design, this type of
chain doesn't require a connecting link,
which is usually weaker than the rest of the
chain.
For this reason, offset chain, which can be
made with or without rollers, is normally
made out of high strength steel to be used in
heavy-load, low-speed applications.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 149

Objective6 Describe the Operation of a Single-Strand Roller Chain Drive

The Componentsof a RollerChain

Roller chain is made up of pin links and roller links. The two types of links are
alternated to form a complete link. These links mesh with the sprockets so speed and
torque can be transmitted.
Pin links are made of two side plates separated by two pins.
Roller links are similar to pin links, but are made of two side plates that are separated
by bushings. These bushings support the rollers that are mounted to them.

Exploded Link Assembly

Roller Link Roller Link

---Bushing

Complete Link Assembly

The pin of the pin link passes through the
bushing on the roller link to make a Rollers
complete link assembly.
The jointed link design allows the chain to
flex at the junction between links. It also
allows the rollers to freely roll, which
reduces friction between the chain and the
sprocket.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 150

The Operationof the RollerChain Chain Pulls the Driven Spnicket
.,. •
,,
~ Driver Pulls tha Chai!\
.,

Power is transmitted through a single-strand ' Speedana

, TorqueAre
roller chain when the driver sprocl<etrotates Transmitted
to
and its teeth engage the roller links, pulling the Driven
sprocket
the chain around it. This causes the chain to
pull on the teeth of the driven sprocket,
causing it to rotate.
The chain drive does not depend on friction
between the sprocket and chain to drive it.
Instead, the chain drives use the
engagement (or interlocking) of the sprocket
teeth and chain, which creates a positive
drive.

Since tooth engagement, not friction, is used

to transmit the force, the chain drive does
not require a high tension (as opposed to, for
example, the tension in a V-belt system),
which is one reason why a chain drive is
more efficient than other drive systems.
The chain tension only needs to be high
enough to keep the chain from flying off the
sprocket during operation.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 151

ChordalAction ChainLinkSlidingon Sprocket

The chordal action of the chain links causes

some frictional losses between the sprocket
and the chain. As the roller link contacts the
sprocket, it initially rises up the tooth. Then,
it slides down the tooth as it winds around
the sprocket.
Chain Link Sliding on Sprocket

This action occurs as each link engages with

the sprocket, creating a certain amount of
friction. However, the friction is minimized
by the chain's roller.
The rising and falling of the links also causes
a slight speed variation in the chain drive.
Even though the driver sprocket's speed is
constant, the driven sprocket's speed
oscillates.
The amount of oscillation depends on the
number of teeth. If the number of teeth is
greater than twenty-five, the oscillation is
less than one percent and is usually
disregarded.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 152

Objective7 Describe How to Install, Align, and Remove a Roller Chain
Drive System with Adjustable Centers

Procedurefor ChainInstallation,Alignment,
and Removal
Chain drives are easy to install, but it is
important to do it correctly in order to
achieve the maximum life. There are 10 ,
steps to install, align, and remove a chain.
• Step 1. Mount and Level the Motor and the
Driven Component
• Step 2. Inspect the Sprockets
• Step 3. Mount the Sprockets on the Shafts
• Step 4. Mount the Chain
• Step 5. Align the Sprockets
• Step 6. Apply Tension to the Chain
• Step 7. Apply Lubrication to the Chain
• Step 8. Run the Motor Briefly to Test the
Drive
• Step 9. Recheck the Chain Sag
• Step 10. Chain Removal

Step 1. Mount and Levelthe Motorand the

DrivenComponent
While leveling the shafts is actually part of
aligning the sprockets, it is easier to place a
level on the shaft before attaching the
sprockets.
The motor and driven component should
also be checked for a soft foot condition and
excessive run-out. The shaft run-out should
be no more than two-thousandths of an inch.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 153

Step 2. Inspectthe Sprockets
If a sprocket has nicks, burrs, gouges, or
missing teeth, it should be replaced since
sprocket damage can cause the chain to fail.
At the same time, the sprockets should be
checked for wear. If the sprocket is
excessivelyworn, it should be replaced.
The sprocket should not have any dirt or
rust on it, since dirt and rust can cause the
chain to wear quickly. A stiff brush can be
used to remove any dirt and rust.

Step 3. Mountthe Sprocketson the Shafts

The sprockets should be attached to the
shafts using either a fixed bore hub or, more
commonly, a bushing.
Proper sprocket mounting can be ensured by
rotating the shafts and observing the motion
of the sprockets, looking for any wobble. If
the sprockets wobble, they should be
reinstalled or replaced.

Step4. Mountthe Chain

If the chain drive has movable centers, the
driver shaft should be adjusted (moved)
towards the driven shaft.
This will reduce the center distance between
the two sprockets so that the chain can be
slipped loosely over the sprockets. Then the
chain is placed over the sprockets.
If the drive system does not have movable
centers, the chain can be connected and
disconnected using a special link called a
master link.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 154

Step 5. Alignthe Sprockets
In order to work most efficiently, the
sprockets must be properly aligned.
Misaligned sprockets will cause the chain
and the bearings to wear quickly.
There are several ways in which sprockets
can be misaligned including angular, :'l ,.
i
!
sprocket, and parallel misalignments. t,

Properly aligned sprockets do not twist or I

apply excessive forces to the chain. • !

When aligning sprockets, the shafts must

first be leveled using a spirit level. This may Angular Sprocket
Misalignment
Parallel
Misalignment
Misalignment
have already been performed in step one,
when the motor was mounted.

Next, a straight edge is placed against the

faces of the sprockets to align the sprocket
teeth and check the parallelism of the shafts.
If the shafts are parallel and the sprocket
teeth are aligned, the faces of the sprockets
will be flush against the straight edge.
If a straight edge is not available for this step,
a string can be used as well.

Step 6. ApplyTensionto the Chain

Proper chain tension is very important to the
life of the drive. Some slack is necessary for
the chain drive to function properly.
If the tension is too little, the chain will fly .,.
off the sprocket. If the tension is too high,
the bearings and the chain will wear very
quickly.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 155

---
Tensioning the chain is a 3-step process:
• First, determine the sag needed
• Then, apply tension to the chain
• Finally, measure the sag

Step 7. Apply Lubricationto the Chain

A chain must be lubricated before it can be
run. In many cases, new chains will have
suitable lubrication for temporary operation.
The easiest way to lubricate a chain is to dip
it in an oil bath before installing it. If an oil
bath is not available, the chain can be oiled
while on the sprockets using an oil can.
Some types of chain drives have a
continuous means of lubrication, requiring
no operator intervention.
l.UBRlCATES,
CLEAN$
&PHEVENTS
RUST
lHPDJiOFHACHJFt•Lffrn.
S"t¢;!.15>.l™"'>:i:P.l>H¥j,l!f<!II

iJ 8 FL OZ (236ml)

Step 8. Run the Motor Briefly to Test the

Drive
Once the chain has been installed, aligned,
and lubricated, the motor can be run briefly
to ensure that the drive runs smoothly and is
fairly quiet.
If so, the drive can continue running. If not,
the drive should be stopped and the
installation should be checked for problems.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

Step 9. Recheckthe ChainSag
After the first 24 hours of operation, the
tension in the chain should be rechecked to
verify that the chain sag is still adjusted
properly.
If the chain tension is still correct, the drive
system can be operated full time. If the chain
tension is incorrect, it could indicate that
something is wrong with the chain drive
system.
Chain sag should also be checked at 100
hours of operation and at every 500 hours of
operation thereafter.

Step 10. ChainRemoval ,.,.___ Centers Moved Closer

Removing a chain from a drive system with

adjustable centers involves simply moving
the two shafts closer together. This will
create enough slack in the chain so that the
chain can easily be lifted off of the sprockets.
If the drive does not have adjustable centers, Operating Center
the master link can be disconnected to allow 1---- Distance ----

removal of the chain.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 157

-
Segment3 ChainTensioning
Objective8 Describe How to Determine Allowable Chain Sag for a Given
Application

ChainSlack
In order for a chain to function properly, its
tension must be high enough to enable it to Sag
stay on the sprockets. However, it must not I
be so tight as to quickly wear and fail.
For this reason, a chain must have some
slack in it, which is called sag. The amount
of sag in a chain is an indication of the chain
tension.

ChainSag
Dete:rmining Driven

When a chain is under load, it will have a

taut side and a slack side. The taut side is the
side of the chain that is being pulled by the
driver sprocket.
Slack Side

Chain sag is measured by rotating the

sprockets so that there is little or no chain
sag in the taut side and then measuring the
sag in the slack side.

Driven
Mid-SpanChainMovement
Chain sag is properly measured at the
middle of the span between the two
sprockets, which is why it is often called the
mid-span sag.
Mld-Spt'ln Movement

Another term that is often used is the

mid-span movement, which is the
movement of the sag in both directions.
Mid-span movement is always two times the
mid-span sag.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

-
Two Orientationsof ChainDrives
The amount of sag a chain drive should have depends on the application of the drive
system. The two applications are:
• Vertically Oriented Chain Drives
• Horizontally Oriented Chain Drives

VerticallyOrientedChainDrives
A vertically oriented chain drive is defined as
a drive where the angle between the line
going through the centers of the two
sprockets and a horizontal line is greater
than 45°.
The allowable mid-span movement of a
vertical chain drive is two to three percent of
the distance between sprocket centers.
For example, a vertically oriented chain
drive whose distance between centers is 24
inches has an allowable mid-span movement
of about o.6 inch. This corresponds to a
mid-span sag of 0.3 inch.

45°
HorizontallyOrientedChainDrives
A horizontally oriented drive is one in which
the angle between the line going through the
centers of the two sprockets and a horizontal
line is less than 45°.
The allowable mid-span movement for a
horizontal chain drive is 4 to 6 percent of the
distance between sprocket centers.
For example, a horizontal chain drive whose
distance between centers is 24 inches has an
allowable mid-span movement of about 1.2
inches. This corresponds to a mid-span sag
of o.6 inch.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 159

-
Objective9 Describe Two Methods Used to Adjust Chain Sag

TwoMethodsto AdjustChainSag
During installation and after the chain has become worn, the chain sag will need to be
adjusted. There are two basic methods used to adjust chain sag:
• Adjustable Centers
• Idlers

AdjustableCenters
In a system with adjustable centers, when
the sag of a chain needs to be adjusted, the
centers of the drive system can be moved
either farther apart or closer together.

Idlers
Another method used to adjust chain sag is
with a device called a chain idler. A chain
idler is a mechanism that has a small
sprocket attached to an arm.
Some chain idler arms are spring-loaded,
which automatically keeps constant tension
in the chain drive via the idler sprocket.
If a spring-loaded arm is not used, the
location of the idler sprocket must be
manually adjusted to achieve the desired
chain tension.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 160

-
TheWearof a RollerChainDrive
It is important to understand that
adjustment of the chain tension is not due to
stretching of the chain. Chains do not stretch.
They become longer because they wear.
Specifically, the bushings inside the roller
links wear. As these bushings wear, they
become smaller, and each link of the chain is
pulled farther apart from its neighbors.
This makes it appear as if the chain is
stretching, but no individual links are
stretching. Only the space between them is
increasing.

ChainDriveBearingWear
The wearing of the bushings is actually a benefit of a chain drive because it allows
chains to be used for longer periods of time than other types of drives, and it makes it
easy to determine when to replace a chain by measuring its length.
A chain should be replaced when its length becomes 3% longer than its original length.

3% Longer

O O O O 0 0 0 O O O 0 • 0 0 0 O 0

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 161

-
Segment 4 Chain Tension Measurement

Objective 10 Describe How to Measure Chain Sag

MeasuringChainSag
Before a chain drive can be put into
operation, the chain sag must be adjusted.
This requires that the actual chain sag be
measured using a straight edge and a rule.
To measure chain sag, one sprocket is
rotated while the other is held in place. This
causes the sag to be on only one side of the
drive. A straight edge is then laid across the
sprockets on the side with sag.
Midway between the sprockets, the end of a
rule is placed on the chain. The sag in the
chain is then read off of the rule where it
crosses the straight edge.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 162

-
Segment5 FixedCenterChainInstallation
Objective11 Describe the Function and Operation of a Master Link

The Purposeof a MasterLink

In some mechanical applications, an
operator does not have the benefit of
adjustable centers.
In other words, the machine's design does
not permit the driver shaft or the driven
shaft to be moved in order to remove and
install chains.
In these cases, a continuous chain loop must
be separated so it can be installed and
removed.

The Operationof a MasterLink

One way to separate and reconnect a chain is
to use a special chain link called a master
link.
Master links are similar in construction to a
standard chain link, but you can remove one
side plate.
With the side _plate removed, a master link
can be inserted into a chain or removed from
it.
This allows the chain to be installed onto
sprockets. Once the chain is in place, the
RemovableSide Plate
master link connects the two ends of the
chain to form a continuous chain.
)
A cotter pin or a locking spring clip secures
the removable side plate of a master link. /
LockingSpring Clip

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

-
Objective12 Describe Two Methods of Installing a Lightweight Chain That
Uses a Master Link

Two MainMethods
There are two main methods used to install
chains that have a master link:
• Using the Sprocket Teeth Mesh
• Using a Chain Puller

Usingthe SprocketTeethMesh
The simpler of these methods is to use the
sprocket teeth mesh. This method involves
engaging one end of the chain with one of
the sprockets.
The teeth of the sprocket will hold that end
in place while the rest of the chain is
wrapped around the other sprocket and back
to the original end.
When the two ends of the chain are next to
each other, the master link can be installed.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

-
Usinga ChainPuller
Sometimes, the chain is too heavy or the
sprockets have a protective shield over them,
preventing the operator from simply using
the sprocket teeth mesh to hold one end of
the chain in place. In cases like these, a
chain puller is used.
The two ends of a chain are held together
using the chain puller while the master link
is installed.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives

-
Objective13 Describe the Operation of a Chain Puller

Operationof the ChainPuller

A chain puller operates by pulling the two
ends of the chain together with its jaws. The
dial on top of the tool opens and closes the
jaws. When the jaws are opened far enough,
each jaw is inserted into the ends of the
chain.
Once the jaws are inserted into the ends of
the chain, the chain puller is tightened by
turning the dial until the chain ends are
close enough to allow the master link to be
installed.

H19146 Introduction to Chain Drives 166

-
Module6 SpurGearDrives

Segment1 GearDriveConcepts
Objective1 Describe the Function of the Three Components of a Gear
Drive System

Componentsof a GearDrive
A gear drive consists of three basic
components:
• Driver Gear
• Driven Gear
• Idler Gear

DriverGear
The driver gear is a disc-shaped component with teeth that is attached to the shaft of
the driver.
It is positioned so that its teeth mesh with either the driven gear or the idler gear.
When the drive shaft turns, the driver gear rotates and one or more of its teeth apply a
force to the next gear, causing it to rotate.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

---
DrivenGear
The driven gear is a disc-shaped component with teeth that is attached to the driven
shaft.
It rotates when the gear next to it rotates and in turn causes the driven shaft to rotate.

IdlerGear
The idler gear is also a disc-shaped component with teeth of the same design as the
driver and driven gears.
It is positioned between the driver and driven gears. The idler gear transfers the torque
and motion from the driver gear to the driven gear.
Its purpose is to either change the direction of rotation of the driven gear or transfer
the power to a location that is farther from the driver shaft. It does not affect either the
speed or the torque output of the driven gear.

Deliveryof Speedand Torqueto the Driven

Shaft
The relative diameters of the driver and
driven _gearsdetermine the speed and torque
of the driven shaft.
The ratio of the sizes of the gears is selected
to either decrease or increase the speed and
torque delivered to the driven shaft.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 168

Types of GearDriveDesigns
A gear drive is designed as either an open or
a closed unit.
A closed unit has a housing that contains the
gears.
This housing protects the gears and provides
a way of containing the oil or grease
lubrication.
Open units do not have a housing but still
have a guard of some type that is used to
contain the lubrication.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 169

-
Objective2 Define the Gear Pitch, Pitch Circle, and Pitch Diameter and
Explain Their Importance

Definitionof CircularPitch
Like belt drives, the features of pitch circle
and pitch diameter are important concepts
with gear drives.
Unlike belt drives, however, pitch has a
specific meaning in a gear drive.
The pitch of a gear, or circular pitch, is the
distance between one point on a tooth and
the corresponding point on the next tooth
when measured along the pitch circle.

PitchCircleDescription
The pitch circle of a gear is the location on
the gear where speed and torque are
transmitted.
This occurs at the contact point between the
gear teeth along a line that passes through
the line of centers of the two gears.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 170

Importanceof Pitch Diameter
The pitch diameter is the diameter of the
pitch circle and is used to calculate the speed
and torque that are transmitted to the driven
shaft.
The pitch radius is half of the pitch diameter.
The pitch diameter is important because it
can be used to calculate the speed and
torque which are transmitted to the driven
shaft. The _pitch circle is important only
because it allows you to determine the pitch
diameter.
The term pitch length does not apply to the
gear drive, because the gears are in direct
contact with each other.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 171

Objectiveg Describe How to Calculate the Gear Ratio of a Gear Drive

GearRatioFormulas
The speed and torque that are transmitted to
the driven shaft of a gear drive are calculated
using the gear ratio, which can be calculated
using one of two methods:
• Ratio of Pitch Diameters
• Ratio of Number of Gear Teeth

Gear Ratio using Pitch Diameters

Ratioof Pitch Diameters PDovN
GR=--
The formula shown is used to calculate the PDoRv
gear ratio of a gear drive using the pitch Whore·

diameters of the gears. GR = Goar Ratio

PD DVN = Pitch Diameter of Driven Gear ()n)
PD DRV = Pitch Diameter of DrivEr Genr (in)

Insert Known Values:

Consider a gear drive system where the pitch PD ovN = 4 inches

diameter of the driver gear is 2 inches and PD oRv = 2 inches ---
the pitch diameter of the driven gear is 4
inches.
GR = PDovN
PDoRv
This means that the gear ratio is 2 (GR=
4/2). This gear ratio is also stated as 2:1.
Calculate f?osuft;

It is important to remember that the gear 4

GR=-
ratio is determined using the pitch diameter, 2
which is not the same as the outer diameter 2
of a gear. If you use the outer diameter, your GR= 2 =- 1 = 2·1
•
answer will have an error.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 172

 Ratio of Number of Gear Teeth
Ratioof Numberof GearTeeth
GR= NovN
Another method of calculating the gear ratio NoRv
is to use the number of teeth of each gear, in Where:
the formula shown here.
GR = Gear Ratio (Teeth)
=
N DVN Number of Teeth of Driven Gear
N DRV = Number of Teeth of Driver Gear

Insert Known Values:

For exam_ple,if the driver gear has 11 teeth N DVN = 22 ---­
and the driven gear has 22 teeth, the gear
ratio is 2:1. N ovR = 11

GR= NovN
NovR

Calculate Result:

22
GR=-
11
22
GR =11 =12 = 2:1

Applicationof GearRatioFormulas
If you are using a manufacturer's catalog data, you can probably use either formula
because both the number of teeth and pitch diameter are usually listed.
However, if you are in the plant, you will probably use the ratio of the number of gear
teeth because it is easier to count the teeth than measure the pitch diameter.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 173

Descriptionof GearRatio
The gear ratio determines how fast the
driven gear will turn.
The teeth of the driver gear transfer speed to
the teeth of the driven gear such that the
points on the teeth of the two gears at their
pitch diameters move at the same surface
speed.
If the gears are of different sizes, the driven
shaft's rotational speed (rpm) will be
different from the driver shaft's rotational
speed (rpm). The shaft with the larger gear
will have a slower rotational speed than the
shaft with the small gear.

Effectof GearRatio
In a similar manner to speed, the gear ratio
also affects the torque transmitted to the
driven shaft.
Recall that the force applied to the surfaces
of the two gears is the same.
Since the torque radius is the pitch radius of
the gear, the torque in one gear will be
different from another if its radius is
different.

In this example, the effective torque in the

driver gear is 10 in.-lbs.
The effective torgue in the driven gear,
however, is 20 in.-lbs (T = 10 x 2 = 20).
From this discussion, you can say that the
larger gear turns slower but has greater
torque. This is a common sense concept you
can use on the job to determine in general
how speed and torque are being changed by
the mechanical drive system.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 174

_
_..
Segment2 GearDriveDesigns
Objective4 Describe How to Calculate the Shaft Speed and Torque of a
Gear Drive System

GearDriveSpeedFormula Gear Drive Speed

The relationship between gear sizes and SoRv = PDovN
shaft speeds of a gear drive can be expressed SovN PD DRV
as shown here.
SoRv = NovN
The shaft speeds are inversely proportional SovN N ORV
to the pitch diameters and number of teeth. Where:

Therefore, an increase in driven gear size (or S DVN = Output Rotational Speed (rpm)
teeth) causes its speed to decrease. PD _ Pitch Diameter of Output Gear
OVN - (in.)
N ORV = Number of Teeth of Input Gear
N OVN -_ Number of Teeth of Output
Gear
PD _ Pitch Diameter of Input Gear
DRV - (in.)
S DRV = Input Rotational Speed (rpm)

Notice that the right-hand side of the

Gear Drive Speed (Using
formula is actually the gear ratio, so the Gear Ratio)
formula can be restated to include it.
SoRv = GR
SovN

Where:

5 ORV = Driver Rotational Speed (rpm)

5 DVN = Driven Rotational Speed {rpm)
GR = Gear Ratio

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 175

GearDriveTorqueFormula Gear Drive Torque
Shaft torque is calculated using a formula T ovN = PDovN
that is similar to the shaft speed formula, T DRV PDoRv
except the torque is directly, not inversely,
proportional to the pitch diameters or the T ovN = NovN
number of teeth. T ORV NORV
Where;

T ORV = Input Rotational Torque (in.-lbs)

PD _ Pitch Diameter of Input Gear
ORV - (in.)
NDRV = Number of Teeth of Input Gear
N _ Number of Teeth of Output
DVN - Gear
PD _ Pitch Diameter of Output Gear
DVN - (in.)
T _ Output Rotational Torque (in.-
DVN - lbs)

As with the speed formula, the torque Gear Drive Torque (Using
formula can be modified to use the gear ratio. Gear Ratio)
TovN = GR
ToRv

Where:

T DVN = Output RotationalTorque (ft-lb)

T DRV = Input RotationalTorque (ft-lb)
GR = Gear Ratio

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

Objectives Describe the Functions of Four Types of Gear Drives and Give
an Application of Each

Types of GearDrives
Gear drives come in many designs. One way to group these designs is the direction of
orientation of the driven shaft relative to the orientation of the driver shaft. There are
four basic categories:
• Parallel Axis
• Intersecting Axis
• Non-Intersecting Axis
• Moving Axis

ParallelAxis
The shafts of a parallel axis gear drive are
placed side-by-side or in parallel with each
other, as shown here. This is a very common
configuration.
A parallel axis gear drive is used in
applications where the driven shaft is
mounted in the same direction as the driver
shaft.
Some machine tools use a parallel axis drive.

IntersectingAxis
The intersecting axis gear drive gets its name
because the gears are designed so the axes of
the shafts are on the same plane and
intersect with each other.
The intersecting axis gear drive is designed
to transfer power to a driven shaft that is at a
right angle (90°) to the driver shaft.
It is commonly used in applications such as
gear reducers.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 177

Non-IntersectingAxis
The non-intersecting gear drive is also
designed to transfer power at right angles to
the drive shaft, but the axes of the shafts are
not on the same plane.
An example of this type of gear is the worm
gear or crossed-axis helical gear.
Worm gears are used where there is a need
for a low-cost gear reducer with a very high
gear ratio.

MovingAxis
The moving axis gear drive is designed to
convert rotary motion to linear motion.
One example is the rack and pinion drive.
This is used in fluid power actuators to
convert linear motion into rotary motion.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

Objective6 List Four Types of Parallel Shaft Gears and Give an
Application of Each

There are four types of gear drives that transfer power between parallel axes:

• Spur
• Helical
• Herringbone
• Internal

Spur
The spur gear drive is the most basic of gear
drives. Its teeth are cut into the gear parallel
to the axis of rotation.
This type of gear is used mainly in
low-to-medium speed applications such as
machine tool drives, instrument transducers,
and gear reducers because it is low cost and
easy to maintain.

Helical
The helical gear is similar in design to the
spur gear except that its teeth are cut into
the gear at an angle to the gear's axis of
rotation.
This type of gear, while more expensive than
the spur gear, is able to operate at higher
speeds. It also operates more quietly and
smoothly.
One disadvantage to this gear is that it
creates a side or thrust load because of its
angled gear teeth.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 179

Herringbone
The herringbone gear design is composed of
two helical designs. For this reason, it is also
called a double helical gear.
This design eliminates the side load caused
by the single helical design, because the side
loads of the two helical gears cancel each
other out.
Herringbone gears are used for applications
that require quiet, high-speed, heavy-load
operation.
An example is the power take-off of a gas
turbine.
The name herringbone comes from the
gear's resemblance to the spine of a fish.

Internal
Gears can be classified as either internal or
external. This describes how the teeth are
oriented on the gear.
The internal gear drive uses one or more
external gears to drive a larger internal gear.
This type of gear drive is used when a very
large gear ratio is needed but the axes must
be parallel and the gear drive must be
compact.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 180

One example of an internal gear drive is a
planetary gear drive. This type uses small
gears called planets, which revolve around a
central gear called a sun gear.

GearDrive

Harmonic Gear Drive

Another type of internal gear drive is a ,.,,..,..--
harmonic gear drive. This type of drive
consists of a flexible external gear ring which
is forced out against an internal ring gear by
an elliptical-shaped wave generator. As the
II
wave generator rotates, the flexible gear (
I
0
drives the internal ring gear. 1 ticalW

It is commonly used in precision

applications such as robot axes because it
has no backlash or play in the gears. --
Internal Ring Gear

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 181

Segment 3 Spur Gear Operation

Objective7 Describe Eleven Features of a Gear

Descriptionof GearFeatures
Because gears mesh directly with each other,
the shape and dimensions of gear teeth are
very important.
In order to understand the operation of
meshing gear teeth, you must first learn the
features of a gear.
• Tooth
• Tooth Space
• Body
• Face
• Flank
• Tooth Profile
• Root
• Tooth Fillet
• Top Land
• Bottom Land
• Base Circle

Tooth
The tooth is the part of the gear that makes contact with the other gear to transmit
torque and speed.

ToothSpace
The tooth space is the volume of space between two teeth of the gear.

Body
The body is the part of the gear that does not have teeth.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 182

Face
The face is the surface area of the tooth that is above the pitch circle.

Flank
The flank is the surface area of the tooth that is below the pitch circle.

ToothProfile
The tooth profile is the shape made by the edge of the tooth.

Root
The root is the point on the profile of the tooth where the profile starts.

ToothFillet
The tooth fillet is the line on the tooth edge that blends with the root.

Top Land
The top land is the surface area that is on top of the tooth.

BottomLand
The bottom land is the surface area that is on the bottom of the tooth.

BaseCircle
The base circle is a circle from which the profile of the teeth is created.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

Objectives Identify the Twelve Dimensions of a Gear and Explain the
Importance of Each

Dimensionsof a Gear
You have already learned the meanings of
three important gear dimensions: pitch,
pitch circle, and pitch diameter.
These are some other important dimensions
of a gear:
• Face Width
• Circular Tooth Thickness
• Tooth Space Width
• Pressure Angle
• Outer Diameter
• Base Circle Diameter
• Addendum
• Dedendum
• Whole Depth
• Number of Teeth
• Pitch Diameter
• Diametral Pitch

FaceWidth
The face width is the width as measured
across the face of the gear.
This is an important dimension because it
specifies gear size.
Face Width
A thicker gear is needed for higher loads.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

CircularToothThickn~
' :l\
The circular tooth thickness is measured
along the pitch circle from one side of a
tooth to the other.
, Circular
It can also be measured in a straight line I Tooth
I
between the two points on the pitch circle, in I Thickness
which case it is called the chordal thickness. I
I
I
I
The tooth thickness is important for I
inspection of gear wear. As gears wear, the I

thickness becomes smaller.

ToothSpaceWidth
The width of a tooth space is the length
between two adjacent teeth as measured
along the pitch circle.
It is important because it must be larger
than the tooth thickness in order to allow the
gears to mesh smoothly.

I
A
If

Pr~ure Angle
The pressure angle can be described as the
angle between a line that is tangent to the
'
--
---,
J
tooth profile at the pitch circle and a radial ', V' /
line extending from the center of the gear.
Pressure
The pressure angle affects how the gears Angle
transmit power between each other.
In general, a higher pressure angle gives
better operation because it does not wear as
quickly, it can carry higher loads, and it
allows higher speeds.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 185

Two common pressure angles are in use today: 14.5° and 20°. The 20° angle is most
often found on new machinery, while the 14.5° is very common on older machinery.
It is important to note that two gears must have the same pressure angle in order to be
used with each other.
You cannot mesh gears of different pressure angles together.

- .....
OuterDiameter '
;,,w,?! '\ - i \.
The outer diameter is the diameter of the , w

circle that is drawn through the top lands of

the teeth. ill ,$ , \

\
The outer diameter is not used for
calculations but it is important for two
reasons.
First, it is necessary for design of clearance
for other machine elements, such as covers.

Additionally, it is easily measured and can be used to determine a dimension called the
diametral pitch.
The diametral pitch is used to size the gear.
This is very helpful when you need to replace a gear on a machine.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 186

 I\
BaseCircleDiameter C\_J
\ I

The base circle diameter, or simply base .

_, --
.

diameter, is important because it is the basis

for many other gear dimensions.
s,'~seCl;cl;D
However, you will not use this dimension
unless you are designing gears. ~(
(- \
The base radius is equal to half of the base
diameter. '--2 \\

~--
u-~
Addendum
The addendum is the distance from the pitch
circle to the top land. It coincides with the
tooth face.
Some spur gears are made with addendums
that are shorter than normal. These are
called stub tooth gears.
The addendum is important only if you are
designing or making gears.

Dedendum
The dedendum is the distance from the pitch
circle to the bottom land.
It is the length of the tooth flank.
The dedendum is important only if you are
designing or making gears.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

- .. -
WholeDepth
The whole depth is the sum of the dedendum
and the addendum.
The whole depth is important only if you are
designing or making gears.

Numberof Teeth
The number of teeth on the gear is used to
calculate the gear ratio of the two gears so
that the speed and torque output of the drive
can be determined.
It is also used on the shop floor to calculate
the diametral pitch which is used to specify
replacement gears.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 188

 PitchDiameter
The pitch diameter is the diameter of the
pitch circle.
It is important because it defines the size of
the gear and is used to calculate the speed
and torque that is transmitted from one gear
to another.

Diametral Pitch
DiametralPitch
N
P=-
The diametral pitch is the ratio of the PD
number of teeth on the gear to the pitch Where:
diameter.
PD ;;; Pitch Diameter (inches)
It indicates the relative size of the teeth on N = Number of Teeth
the gear. P= Diametral Pitch

Two gears must have the same diametral

pitch in order to mesh.

The diametral pitch allows you to determine if gears of different diameters or different
numbers of teeth have the same size teeth and therefore can mesh properly.
Later you will learn a simple method to determine the diametral pitch of a gear by
measuring the outer diameter.
This is very helpful when you need to replace a gear on the shop floor.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 189

-
Objective9 Identify the Ten Dimensions and Features of a Gear Drive and
Explain the Importance of Each

Line of
Dimensions and Features of a Gear Drive
System
Now that you know the features and .L
dimensions of a single gear, the next step is
to learn about the key dimensions and
features of two gears that mesh with each Pitch • / ✓

other. Center
Pitch Circle

Distance
• Pinion
• Bull Gear
• Line of Centers
• Center Distance
• Line of Action
• Pressure Angle
• Pitch Point
• Clearance
• Working Depth
• Backlash

Pinion
When the gears are of different sizes, the
smaller gear is called the pinion.
The pinion can be attached to either the
driver or the driven shafts, depending on the
change in output torque and speed desired.

BullGear
When the gears are of different sizes, the . f'L::- $1~:
larger gear is called the bull gear or simply
the gear.
t·:G~,,
Jif~

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 190

Lineof Centers
The line of centers is the line that passes
through the centers of the two gears.
It is used as a reference for a number of
dimensions such as center distance and
pressure angle.
Line of Centers

CenterDistance
The center distance is the distance between
the centers of the gears.

Center
....,._Distance

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 191

Lineof Action
The line of action is the path made by the
point where the two gears make contact.
For an involute profile, this _path follows a
line that is tangent to the two base circles.
It helps to determine the pressure angle.

PressureAngle
The pressure angle is the angle between the
line of action and a line that is perpendicular
to the line of centers. Pressure -·­
Angle

It is a feature of the gear tooth profile.

The pressure angle of the gear tooth profile
is generated based on this pressure angle.

The pressure angle made by the line of action depends on the distance between the
gears.
The actual angle is called the operating pressure angle. The angle to which the gear
profile is cut is called the generating pressure angle.
If the gear positions are adjusted correctly, the operating pressure angle should be the
same as the generating pressure angle.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 192

 ' 'v"
Llneof \
PitchPoint ActlonL
The pitch point is the point where the line of
centers ana the line of action cross.
The pitch point determines the diameter of
the pitch circle for each of the two gears.
Since the pressure angle determines where
the line of action crosses the line of centers,
the pitch diameter of a gear is determined by
the pressure angle and the base circle.

The pitch point, where the line of action crosses the line of centers, is affected by the
distance between centers because this causes the pressure angle to change.
Therefore, the actual pitch circles of the gears depend in part on the center distance of
the gears.
As with the pressure angle, the actual pitch circle determined by both the base circles
and the center distance is called the operating pitch circle. The pitch circle determined
by the base circle and the generating pressure angle is called the generating pitch circle.

Clearance
The clearance is the space between the top
land of a tooth and the bottom land of the
space between the teeth with which the tooth
meshes.
It is important to have some clearance in
order to keep the tooth of each gear from
jamming into bottom lands of each other.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 193

--
WorkingDepth
The working depth is the amount by which
the meshing teeth engage each other.
It is the distance between the top land of one
tooth and the top land of the tooth with
which it meshes. This is equal to the whole
depth minus the clearance.
The working depth must be less than the
whole depth or the gears will interfere with
each other.

Backlash
Backlash is the difference between the
thickness of a tooth and the width of the
tooth space.
Most gears have some backlash built into
them to allow the gears to mesh smoothly.
This backlash is made by making the tooth
thickness slightly smaller than the tooth
width.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 194

 Objective10 Describe the Operation of a Spur Gear Drive

SpurGearDriveDescription
A spur gear drive transfers the power
between two parallel shafts by placing the
centers of the two gears close enough
together to cause the teeth to mesh.
As the driver gear rotates, its teeth will
contact the teeth of the driven gear.
The interaction between these teeth is a
combination of rolling and sliding, causing
the driven gear to rotate.

TheLawof Gearing
The gear teeth of a spur gear are cut parallel
to the axis of rotation so that each tooth of
the driver gear contacts the tooth of the
driven gear across its entire face width.
For basic transmission of force and motion,
the gear teeth do not need to have any
particular shape.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 195

- ...
 \~ ' (~Una of Centers
However, for quiet and vibrationless motion,
the rotational speeds of the two gears must
remain constant as the gears turn.
_( ..,,,,·1/
( ......• 6 .• •
''
•..
This will occur if a line, which is .
:.··
perpendicular to both of the tooth profiles at Pitch Point ;
the point of contact, passes through a
constant point on the line of centers while Q ;/.
the two teeth remain in contact.
...'

This is called the Fundamental Law of '

''
Gearing and the point through which the
normal line passes is called the pitch point. ~- - l
Any two gears that have teeth that satisfy the
Law of Gearing will have constant pitch
diameters and therefore a constant ratio of
speed and torque. This type of motion is
referred to as conjugate action.
s C)

InvoluteToothProfileAdvantages
There are actually many types of tooth
profiles that satisfy the Law of Gearing. Two
of these are involute and cycloidal.
Most spur gears use the involute tooth
design.
This profile not only satisfies the Law of
Gearing but also provides other advantages:
• Conjugate Action Is Independent of Center
Distance
• Straight Tooth Rack
• One Cutter

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

ConjugateActionIs Independentof CenterDistance
Conjugate action is independent of center distance means that the gears do not have to
be perfectly positioned with their pitch circles tangent to each other in order to
maintain a constant speed ratio.
In other words, the amount of backlash does not affect the speed ratio.

StraightToothRack
The involute tooth profile becomes straight when it is laid out on a linear rack.
This makes involute tooth design easy to manufacture.

OneCutter
One cutter can generate all gear tooth numbers of the same diametral pitch.

Effectsof an InvoluteProfile
Another benefit of the involute tooth shape,
which is also shared by some of the other
tooth shapes, is that the teeth tend to roll
more than they slip. This reduces friction
and helps the gears to operate smoothly.
Notice that the gear teeth have an involute
design on both sides so that the gears can
drive in either direction.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 197

BacklashDescription ~,..,-'\\_ .. . •
' ', . .
Sfur gears are designed with a small amount ',,{ ;:•c-h
o clearance between the backside of the /
/

driver gear tooth and front of the driven

tooth. This clearance is called backlash. It is
created by making the teeth slightly smaller
than the tooth spaces.
Pitch
Circles
P~<::} '~•:.,J
iC:
,i~~:~\0.
( ~c---
,,.,,. . t j -;,
Backlash is needed in order to allow ,,.-,---1 ••-,.-.
••••-· -JI
lubricant to get to each gear tooth and to ,. J
allow the teeth to mesh properly. It is )
important that the backlash is neither too
much nor too little.

SpurGearConstruction
Spur gears are made of many different
materials including cast iron, forged steel,
machined steel, brass, bronze, and even
plastic. Cast iron has good resistance to wear
but is brittle.
Unhardened low-carbon steel is sometimes
used on low power applications, but it must
be hardened for higher power applications
like those commonly seen in industry.
Spur gears are designed to be mounted with
either fixed bores with keyways or with
bushings.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives

Segment 4 Spur Gear Installation

Objective11 Describe How to Install and Align a Spur Gear Drive System

SpurGearInstallationandAlignment
In many cases, installation of a spur gear
drive is very easy because the gear drive
design uses shaft bearings that have a fixed
mounting.
This fixes the locations of the gears, and
therefore no alignment is necessary.
However, some gear drives are designed for
backlash adjustment. These types of drives
must be aligned.
The general procedure for installing a gear
drive is an 8-step process.
• Step 1. Mount and Level the Motor and the
Driven Component
• Step 2. Inspect the Gears for Cleanliness
and Wear
• Step 3. Mount the Gears onto the Shafts
• Step 4. Mesh the Gears
• Step 5. Align the Gears
• Step 6. Adjust the Backlash
• Step 7. Readjust Alignment and Tighten
Bolts
• Step 8. Apply Lubrication

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 199

Step 6. Adjust the Backlash
It is important that the backlash is set to the
proper amount. It should be neither too
much nor too little.
The amount of backlash is determined using
either a table or a formula.
It can be measured using a dial indicator and
is adjusted by moving the centers of the
shafts either closer or farther apart.

Step 7. Readjust Alignment and Tighten

Bolts
After the positions of the shafts have been
set, the mounting bolts can be tightened.
As you do this, use a straight edge to keep
the alignment of the gears.
After you have tightened the bolts, check the
alignment one more time to ensure the gears
are still aligned.
Tightening the mounting hardware can often
shift the alignment of the shafts.

Step 8. Apply Lubrication I

Metal gears must be lubricated. In most
cases, you will use a type of oil called gear oil,
which is made for gear lubrication.
This oil can be applied by hand or with some
type of automatic system.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 202

Objective12 Describe the Function of Backlash

BacklashDescription
Backlash is defined as the clearance between
the back of the engaged tooth of the driver
gear and the front of the tooth of the driven
gear immediately behind it as measured
along the pitch circle.
A certain amount of backlash is needed in a
gear drive to enable the gears to mesh
smoothly and to allow lubrication to get to
each tooth.
If the backlash is too small, there will be
more friction between the gears, which will
cause the gears to run roughly, have added
load due to friction, wear out quickly, and
even lock up.

ExcessiveBacklash
It is also important to not have too much
backlash.
This causes the gears to make more noise
and vibration, create excessive wear on the
faces of the teeth, and even cause the teeth
to break.
Some backlash is built into gears by making
the teeth slightly narrower than the spaces
between the teeth.

Center Distance

AdjustingBacklash
If new gears are adjusted so that their pitch
circles are tangent with each other, the gears
will have the correct amount of backlash.
Backlash can be changed by adjusting
positions of the gears' shaft centers.
As the center distance is increased, the
backlash becomes greater.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 203

Objective13 Describe How to Determine the Allowable Backlash in a Gear
Drive

AllowableBacklashRange
Whether gears are new or used, the backlash should remain within a certain range in
order to operate smoothly with minimum wear on the teeth.
This allowable range of backlash for any two gears can be determined using a table if
you know the diametral pitch and the center distance.
This table was developed by the American Gear Manufacturers' Association (AGMA)
and is published in the Machinery's Handbook, as well as in other sources.

Coarse - Pitch Gears

CenterDistance NormalDiametralPitches
(inches) 0.5-1.99 2-3.49 3.5-5.99 6-9.99 10-19.99
Uptos 0.005-0.015
Over 5to 10 0.010-0.020 0.010-0.020
Over 1oto 20 0.020-0.030 0.015-0.025 0.010-0.020
Over 2oto 30 0.030-0.040 0.025-0.030 0.025-0.030
Over 3oto40 0.040-0.060 0.035-0.045 0.030-0.040 0.025-0.040
Over4oto50 0.050-0.070 0.040-0.055 0.035-0.050 0.030-0.040
Over 50 to 80 0.060-0.080 0.045-0.085 0.040-0.060
Over 80 to 100 0.070-0.095 0.050-0.080
Over 100 to 120 0.080-0.10

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 204

 Diametral Pitch
Calculating Diametral Pitch and Center
Distance N
P=-
PD
The diametral pitch can be determined using Where:
either a table or by calculating it if you have
the number of teeth and the pitch diameter. PD = Pitch Diameter (inches)
N= Number of Teeth
The center distance is the average of the sum P = Diametral Pilch
of the two pitch diameters.
Center Distance

Where:

PD 02 = Pitch Diameter cf Gear 2 (inchesj

PD Gl = Pitch Diameter cf Gear 1 (inches)
C = Center Distance (inches)

Positioning New Gears

For new gears, they can be positioned
correctly by measuring the backlash.
If it is within the allowable range, the gears
are positioned with the pitch circles very
close to being tangent to one another.
This method is often easier than measuring
the center distance.

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 205

Segment 5 Spur GearAnalysis
Objective14 Describe Two Methods of Measuring Spur Gear Backlash

Driver Gear Rotated Back and Forth

BacklashMeasurementMethods
Driven Gear Fixed
The actual backlash between two spur gears
can be measured using one of these two
methods:
• Direct Dial Indicator Measurement
• Indirect Dial Indicator Measurement
With both of these methods, the basic
conce_ptused to perform the measurement is
to hold one gear fixed and rotate the other
gear back and forth.
The amount of movement of the teeth at or
near the pitch circle is the backlash.

Direct Method
DirectDial IndicatorMeasurement
Rotate Back
With the direct method, the probe of a dial and Forth
indicator is placed directly on a tooth and
oriented perpendicular to the face of the ~
nQ
tooth. gc/7- r--
<:r✓

Indicator
Driven Gear ,-,.,,

Indirect Method
IndirectDial IndicatorMeasurement
With the indirect method, a bar of some type
is attached to the shaft and the indicator
measures its movement.
To determine the backlash, you must divide
the measured value by the ratio of the
distance along the bar from the shaft center ---- Ann Backlash
Radius
Pitch
to the indicator point to the pitch radius. Radius

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 206

MethodApplication Direct Method

The direct method is most often used for

Rotate Back
larger gears where the teeth are large and Forth
enough to allow the indicator probe to
contact a tooth.
The indirect method is used where either the
gears are not easy to access or the gear teeth
are very small.

Indirect Method

.---- Ann Backlash

Pitch Radius
Radius

H19146 Spur Gear Drives 207

Module7 MultipleShaftDrives

Segment1 MultipleShaftGearAnalysis
Objective1 Describe How to Calculate the Speed and Torque Output in a
Multiple Shaft Gear Drive

MultipleShaftGearDrives
Gear drives can have more than two gears in
the gear train. These additional gears either
act as idlers or drive an additional output
shaft.
Idler gears are used mainly to change the
direction of rotation or to transfer the power
to a shaft that is located farther away from
the driver shaft.
An example of a multiple output shaft gear
drive is the lathe. For each shaft driven, a
separate gear is needed.

Idler Gear 1 OutputGear

CancelingEffectof Idler Gears

It is first important to note that idler gears
do not affect the torque or the speed of the
driven shaft.
If you were to calculate the gear ratio by
multiplying the ratios of each pair of
neighboring gears together, the effect of the
idler gears is canceled out.
N Oulput t: id:Ui
0051I tf ldl@IGU!
I

Notice that the number of teeth of both idler GR= -_-..,,-1 ~,;-.""-_x-.-._.-
ldldiMil I 1~;,,.-ri,-_x
ldldlGHI2 N Input

gears is used twice in the formula. They

cancel each other out as shown. GR=----
N Ouq,ut
N Input
You would get the same gear ratio if you
calculated the gear ratio without accounting
for the idler gears.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 208

Speed and Torque in Multiple Shaft Gear Gear Ratio and Speed
Drive
GR =.21.
s.
Whether an extra gear in a gear train is an
idler or drives an extra shaft, the method
used to determine the speed and torque GR = Gear Ratio
S, = Speed of Input Gear (rpm)
output of a gear drive with more than two SO = Speedof output Gearirpm1
gears is the same.
Gear Drive Torque (Using
Since the idler gears do not affect the gear
ratio, they do not affect the speed or torque. Gear Ratio)

The same formulas used to calculate the TovN = GR

speed and torque of two gears can therefore ToRv
be used to calculate the output of a gear Where:
drive with multiple gears.
T DVN = Output RotationalTorque (ft-lb)
T DRV = Input Rotational Torque (ft-lb)
GR = Gear Ratio

MultipleShaftExample:GearRatioFormula
The speed of any driven gear is therefore
determined by calculating the gear ratio
using the driven gear as the output gear
along with the input gear and ignoring all Ou!put(Driven)Gear3
Output {Oriwn)Gear 2
other gears in between.
For example, the gear drive shown has three
output gears, each of which drives a separate
shaft with a separate load. It also has one
true idler gear.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 209

Output Gear 1 (30 Teeth)

Gear Ratio for Gear 1

NoG1
GR0G1 =-
N,G

30
GR0G1 =-
20
( GRoG1 = 1.5)

Output Gear 2 (10 Teeth)

Gear Ratio 'for Gear 2

NoG2
GR0G2 =-N········
IG

10
GR0G2 =-· -
20
( GRoG2 = o.s)

Output Gear 3 (60 Teeth)

Gear Ratio for Gear 3

NoG3
GRoGJ =­
N1G

60
GRoG3 =-
20

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 210

MultipleShaft Example:Speed Calculation
The speed of each output shaft can now be
calculated separately using its own gear ratio.
The idler gear has no effect on the speed of
any output shaft.
In addition, the speed of one output shaft
has no effect on the speed of the other
output shafts because they act like idlers
with respect to the other shafts.

OutputGear1

Output Speed for Gear 1

$1G
S0G1 =- .........
-
GR0G1

S _ 60
OG1 - 1.S
(soc.1 = 40rpm)
OutputGear2

Output Speed for Gear 2

S,c.
5002 = GR0G2

60
S0G2 =-
0.5
(som = 120 rpm)

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 211

Output Gear3

Output Speed for Gear 3

SIG
S003 = •GR OG3
60
SoG3 =-
3
( SoG3 = .20rpm)

MultipleShaftExample:TorqueCalculation
The total torque required from the input
shaft is calculated by summing the torques
that would be required to drive each output
shaft by itself. Output (Driven)
)Gear2

The torque created at the driver shaft by

each output shaft is found by dividing the
output torque by the gear ratio.
For example, the torque created at the driver
shaft by gear 3 is found by dividing shaft 3's
output torque by its gear ratio.
The same goes for the torque created by
shaft 2 and shaft 1.

Output Gear1 (30 in.-lb)

Required Torque for

Gear1
. JG = -··-T····--
T1 OG1

GRoc.1
30
T1 JG=-
1.5
( T1 JG = 20 in.-lb)

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 212

Output Gear 2 (15 in.-lb)

Re,quired Torque for

Gear2
T21G =
T OG2
.••••
GR0G2

15
T21G = 0.5
[ T21G = 30 in.-lb)

Output Gear 3 (20 in.-lb)

Required Torque for

Gear3
T31G = T OG:i
GRoGJ

20
T31G ·=-
3
( T31G = 6.7 in.-lb)

Multiple Shaft Example: Total Torque

Calculation IdlerGear .

The total torque created on the driver shaft tr . M :ffhUttftibta

is then calculated by summing the individual
torques. r· o~::~D,L)Gear3
Oulp~ (DrivenJGeor 2
,"

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 213

Input Gear

Total Required Torque

T IG = T1 IG + T2 lG + T3 ,G
T IG = 20 + 30 + 6. 7
T IG = 20 + 36. 7
(T 1G =56. 7 in...lb)

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 214

Objective2 Describe the Function of a Compound Gear Drive System and
Give an Application

Compound Gear
CompoundGearDrive Description
\,,•'''•.
A compound gear drive is a type of gear train Input Gear
that has two or more gears mounted on one
shaft.
These gears can be mounted anywhere on
the shaft, either next to each other or on
"' Output Gear
opposite ends of the shaft.

CompoundGearDriveApplication
Compound gear drives are used in several
types of applications.
Two such applications are driving two
output shafts at different speeds and driving
an output shaft that is offset from the driver
shaft.

Descriptionof a RevertedGearDrive
A third type of application for the compound
tt -J
~
compound
Sha~ 9'
gear drive is to create a gear reduction !'!=' t
between_two shafts, which are located on the Output Shaft
same axis.
This is called a reverted gear drive.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 215

Objective3 Describe How to Calculate the Torque and Speed Output of a
Compound Gear Drive System

Compound Gear Drive Speed

IncludeCompoundGearRatiosto Calculate and Pitch Circle Diameter
Speed
sOVR = PCD DVN )( PCD ci
The concepts that were used to calculate
speed and torque of simple multiple-gear sOVN PCD OVR PCD co
gear drives can also be applied to compound Where:

gear drives with one minor change. S OVR = Speed of Driver Goar
S OVN = Speed of Drivefl Gear
The gear ratio of any gears that are mounted PCD DVN = Pitch Circle Diameter of Driven Gear
on the same shaft must be included in the PCD DVR = Pilch Circle Diameter of Driver Goar
calculation. PCD . = Pitch Circle Diameter of Compound
ci Input Gear

In effect, these gear ratios must be combined PCO _ Pitch Circle Diameter of Compound
co - Output Gear
as shown.

Compound Gear Drive Speed

CalculateSpeedUsingNumberof Teeth Using Number of Teeth
The formulas for speed are the same as the S OVR N OVN N ci
simple gear drive except that they are --=--x-
SovN N ovR N co
multiplied by the gear ratio of the compound
gears. Where:

S DVR = Speed of Driver Gear

This ratio can also be calculated using the S DVN = Speed of Driven Gear
number of teeth. N DVN = Number of Teeth on Driven Gear

N DVR = Number of Teeth on Driver Gear

Like a simple gear drive, idler gears have no N ci _ Number of Teeth on Compound Input
effect on the output speed. - Gear

N _
co -
Number of Teeth on Compound Output
Gear

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 216

Exampleof SpeedCalculation
To give an example of how these formulas "- DrivenGar
work, look at the compound gear drive (30Tfflh)
1200rpnl
shown.
In this case, the gear ratio of the driven gears
to the driver gears is 3: 1 and the gear ratio of
the compound gears is 1:2.
This means the combined or compound gear
ratio is 3:2.
The speed of the output gear is therefore
1200 rpm given an input speed of 1800 rpm.

Driven-to-Driver
GearRatio

N DVN
N DVR

N DVN = Number
Gear
of Teeth on Driven

N DVR = Gear
Numt,er of Temh on Driver

30 3
3:1
10 1

Ratioof CompoundGears

N Number ot Teeth on
ci = Com;xiund lnpLrtGear
Number of Teeth on
N co = Com;:.ound Ouipul Gear

10 1
- =- = 1:2
20 2

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 217

CombinedGearRatio

NovN
NovR
Where:

N O·VN -_ Number of Tee1:h011D iven

Gear
N DVR. _ Number of Te.ell,011Driver
- Gear
= Numberof Teelh on
Comp,nund Input Gear
N Number of Teelh on
co = Comoour,dOuiput Gear

30 10 30
10 X 2Q : 20 : 3 :2

Output Speed

--S DVR =--N DVN x--

Nci

s DVN N DVR N co
1,800
SovN
- 30
10
x-
10
20
1,800 3
SovN
- 2
2
5 DVN =- X 1,800
3
[s DVN : 1,200 rpm)

DoubleReductionGearDriveDescription
The drive shown here is called a double compoundOulpu\ Gear
reduction gear drive because it reduces the 20,eoth

speed using the combination of two gear

ratios.
A triple reduction would use three gear
ratios and have two compound gear sets.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 218

 Compound Gear Drive Torque
CombineGearRatiosto CalculateTorque and Pitch Circle Diameter
In a similar way, the torque output is ~lso T OVN = PCD OVN X PCD ci
determined by combining the two gear ratios.
T OVR PCD OVR PCD co
Wliero:

T OVN = Torque of Driven Gear

T OVR = Torque of Driver Gear
PCD OVN = Pitch Circ.le Diameter of Driven Gear
PCD DVR = Pitc1·1Circle Diameter of Driver Gear
PCD c1. = Pitch Circle Diameter of Compound
Input Gear
PCD _ Pitch Circle Diameter of Compound
co - Output Gear

Compound Gear Drive Torque

CalculateTorqueUsingNumberof Teeth Using Number of Teeth
This ratio can also be calculated using the T DVN N OVN N ci
number of teeth. --=--x--
T DVR N OVR N co
Wlmro:

T OVN = Torque of Driven Gear

T OVR = Torque of Driver Gear
N OVN = Number of Teeth on Driven Gear
N DVR = Number of Teeth on Driver Gear
N . = Number of Teeth on Compound Input
ci Gear
Nco _- Number of Teeth on Compound Output
Gear

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 219

Segment2 MultipleShaftDriveInstallation
Objective4 Describe How to Determine the Direction of Rotation of a
Gear Drive

Descriptionof Directionof Rotation

Each gear that is added to a gear train causes
the driven gear's rotation direction to change.
When there are only two gears, the driven
ge~r turns in the opposite direction to the
driver gear.
If one gear is added in the middle, either an
idler gear or another driven gear, the
direction of rotation of the original driven
gear will be the same as the driver gear.

Descriptionof the Even/OddRule

To determine the direction of rotation of a gear drive, you can remember that an even
number of gears in the drive causes the driven gear to turn in the opposite direction
and an odd number of gears causes the driven gear to turn in the same direction as the
driver gear.
The exception to the even/ odd rule is for compound gear drives.
In this case, you should treat gears that are on the same shaft as one gear.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 220

Even/OddRuleExample
For example, the compound gear drive
shown here has four gears.
Since two gears are on the same shaft, the
number of gears to use with the even/ odd
rule is three.
Therefore, the driven gear turns in the same
direction as the driver gear. In this case, it is
clockwise.

VlewOlreetlon

Effectof Perspective
A final point to remember about the C TumsCCW
direction of rotation is that these rules are ccw ~ :'!":i.i::~~
based on looking at the rotation of the • llllllt,~
output shaft from the same side from which
you viewed the input shaft.
mscw
whenviewed
fromthis side
If you are viewing the output shaft from the
opposite side, the direction of rotation is .,
reversed.
,w ,
For example, the output shaft turns
clockwise when you look at the shaft from
the side indicated by the arrow.
From the opposite side, the shaft turns
counterclockwise.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 221

Objectives Describe How to Install and Align a Multiple Shaft Drive
System

Order of AlignroP.nt
Each shaft in a multiple shaft drive system
must be individually aligned. The alignment I
Generator1 Generator2
procedures for each shaft are the same as
those for a single shaft drive system.
Although each shaft in the system must be
individually aligned, there is a certain order
in which to align the shafts.
Normally, the order of alignment is to start
with the last output shaft in the drive and
work backwards toward the driver shaft.

Order of AlignmentExample
I
181Alignment: Align Motor lo Generator Z Stationary

Motor \
For example, Generator 2 and the Motor Generator 1 :\ 3
_!lenerator
should be aligned first and Generator 1 and
the Motor last.
For the first alignment, the Motor is the 2nd Alignment: Align Generator 1 to Motor

moveable machine.
For the second alignment, the Motor is the
stationary machine while Generator 1 acts as
the moveable machine.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 222

BeforeAlignment ·or1ver
Shafi

Before you start the installation and

alignment procedure, determine the actual
height of each shaft.
To allow shims to be added to the shaft
during the alignment procedure, the driven
shaft of each component should be slightly
M ••
~-.--:..........
LrA
DrivenShaft

higher than the driver shaft.

The amount of difference in height depends
on how uneven the surface is.
A good height difference to start with is
0.010 to 0.015 inch.

Each shaft must be progressively lower than

the one downstream.

In-LineShaftAlignment
For in-line shafts, the centerlines of the two
shafts must be in line with each other.
\
Centerlines

AdjacentShaftAlignment
il i,.·
f
! :
For adjacent shaft power transmission, the j.. L OverlleadView
centerlines of the two shafts only have to be J :

parallel with each other. J■i i!llf, '.~I

Bil
The shaft heights can be different to a
certain degree without affecting the
operation. V
Parallel Centerlines

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 223

Segment 3 Sleeve Couplings
Objective 6 Describe the Function of a Solid Coupling and List Two Types

Solid CouplingDescription Solid coupling

Solid couplings connect two shafts together

to make them a rigid unit.
They are used when it is necessary to either
extend the length of a shaft or provide a
means of disconnecting the shaft.

Solid CouplingApplication
Solid couplings are rarely used to connect
motors to driven components such as pumps
a~d g~arboxes because they do not allow any
m1sahgnment.
The only exception is when there is the need
for absolute alignment. Fl'angeCoupling

The two most common types of solid Sleeve Coupling

couplings are sleeve couplings and flange
couplings.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 224

Objective7 Describe the Operation of a Sleeve Coupling and Give an
Application

SolidSleeveCouplingDescription Set Screws

Sleeve couplings can be either solid or split.

The solid sleeve coupling is a solid cylinder
of metal which is designed to slide over the
two shafts and clamp them together by
means of a set screw on each shaft.
To install this type, the two shafts must be
able to be moved away from each other.

Solid Sleeve Coupling

SplitSleeveCouplingDescription
The split sleeve coupling clamps the two
shafts together using two half-round pieces
that clamp to each other using bolts.
The split feature allows the two coupling
halves to be removed without moving the
two shafts away from each other.
The split sleeve coupling usually has ribs on
its outer casing.
Split Sleeve Coupling

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 225

SleeveCouplingApplication
Sleeve couplings are mainly used on smaller
shafts having diameters less than six inches,
while larger shafts use flange couplings.
Since they do not allow any misalignment,
they are mainly used on longer shafts.

I
Flange Coupling

This is because any misalignment in longer

shafts can be compensated by the distance Sleeve Coupling
between the bearings.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 226

Objective8 Describe the Alignment Procedure of a Sleeve Coupling

SleeveCouplingInstallation
The basic procedure for installing and
aligning a sleeve coupling begins with
leveling the two shafts and making them the
same height.
Before doing this, place the sleeve coupling
on one of the two shafts to be coupled and
slide it back on the shaft. Then level and
align the shafts.
The process is completed by sliding the
coupling onto the other shaft and clamping
it to each shaft.

SleeveCouplingApplication
In some cases, the sleeve coupling is used to
extend the length of a shaft by connecting
another shaft that is not independently
supported.
Here, there is not any alignment to be done.
Simply insert the extension shaft through
the bearing on its end; slide the sleeve onto
the other end of the shaft; and bring the two
shafts together so that each shaft is inserted
into the coupling and the gap between the
two shafts is approximately 0.125 inch.

FloatingShaftApplication FloatingShall

Another application of this concept is a

floating shaft that is not supported directly
by any bearings.
SOiidCOllplng
This shaft connects two other shafts using
two solid couplings.
After aligning the supported shafts, the
floating shaft can be installed without any
further alignment necessary.

H19146 Multiple Shaft Drives 227

Glossacy

Accuracy: A measure of how closely an instrument's output matches the actual value of
the process variable .
.Alignment: Being in the proper position; arranged in a linear fashion.

Aluminum: Element 13 on the periodic table, aluminum is a soft, light metal that resists
corrosion.
Automatic: Having the ability of starting, operating, or moving independently.

Automatically: Moving or starting by itself.

Beam: A long, rigid, horizontal component used for structural support.

Bearing:A bearing is a device used to support another part while reducing friction at the
point of contact.
Brakecaliper:A housing that contains one or more pistons which press brake pads
against a firake disc when hydraulic power is applied.
Brakedisc: The brake disc is attached to the rotating device to be slowed. Friction is
created when the brake caliper presses the brake pads against the disc, slowing the device.

Cantilever: A structural component that sticks out, or protrudes, from a rigid support.

Caustics: Substances capable of burning, corroding or destroying by chemical action.

Acids and bases are common caustics.
Centerline: Centerlines are used to show an object's symmetry, or the center location of a
rounded feature such as a hole. They are drawn using alternating dashes, one long dash
followed by one short dash.
Clutch: A device that connects two shafts together and allows the shafts to connect and
disconnect while running.
Coil: (Electricity) A coil is a winding of a conductor into a series of loops. This winding
causes the electromagnetic fields around the coil to increase and it tends to resist any
changes in current flow.
(PLCs) A coil is a ladder diagram symbol that represents an output instruction.
(Thermal Systems) A heat exchanger used to transfer energy from one source to another.

Component: A part of a larger, interacting system.

Compression: A process of applying pressure to a vapor, compacting the molecules closer

together.

Compressor: (Thermal Systems) The central component of a heat pump system. The

Glossary - Mechanical Drives 1 228

compressor increases the pressure of a refrigerant vapor, and simultaneously reduces its
volume, while causing the vapor to move through the system.
(Fluid Power) In a pneumatic system, the compressor takes the air from the atmosphere
and compresses it. The compressed air is stored in a tank until it is needed by an
application.

Computernumericalcontrol: Computer numerical control is a manufacturing process

that uses a computer to control the cutting tool motion.
Configuration:(General) The geometry of a part; its density, weight, and other visual
parameters that uniquely characterize the item, component, or assembly.
(Information Technology) The way a computer or program is put together for a particular
use.
Controller:(Control Systems) A controller is a hardware device or a software program
that manages or directs the flow of data between two entities.
(Information Technology) In computing, controllers may be cards, microchips or separate
hardware devices for the control of a peripheral device.
(General) In a general sense, a controller can be thought of as something or someone that
interfaces between two systems and manages communications between them.

Coordinates:A set of two or more numbers used to determine the position of a point, line,
curve, or plane.
Corrosion:Damage to a material (e.g. metal, skin, fabric) through a chemical process.
Corrosive:Capable of eating away; erosive; steadily harmful; gradually destructive.
Corrosives are also called caustics.

Coupling:(Manufacturing) A coupling is the connector found on the end of a hose that

allows the hose to be connected to a tool.
(Mechanics) A component used to connect two shafts, used when it is necessary to extend
a shaft or provide a means for disconnecting a shaft.

Current:The movement of electrically charged particles through solids, liquids, gases, or

free space. Electrical current is a measure of the amount of electrical charge transferred
per unit time. It represents the flow of electrons through a conductive material.
Cycle:(Electricity) The time period required for a sinusoid to complete one cycle is called
a full cycle. The time period when the sinusoid is positive is called the positive half cycle,
and the time period when the sinusoid is negative is called the negative half cycle.
(Machining) The time it takes for a machine to complete its operation.
Cycloidal:The curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle that rolls on a
straight line.
Cylinder:A device that converts fluid power into linear mechanical power.
Density: Density is the amount of mass something has for a given volume, and is
expressed in units of pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3).
For example, 1 m 3 of water has a mass of 1,000 kg, so the density of water is 1,000 kg/m 3.

Glossary - Mechanical Drives 1 229

Diameter: The diameter is the longest straight line or measurement within a circle that is
terminated by the circle's periphery. This circle may be a planar section of a sphere or
cylinder.
Differential: (Thermal Systems) The difference in the cut-in and cut-out temperatures,
which is defined by a thermostat setting.
(General) Of, or relating to, a difference.
Dimension: A dimension is a measurement in length, width, thickness, or in a given
direction
Diol: A chemical compound containing two hydroxyl groups.

Efficiency: The ratio of output to input that is usually expressed as a percentage.

Electrical: Of, relating to, producing, or operated by electricity.

Electron: A negatively charged component of an atom.

Environment: The conditions surrounding a component, including such things as dust,

high/low humidity, water, grease, high/low temperature, high/low air flow.
Eq~:pment: The tools, machines, or other things that are needed for a particular job or
activity.
FHP:Fractional Horsepower - A fractional horsepower (FHP) motor has a rated output of
less than one horsepower.
~e: A projecting flat ~m, collar, or rib on an object, for strength, for guiding, or for
attachment to another obJect.
Fluid:The conducting material in a fluid power system, either a liquid (in hydraulic
systems) or a gas (in pneumatic systems).
Force: (Mechanics) An influence exerted on an object. It can cause the object to move.
(General) Strength or energy as an attribute of physical action or movement.
Friction: The resistance to motion due to contact between two surfaces.

Geometry: Geometry is a math discipline that deals with the relationships of points, lines,
angles, and figures.
Head: The height of a column of fluid that can be supported by the pressure supplied by a
given pump, expressed in meters or feet.
Horizontal: Parallel to level ground.

Humidity: Humidity represents the amount of water vapor present in the atmosphere.

Hydraulic: A power transmission method that uses a pressurized liquid.

Glossary - Mechanical Drives 1 230

Indicator:An indicator is a device, such as a light, providing specific information on the
state or condition of something.
Input:The current or voltage applied to an electric or electronic circuit or device.
Insert:An indexable insert is an insert that has multiple cutting edges. When the edge
being used becomes worn or damaged, the insert is removed and indexed to expose a new
cutting edge.

Intermittent:(General) Something that starts and stops irregularly

(Electricity) An intermittent energy source is any energy source that is not continuously
available.
Involute:A curve traced by the end of a string wound upon another curve, or unwound
from it.
Jack:(Mechanics) A device for exerting pressure or lifting a heavy body a short distance.
(Electricity) A female fitting in an electrical circuit designed for the insertion of a plug.
Junction:A transition layer or boundary between two different materials or between
physically different regions in a single material, especially.
Load:(Electricity) Power output or power consumption.
(Mechanics) The external resistance overcome by an engine or machine.
(General) The quantity that can be carried at one time by a specific means.
Lubricant:A substance that is used to reduce friction between moving components.
MTBM:Machine to be Moved
Machining:Process of making, preparing, or finishing with a machine or with machine
tools.
Manufacturer:
A manufacturer is a person or group that makes goods or wares.
Measurement:The dimension, quantity, or capacity determined by measuring
Mechanical:Caused by, resulting from, or relating to a process that involves a purely
physical process.

Misalignment:Not in the proper position; arranged in a non-linear fashion.

Neoprene:A synthetic polymer resembling rubber, resistant to oil, heat, and weathering.
Offset:An imaginary coordinate system based on a shift of position from the CNC
machine's home position.
Operator:A person who operates a machine.
Output:The current, voltage, power, or signal produced by an electrical or electronic
circuit or device.
Parallel:Lines, planes, surfaces, or objects having the same distance continuously
Glossary - Mechanical Drives 1 231
between them.
Parameter:A number or other measurable value that defines a system or sets the
conditions of machine operation.
Period:The amount of time it takes for a repeating waveform to complete one cycle of all
of its values.
Perpendicular:having the trait of meeting a line or surface at right angles.
Pitch: (Mechanics) On a bolt, the pitch is the distance from the crest of one individual
thread to the crest of the next individual thread.
(Green Energy Technology) In wind turbines, pitch refers to the angle of a rotor blade
with respect to the plane of the rotor.
Pneumatic:A power transmission method that uses compressed gas, typically air.
Polyester:Polymers formed from dicarboxylic acid and a diol.
Polymer:A large molecule that is made up of many repeating base units. Natural
examples include hair fibers and DNA. Modern plastic materials are synthetic polymers.

Pressure:The intensity of force created when a force from one object acts over the area of
another. Pressure can be calculated by the formula: pressure = force / area.
Program:A sequence of instructions, written to perform a specified task with a computer
or controller.
Programmablelogic controller:A programmable logic controller (also called a "PLC" or
simply a "programmable controller") is a computer used for automation of
electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines and
in process control. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed to be used in
an industrial environment and typically includes multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance
to vibration and impact.
Refrigerant:A fluid of extremely low boiling point used to transfer heat between the heat
source and heat sink. It absorbs heat at low temperature and low pressure and rejects
heat at a higher temperature and higher pressure, usually involving changes of state in the
fluid.
Resistance:A property of a conductor where it opposes or resists the movement of
current in the conductor. Equal to the voltage across the conductor divided by the current
flowing in the conductor. Usually measured in ohms.
Signal:An electrical quantity, such as current or voltage, that can be varied in a way to
convey information.
Spindle:The main component of the machine tool that rotates. In milling, the spindle
holds a cutting tool. On a lathe the spindle holds the workpiece.
Standard:A thing established for comparison by an authority or by a consensus

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agreement.

Straightness:Straightness is a feature of size that specifies the amount a feature can vary
from a straight line.

Symmetry: Symmetry is the trait of being made up of like parts equally placed from a
common feature.
Synchronous:Existing or occurring at the same time.
Synthetic:Materials or substances produced from chemicals by way of human
manipulation.
Tag:Text-based names given to PLC memory locations used to store information to the
PLC about both internal and external conditions.
Ta_p:(Machining) A tool used to create threads in a hole.
(Fluid Power) A device that controls the flow of a liquid or a gas through a pipe or other
container.
(Electricity) A tap is a connection on the secondary coil that creates the ability to obtain
multiple levels of voltage from the secondary coil of a transformer.
Technician:A worker in a field of technology who is trained in the applicable skills and
techniques, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles.
Thermal:Relating to or caused by heat.
Tolerance:The allowable deviation from nominal that is still considered acceptable.
Torque:A force that makes an object rotate about a point.
Transformer:An electrical device that converts AC electricity from one voltage level to
another.
Transmission:(Mechanics) A system that converts force, often from a high-speed,
low-torque motor to a lower-speed, higher-torque output device.
(Electricity) The process of sending electricity or data using electrical signals or
electromagnetic waves from one place to another.
UNC:Unified National Coarse. UNC is a general-purpose thread type commonly used in
assembly work. It has fewer threads per inch than other thread types.
Vertical:Perpendicular to level ground.
Voltage:A measure of the difference in electric potential between two points in space, a
material, or an electric circuit, expressed in volts, and represented with the variable V.
Also referred to as electromotive force (EMF) and represented with the variable E.
Workpiece:A part that is being worked on. It may be subject to cutting, welding, forming,
or otlier operations.

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