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5G Mobile and Wireless Communications Technology
Written by leading experts in 5G research, this book is a comprehensive overview of the
current state of the 5G landscape. Covering everything from the most likely use cases, to
a wide range of technology options and potential 5G system architectures, to spectrum
issues, it is an essential reference for academics and professionals involved in wireless
and mobile communications.

• Describes and explains key technology options, including 5G air interfaces, device-
to-device communication, mm-wave communications, massive MIMO, coordinated
multi-point, wireless network coding, interference and mobility management, and
spectrum issues.
• Summarizes the findings of key global 5G research collaborations such as METIS and
outlines key scenarios, network requirements, and system architectures.
• Demystifies the relation between IoT, machine-type communications, and cyber
physical systems, and describes the impact of 5G on sectors such as automotive,
building, and energy.
• Equips readers with a solid insight into the impact and opportunities of 5G.

Afif Osseiran is Director of Radio Communications at the Ericsson Chief Technology

Officer (CTO) department. He previously managed the EU 5G flagship project, METIS,
and was Technical Manager of the Eureka Celtic project WINNER+. He has co-edited
two books on IMT-Advanced (aka 4G) and is a senior member of the IEEE.
Jose F. Monserrat is an associate professor in the Communications Department of the
Universitat Politècnica de València. He is senior member of IEEE and has been involved
in several European projects, including NEWCOM, PROSIMOS, WINNER+, METIS
and METIS-II.
Patrick Marsch is a manager at Nokia Bell Labs, where he leads a wireless system
research department and is the Technical Manager of the 5G-PPP project METIS-II. He
was the Technical Project Coordinator of the project EASY-C, where the world’s largest
research test beds for LTE-Advanced were established. He is co-editor of Coordinated
Multi-Point in Mobile Communications (Cambridge, 2011).
5G Mobile and Wireless
Communications Technology
EDITED BY

AFIF OSSEIRAN
Ericsson

JOSE F. MONSERRAT
Universitat Politècnica de València

PATRICK MARSCH
Nokia
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107130098
© Cambridge University Press 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd. Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Osseiran, Afif, editor.
5G mobile and wireless communications technology / [edited by] Afif Osseiran, Ericsson,
Jose F. Monserrat, Polytechnic University of Valencia, Patrick Marsch, Nokia Networks.
New York : Cambridge University Press, 2016.
LCCN 2015045732 | ISBN 9781107130098 (hardback)
LCSH: Global system for mobile communications. | Mobile communication systems – Standards.
LCC TK5103.483 .A15 2016 | DDC 621.3845/6–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015045732
ISBN 978-1-107-13009-8 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To my new born son S., my twin sons H. & N., my wife L. S-Y for her unwavering
encouragement, and in the memory of a great lady, my aunt K. E.
A. Osseiran

To my son, the proud fifth generation of the name Jose Monserrat. And with the
warmest love to my daughter and wife, for being always there.
J. F. Monserrat

To my two small sons for their continuous energetic entertainment, and my dear
wife for her amazing patience and support. P. Marsch
 Contents

List of contributors page xiv

Foreword xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Acronyms xxii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical background 1
1.1.1 Industrial and technological revolution: from steam engines
to the Internet 1
1.1.2 Mobile communications generations: from 1G to 4G 2
1.1.3 From mobile broadband (MBB) to extreme MBB 6
1.1.4 IoT: relation to 5G 7
1.2 From ICT to the whole economy 7
1.3 Rationale of 5G: high data volume, twenty-five billion connected
devices and wide requirements 9
1.3.1 Security 11
1.4 Global initiatives 12
1.4.1 METIS and the 5G-PPP 12
1.4.2 China: 5G promotion group 14
1.4.3 Korea: 5G Forum 14
1.4.4 Japan: ARIB 2020 and Beyond Ad Hoc 14
1.4.5 Other 5G initiatives 14
1.4.6 IoT activities 15
1.5 Standardization activities 15
1.5.1 ITU-R 15
1.5.2 3GPP 16
1.5.3 IEEE 16
1.6 Scope of the book 16
References 18

2 5G use cases and system concept 21

2.1 Use cases and requirements 21
2.1.1 Use cases 21
2.1.2 Requirements and key performance indicators 30
viii Contents

2.2 5G system concept 32

2.2.1 Concept overview 32
2.2.2 Extreme mobile broadband 34
2.2.3 Massive machine-type communication 36
2.2.4 Ultra-reliable machine-type communication 38
2.2.5 Dynamic radio access network 39
2.2.6 Lean system control plane 43
2.2.7 Localized contents and traffic flows 45
2.2.8 Spectrum toolbox 46
2.3 Conclusions 48
References 48

3 The 5G architecture 50
3.1 Introduction 50
3.1.1 NFV and SDN 50
3.1.2 Basics about RAN architecture 53
3.2 High-level requirements for the 5G architecture 56
3.3 Functional architecture and 5G flexibility 57
3.3.1 Functional split criteria 58
3.3.2 Functional split alternatives 59
3.3.3 Functional optimization for specific applications 61
3.3.4 Integration of LTE and new air interface to fulfill 5G
requirements 63
3.3.5 Enhanced Multi-RAT coordination features 66
3.4 Physical architecture and 5G deployment 67
3.4.1 Deployment enablers 67
3.4.2 Flexible function placement in 5G deployments 71
3.5 Conclusions 74
References 75

4 Machine-type communications 77
4.1 Introduction 77
4.1.1 Use cases and categorization of MTC 77
4.1.2 MTC requirements 80
4.2 Fundamental techniques for MTC 83
4.2.1 Data and control for short packets 83
4.2.2 Non-orthogonal access protocols 85
4.3 Massive MTC 86
4.3.1 Design principles 86
4.3.2 Technology components 86
4.3.3 Summary of mMTC features 94
4.4 Ultra-reliable low-latency MTC 94
4.4.1 Design principles 94
4.4.2 Technology components 96
 Contents ix

4.4.3 Summary of uMTC features 101

4.5 Conclusions 102
References 103

5 Device-to-device (D2D) communications 107

5.1 D2D: from 4G to 5G 107
5.1.1 D2D standardization: 4G LTE D2D 109
5.1.2 D2D in 5G: research challenges 112
5.2 Radio resource management for mobile broadband D2D 113
5.2.1 RRM techniques for mobile broadband D2D 114
5.2.2 RRM and system design for D2D 114
5.2.3 5G D2D RRM concept: an example 115
5.3 Multi-hop D2D communications for proximity and emergency
services 120
5.3.1 National security and public safety requirements in 3GPP
and METIS 121
5.3.2 Device discovery without and with network assistance 122
5.3.3 Network-assisted multi-hop D2D communications 122
5.3.4 Radio resource management for multi-hop D2D 124
5.3.5 Performance of D2D communications in the proximity
communications scenario 125
5.4 Multi-operator D2D communication 127
5.4.1 Multi-operator D2D discovery 127
5.4.2 Mode selection for multi-operator D2D 128
5.4.3 Spectrum allocation for multi-operator D2D 129
5.5 Conclusions 133
References 134

6 Millimeter wave communications 137

6.1 Spectrum and regulations 137
6.2 Channel propagation 139
6.3 Hardware technologies for mmW systems 139
6.3.1 Device technology 139
6.3.2 Antennas 142
6.3.3 Beamforming architecture 143
6.4 Deployment scenarios 144
6.5 Architecture and mobility 146
6.5.1 Dual connectivity 147
6.5.2 Mobility 147
6.6 Beamforming 149
6.6.1 Beamforming techniques 149
6.6.2 Beam finding 150
6.7 Physical layer techniques 152
6.7.1 Duplex scheme 152
x Contents

6.7.2 Transmission schemes 152

6.8 Conclusions 155
References 156

7 The 5G radio-access technologies 158

7.1 Access design principles for multi-user communications 159
7.1.1 Orthogonal multiple-access systems 160
7.1.2 Spread spectrum multiple-access systems 164
7.1.3 Capacity limits of multiple-access methods 165
7.2 Multi-carrier with filtering: a new waveform 169
7.2.1 Filter-bank based multi-carrier 169
7.2.2 Universal filtered OFDM 175
7.3 Non-orthogonal schemes for efficient multiple access 178
7.3.1 Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) 179
7.3.2 Sparse code multiple access (SCMA) 181
7.3.3 Interleave division multiple access (IDMA) 183
7.4 Radio access for dense deployments 184
7.4.1 OFDM numerology for small-cell deployments 186
7.4.2 Small-cell sub-frame structure 188
7.5 Radio access for V2X communication 192
7.5.1 Medium access control for nodes on the move 192
7.6 Radio access for massive machine-type communication 194
7.6.1 The massive access problem 195
7.6.2 Extending access reservation 198
7.6.3 Direct random access 199
7.7 Conclusions 202
References 202

8 Massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems 208

8.1 Introduction 208
8.1.1 MIMO in LTE 210
8.2 Theoretical background 211
8.2.1 Single user MIMO 212
8.2.2 Multi-user MIMO 215
8.2.3 Capacity of massive MIMO: a summary 217
8.3 Pilot design for massive MIMO 217
8.3.1 The pilot-data trade-off and impact of CSI 218
8.3.2 Techniques to mitigate pilot contamination 220
8.4 Resource allocation and transceiver algorithms for massive MIMO 225
8.4.1 Decentralized coordinated transceiver design for massive
MIMO 225
8.4.2 Interference clustering and user grouping 228
8.5 Fundamentals of baseband and RF implementations in massive
MIMO 233
 Contents xi

8.5.1 Basic forms of massive MIMO implementation 233

8.5.2 Hybrid fixed BF with CSI-based precoding (FBCP) 235
8.5.3 Hybrid beamforming for interference clustering
and user grouping 238
8.6 Channel models 241
8.7 Conclusions 242
References 243

9 Coordinated multi-point transmission in 5G 248

9.1 Introduction 248
9.2 JT CoMP enablers 250
9.2.1 Channel prediction 252
9.2.2 Clustering and interference floor shaping 253
9.2.3 User scheduling and precoding 257
9.2.4 Interference mitigation framework 257
9.2.5 JT CoMP in 5G 258
9.3 JT CoMP in conjunction with ultra-dense networks 259
9.4 Distributed cooperative transmission 260
9.4.1 Decentralized precoding/filtering design with local CSI 261
9.4.2 Interference alignment 265
9.5 JT CoMP with advanced receivers 268
9.5.1 Dynamic clustering for JT CoMP with multiple antenna UEs 268
9.5.2 Network-assisted interference cancellation 271
9.6 Conclusions 272
References 273

10 Relaying and wireless network coding 277

10.1 The role of relaying and network coding in 5G wireless networks 277
10.1.1 The revival of relaying 278
10.1.2 From 4G to 5G 279
10.1.3 New relaying techniques for 5G 279
10.1.4 Key applications in 5G 281
10.2 Multi-flow wireless backhauling 284
10.2.1 Coordinated direct and relay (CDR) transmission 285
10.2.2 Four-way relaying (FWR) 287
10.2.3 Wireless-emulated wire (WEW) for backhaul 288
10.3 Highly flexible multi-flow relaying 290
10.3.1 Basic idea of multi-flow relaying 290
10.3.2 Achieving high throughput for 5G 293
10.3.3 Performance evaluation 294
10.4 Buffer-aided relaying 295
10.4.1 Why buffers? 296
10.4.2 Relay selection 297
10.4.3 Handling inter-relay interference 299
xii Contents

10.4.4 Extensions 299

10.5 Conclusions 299
References 300

11 Interference management, mobility management, and dynamic

reconfiguration 303
11.1 Network deployment types 304
11.1.1 Ultra-dense network or densification 305
11.1.2 Moving networks 305
11.1.3 Heterogeneous networks 306
11.2 Interference management in 5G 306
11.2.1 Interference management in UDN 307
11.2.2 Interference management for moving relay nodes 310
11.2.3 Interference cancelation 314
11.3 Mobility management in 5G 314
11.3.1 User equipment-controlled versus network-controlled
handover 315
11.3.2 Mobility management in heterogeneous 5G networks 317
11.3.3 Context awareness for mobility management 320
11.4 Dynamic network reconfiguration in 5G 323
11.4.1 Energy savings through control/user plane decoupling 323
11.4.2 Flexible network deployment based on moving networks 327
11.5 Conclusions 330
References 331

12 Spectrum 336
12.1 Introduction 336
12.1.1 Spectrum for 4G 337
12.1.2 Spectrum challenges in 5G 339
12.2 5G spectrum landscape and requirements 341
12.2.1 Bandwidth requirements 343
12.3 Spectrum access modes and sharing scenarios 345
12.4 5G spectrum technologies 346
12.4.1 Spectrum toolbox 346
12.4.2 Main technology components 347
12.5 Value of spectrum for 5G: a techno-economic perspective 349
12.6 Conclusions 352
References 353

13 The 5G wireless propagation channel models 357

13.1 Introduction 357
13.2 Modeling requirements and scenarios 358
13.2.1 Channel model requirements 359
13.2.2 Propagation scenarios 361
 Contents xiii

13.3 The METIS channel models 362

13.3.1 Map-based model 363
13.3.2 Stochastic model 371
13.4 Conclusions 379
References 379

14 Simulation methodology 381

14.1 Evaluation methodology 381
14.1.1 Performance indicators 381
14.1.2 Channel simplifications 383
14.2 Calibration 387
14.2.1 Link-level calibration 388
14.2.2 System-level calibration 391
14.3 New challenges in the 5G modeling 392
14.3.1 Real scenarios 393
14.3.2 New waveforms 394
14.3.3 Massive MIMO 395
14.3.4 Higher frequency bands 396
14.3.5 Device-to-device link 396
14.3.6 Moving networks 397
14.4 Conclusions 397
References 398

Index 401
Contributors

Danish Aziz, Alcatel-Lucent (now Nokia)

Kumar Balachandran, Ericsson
Robert Baldemair, Ericsson
Paolo Baracca, Alcatel-Lucent (now Nokia)
Slimane Ben Slimane, KTH – Royal Institute of Technology
Mats Bengtsson, KTH – Royal Institute of Technology
Carsten Bockelmann, University of Bremen
Mauro Renato Boldi, Telecom Italia
Ömer Bulakci, Huawei
Luis Miguel Campoy, Telefonica
Icaro Leonardo da Silva, Ericsson
Jose Mairton B. da Silva Jr., KTH – Royal Institute of Technology
Elisabeth De Carvalho, Aalborg University
Heinz Droste, Deutsche Telekom
Mikael Fallgren, Ericsson
Roberto Fantini, Telecom Italia
Peter Fertl, BMW
Gabor Fodor, Ericsson
David Gozalvez-Serrano, BMW
Katsuyuki Haneda, Aalto University
Jesper Hemming Sorensen, Aalborg University
Andreas Höglund, Ericsson
Dennis Hui, Ericsson
Tommi Jämsä, was with Anite Telecoms, now Huawei
Andreas Klein, University of Kaiserslautern
Konstantinos Koufos, Aalto University
Katsutoshi Kusume, NTT DOCOMO
Pekka Kyösti, Anite Telecoms
Eeva Lähetkangas, Nokia
Florian Lenkeit, University of Bremen
Zexian Li, Nokia
Ji Lianghai, University of Kaiserslautern
David Martin-Sacristan, Universitat Politècnica de València
Random documents with unrelated
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amount of loss through insect injury, and to
Agricultural Colleges. From girlhood to old age she
unceasingly carried on her chosen work of
distribution of useful healthy literature. She asked no
aid, nor made the considerable sums she expended,
and the careful cordial thought she gave to this
work, matter of public notoriety, but in her last
moments it brought a smile to her face when I told
her that I purposed to continue her work.

My father when living near Chester had the first

news on a Sunday morning before church time, of
the Duke of Wellington’s success, and that the battle
of Waterloo had been fought and won. After service
he mounted on a tombstone and announced the
glorious news to the assembled congregation. In my
early days in Gloucestershire, a neighbour, Captain
Fenton, was at times thought to be tedious in his
recurrence to the charge of the Scots Greys in which
he had served, but it was a grand memory all the
same.
In a much humbler sphere and at a different stage
of the same great struggle an interesting part was
played by a very decent woman—afterwards a
servant in our family—at the burial of Sir John Moore
at Corunna. She was proud to remember that she
was one of those who held a lanthorn at the
ceremony alluded to in Wolfe’s poem:—
“We buried him darkly at dead of night
* * * * * *
By the struggling moonbeams’ misty light
And the lanthorn dimly burning.”
 PLATE IX.
Map of the Banks of the Wye.
Sedbury Park Property, the darkly shaded

area between
Severn and Wye.
(pp. 33 and 38.)
 CHAPTER V

SEVERN AND WYE

The locality round which most of the recollections

of nearly half my life centre is in the district of
Gloucestershire, between the Severn and the Wye
(opposite Chepstow in Monmouthshire, plate IX.),
almost at the extremity of the peninsula, sometimes
not inaptly called the “Forest Peninsula,” as some of
the “Hundreds” comprised in the more widely
extended area stretching on to the Forest of Dean
near Newnham, are technically called the “Forest
Hundreds,” although what is commonly thought of
(at the present day) as the Forest of Dean, has long
since ceased to be connected, popularly speaking,
with the lower extremity of the peninsula. This is
bounded on the two sides by the Severn and the
Wye respectively; and at intervals it presents to the
Wye considerable frontage of high cliffs of mountain
limestone, and to the Severn red marl, capped more
or less with lias. It terminates at the junction of the
two rivers in a small area, which is an island at high
water, but accessibly connected with the mainland at
low water. Here, that is on the rocky ground at the
point of confluence of the Wye with the Severn, were
still existing in my time (that is up to 1873) the few
but massive remains of the Hermitage and Chapels,
popularly known collectively as the Chapel of St.
Tecla or Treacle Island (plate X.). The name as given
by William of Worcester in full form is “Capella Sancti
Teriaci Anachoretæ.” He describes the locality
likewise as “The Rok Seynt Tryacle,” but not having
now the opportunity of consulting his observations, I
am not able to say whether the ancient chronicler
gives any reason for the building of this little but
massive knot of buildings, or for its overthrow, which
must have been a somewhat laborious task, and
from the thickness and the solidly built nature of the
walls, one that required co-operation. In the short
account given by my father in “Strigulensia” from
which I borrow some part of these notes, he says, “It
would be vain to attempt identification of the Hermit
whose name is associated with the ruins, and who
does not appear in the calendar of saints, but he
occurs as follows in the “Valor Ecclesiasticus” of Hen.
VIII., vol. ii. p. 501,” “Capella Sancti Triaci valet nihil,
quâ stat in mare et nulla proficua inde proveniunt.”
Whether modern skilled archæologists may have
thrown light on the early history of the anchorite and
his Severn and seaweed-girt chapel I do not know,
but few places could be found less attractive for the
archæeological picnic-excursions which have become
fashionable of late years. Even to my brothers and
myself, accustomed as we were to Severn mud, and
to picking our way fairly safely over and amongst the
coarse brown slippery seaweed fronds (chiefly, if I
remember rightly, the Fucus serratus), the passage
over such parts as were not then submerged was an
exceedingly muddy progress, needing a deal of care
lest we should take a sudden slide into one of the
little rock basins concealed by the “kelp” or other
coarse brown seaweed. But once arrived, it was very
pleasant to sit in the sunshine and enjoy the glorious
view down the Estuary of the Severn, the fresh salt
air blowing round us, or otherwise employ ourselves
to our fancy. From careful measurements we found
the length of the chapel to have been 31 feet 6
inches, the width 14 feet 6 inches, and the thickness
of the walls, wherever sufficient remained for
observation, approximately 3 feet.[17] We had to be
quick in our operations and our return had to be kept
in mind, or we should have had to be fetched off in a
boat, and under all circumstances it was probably
best for the sake of appearances that our walk home
should be as far as possible by the fields or under
the cliffs where minutiæ as to condition of boots,
&c., were unimportant.
The characteristics of the scenery of each of the
rivers are wholly different. The Severn above
Beachley and Aust (in former days the land-points of
the much-used “Old Passage”) spreads into a wide
area of water, perhaps about a mile wide at the
narrowest, and at high tide forming a noble lake-like
expanse. The Wye, on the contrary, as shown in the
map (plate IX.), takes its sinuous and narrow course
between successive promontories, projecting
alternately from the Gloucestershire and
Monmouthshire banks.
 Ruined Anchorite’s Chapel of St. Tecla, on the Chapel Rock
where Severn and Wye meet.

From a sketch by Miss E.A. Ormerod.

(p. 33.)

Severn Cliffs, Sedbury Park.

(p. 40.)

Across some considerable portion of the river a

quarter of a mile or so above Beachley, on the
Gloucestershire side, a rocky ledge of limestone
called “The Lyde” projects at low tide, causing a
backwater of which the steady roar can be heard at
a long distance.[18] Cormorants on the rock, and
conger-eels below it, were regular inhabitants or
visitors—the former presumably attracted by the
latter, which served to some degree also as food to
the fishermen, although pronounced to be “slobbery-
like.”
The muddy colour of the Severn was not in itself
picturesque—at least I have never heard the point
mentioned with admiration; but to me, born as I was
by this noblest of our rivers, it seemed to convey a
comfortable idea of homeliness and strength.
Sometimes, however, in the early morning or in
certain conditions of light, the deep rosy colouring
was almost as if the whole width of water had been
changed to blood; then the effect was very splendid,
and as wonderful still as it must have been in days
long gone by to Queen Boadicea:—
“Still rolls thy crimson flood in glory on
As when of old its deep ensanguined dye
Told to the warrior Queen her falling throne,
Her people’s death, the foemen’s victory.”

But, independently of other considerations, a bend

in the river was of great local service. It formed a
bay of about perhaps three-quarters of a mile across,
bounded to the west by our own and the Beachley
cliffs, and further protected, or endangered, on the
southern side by a low range of rocks running out
into the river. With the rising tide the import shipping
to Gloucester, which in those days was extensive, put
in here to be searched by the Custom House officials.
At that time (excepting tugs) it was entirely
composed of sailing vessels mostly laden with corn,
wine, and timber, and the mixed fleet moving about
in the bay with colours flying was a very lively sight.
In due time they passed on—the three-masters,
ships, and barques, or the graceful chasse-marées,
taking the lead; brigs and schooners following, and
sloops and—if weather permitted—Severn trows
bringing up the rear. These, however, as they
differed very little in formation from canal barges,
required tolerably fair or at least quiet weather to
allow them to proceed in safety. The procession of
shipping came along almost beneath our cliffs, the
deep channel being on that side, and perhaps it was
as well that they were no nearer, or the nautical
remarks might have been more often audible to the
young people than was desirable!
A special convenience to ourselves was a little
creek under the cliffs, called in those parts a “pill”
(presumably from the Welsh pwll or pool), which
allowed of coals being run in a sloop across from
Bristol and carted up to the house by a shorter road
than that from Chepstow.
 FIG. (A).—PUTCHER FOR CATCHING SALMON.

Salmon fishing was carried on partly by nets from

fishing boats, partly by rows of baskets known as
“putts” or “putchers.” The boats during the boat
fishing lay above the edge of the water on the
sloping and slippery frontage of the shore. When the
tide served for fishing, the men went down from the
village above the cliffs to their boats across the flat
and precipitously-edged grass, between the base of
the low cliffs and the sloping shore. Each man
wriggled with might and main at his boat till he
loosened its adhesion to the tenacious mud and
started it on its slide with its bows foremost towards
the water. Once off, of course the pace accelerated;
its owner, running behind, held on and clambered in
as best he could, and the two arrived safely and with
a great jolt on the water. The boats then formed in
line, secured by being tied stern to stern at about a
boat’s length from each other, and presumably
anchored also, but this I do not remember. The net
of each boat was lowered, and nothing further
occurred till a fish was captured; then the net was
lifted, the fish, shining in all the beauty of its silvery
scales, taken out, and the net lowered again. These
were the best fish; those that were caught in the
putts were “drowned” fish, and unless the fishermen
were fairly on the alert to secure them before the
falling tide had left the baskets long uncovered, there
was a very good chance of the eyes being pecked
out or the fish otherwise disfigured by birds.
The putcher or basket fishing was carried on by
means of very open extinguisher-shaped baskets
each long enough to hold, it can hardly be said
accommodate, a good-sized salmon. The frame or
stand on which these baskets were fixed was formed
of two rows of strong poles or upright pieces of
wood, running down the shore, across the narrow of
the river, for many yards, firmly fixed between high
and low tide level, at such a distance as would allow
the baskets to reach from one side to the other.
Horizontal poles or pieces of wood connected the
upright poles, and to these horizontal supports the
baskets were attached, so as to form rows with the
open ends of the extinguishers facing up stream and
all ranged one storey above the other. The fish were
drifted into the basket trap, and of course, though
they might injure themselves in their struggles, and
to some degree their market value, they were
powerless to effect their escape and withdraw
backward against the set of the tide.[19]
The much larger form of basket described by Mr.
Buckland as “putts,” and as being used for catching
flat fish, was of a slightly different make—formed
only of two instead of three pieces; one large piece,
so wide at the opening that I, as a girl, had no
difficulty in standing within it, and a very much
smaller piece, forming a kind of nose. This little
adjunct was, I believe, taken off and searched by the
fishermen for what it contained. To my sister
Georgiana and myself it was a great pleasure to go
down to where the two great eel-putts stood on
clean shore at very low tide below the longest row of
salmon-putchers, and search for anything that was
to be found. My sister was a good conchologist. We
searched for seaweed, &c., &c., and thereby got a
deal of pleasant amusement. The fishermen, who
knew us well, made no objection to our
investigations, though, as one of the men remarked
on one occasion, “It was not everybody they liked to
see near the putts.”
 In our immediate neighbourhood the fishermen
were quiet—at least I never heard of their getting
into very objectionable difficulties—but about eight
miles higher up the river, near Lydney, things in this
respect were by no means all that could be wished.
On one occasion they captured the Fishery Inspector
himself—whose duty it was to ascertain that the
meshes were not below a certain measurement—and
secured him in the nets. Another time somebody
(who, unluckily for him, bore some resemblance to
the obnoxious inspector) got nearly sloughed up in
one of the great marsh ditches, and would have
been left to live or die as might chance—probably
the latter—but for the arrival of timely help. My
father being one of the acting magistrates of the
district, we used to hear from time to time of these
and other “mauvaises plaisanteries” in the
neighbourhood of the Forest of Dean.

On reference to the portion of the Ordnance Map

(plate IX.) it will be seen that there is a broad band
marked “mud,” of about a sixth of a mile in width at
the widest part and extending for about a mile and a
half by the side of the deep channel of the Severn,
between it and the cliffs of the Beachley and Sedbury
Bay.
 The most remarkable capture of which I have any
recollection as taking place in the waters, or rather in
the mud of the Severn, was said to be a “Bottle-
nosed whale,” or Dolphin, Delphinus tursio, Fabr., but
it was so many decades of years ago, that I have no
means now of turning to any record for verification
of the species. The capture itself excited a deal of
local interest. It was on a summer morning that one
of my brothers, enlivening his vacation studies, as
was his custom, by watching through his telescope
anything of interest that might be going on amongst
the shipping or elsewhere, saw something like an
enormous fish struggling and “flopping” on the
Beachley pier of the old Passage Ferry. As a matter
of course, we young folks set off after luncheon to
have our share of the sight, and found the creature
had been captured when lying helpless, or half dead,
in the mud at the Aust side of the Ferry, and had
been towed across behind a boat. At this distance of
time I only remember the whale- or dolphin-like
shape of the animal, its great size, and that it was
apparently of a greyish colour; but this item might
very likely be from its being coated with Severn mud.
In Bell’s “British Quadrupeds” the greatest length
recorded of various specimens found in England is 12
feet. The colour of the back is black, with a purplish
tinge, becoming dusky on the sides, and dirty white
on the belly. This species is considered rare in
England and it is of some interest, in referring to the
locality of what may be called our own capture, that
“The first account which we have of its appearance
on our own shores is that of John Hunter,” and it was
taken with its young one “on the sea coast near
Berkeley”; that is about two or three miles higher up
the left bank of the Severn than the Aust Cliffs.
Another specimen was found in the river Dart in
Devonshire, and, it was stated, “was killed with
difficulty, the poor animal having suffered for four
hours the attacks of eight men armed with spears
and two guns, and assisted by dogs. When wounded
it made a noise like the bellowing of a bull.”[20] In the
case of the Old Passage specimen the poor creature
was also most barbarously treated, chiefly by being
attacked by the running of hay forks, pitch forks, and
the like, into its body, and I remember a good deal of
chopping with hatchets or axes, but it was quite
quiet and, it was to be hoped, was past feeling pain.
Immense popular interest, of course, was excited as
to the precise nature of the unusual “take,” as to
whether it was a Leviathan, or possibly the kind of
fish that swallowed Jonah—but the affair ended by
the creature being shipped off to Bristol to be turned
into a little money for the boatmen who secured it,
and no other cetacean was taken during the
remainder of the years in which Sedbury was my
home.

The most observable of the seaweeds, which grew

on the rocks or large stones, more or less in the
muddy salt water between tide levels at the mouth
of the Severn, were of the genus Fucus, which at
one time was much used in the making of kelp. The
ornamental kinds always appeared to me to be
unaccountably absent. They were not to be expected
to make this place their habitat, but, still, their
almost total absence in the masses of drift matter
left by the retiring tide struck me as curious. In my
most successful searches I do not remember ever
being fortunate enough to secure even a fragment of
the lovely Oak-leaf, Delesseria, with its bright, rosy-
veined leaves from as much as 4 inches to 8 inches
in length placed along their cylindrical stem, or the
Peacock seaweed, Padina pavonea, with its
concentric markings. Of Iceland Moss there might be
a battered morsel. The general composition of the
driftage was composed of little except what might be
grown in the neighbourhood, mixed with sugar cane
or packing material thrown from the vessels. This,
however, seemed to me of some interest in
connection with the set of the currents. Here,
however, I am out of my element, but as my brother
Dr. Ormerod employed me as a collector, I am not
personally responsible.
The distinct varieties of soil, and also the
geographical and the geological surroundings of
Sedbury, were unusually favourable to natural history
investigations, whether of fauna and flora of the
present day, or of fossil remains of saurians and
shells. These were easily accessible as they fell from
the frontage of lias, or the narrow horizontal strip in
the cliffs (plate IX.) facing the Severn, well known to
the geologists as the “bone bed.” At the highest part
the cliffs were about 140 feet, calculating from
medium tide level. There the face had been quarried
back for a supply of lias limestone, used in enlarging
the offices of the house, and in so doing had laid
bare a fine bed of so-called “Venus” shells. We used
to find beautiful specimens of those shells,
irrespective of this extra fine deposit, and also of
“patens,” oysters of some kind, which we sought for
unweariedly, hammer in hand. The greatest matters
of interest, however, were the saurian, or the fish
remains, of which we sometimes found a plentiful
supply of specimens of little value, and now and then
some of considerable interest.
 PLATE XI.
Roman Pottery, found in Sedbury Park.
From a drawing by Miss E. A. Ormerod.
(p. 18.)
 Saurian from the Lias, Sedbury Cliffs.
(p. 41.)

The Sedbury cliffs lie nearly north of the Aust cliff,

and contain the Aust bone bed, from which the
Severn, about a mile wide, or somewhat more, there
divides them. Geologically, in all important
characteristics, I believe the two cliffs correspond. Of
this bone bed it is noted by Sir Charles Lyell[21]: “In
England the Lias is succeeded by conformable strata
of red and green marl or clay. There intervenes,
however, both in the neighbourhood of Exmouth, in
Devonshire, and in the cliffs of Westbury and Aust, in
Gloucestershire, on the banks of the Severn, a dark-
coloured stratum, well known by the name of the
‘bone bed.’ It abounds in the remains of saurians and
fish, and was formerly classed as the lowest bed of
Lias; but Sir P. Egerton has shown that it should be
referred to as the Upper New Red Sandstone.” The
reasons given are not of interest to the general
reader. From the fallen débris of this we collected
vertebræ, single, or sometimes a few in connection,
also bones of the paddles, and any amount of teeth,
also coprolites, the excrementitious matter of the
living owners of the bones. These were in great
quantity, but I never remember that they were other
than irregular lumps, and though some of us were
much given to grinding and polishing stones that
afforded hope of an ornamental result, it never
occurred to us to exercise our talents on these
lumps, which might have indicated in their
undigested contents some evidence of the diet of
their consumers.
The only valuable or interesting specimen of
Saurian remains (that is of an animal in moderate
degree of entirety) fell from the cliffs after I had
ceased to reside there. This was a slab of Lias about
3 feet long by 2 feet broad, and about 7 to 9 inches
thick (plate XI.) The history of its fall, as given to me
in a letter from Dr. John Yeats, F.R.G.S., then residing
at Chepstow, dated September, 1882, was, that
“From one of the ledges, or from the top of a slip or
subsidence, a fir tree was blown down during the
autumn of 1882.... The fossil was found beneath the
roots,” and “the fossil remains were laid bare by a
conchoidal fracture.” A few detached vertebræ were
collected, but unfortunately no part of the head was
secured. Of this specimen Professor Richard Owen
was good enough to report to Dr. Yeats on the 24th
of May, 1883, as follows: “From the concavity of the
articular surfaces of the vertebræ, I infer it to be part
of an ichthyosaurus, and the number and character
of the ribs agree with that deduction. If any part of
the jaws or teeth should be found near the locality it
would decide the matter.”
This fossil is now in the possession of Sir William
H. Marling, at Sedbury.
The surface of the cliffs was of a very mixed
nature, with ledges of stone projecting slightly in
places, and from the effect of weathering, landslips,
leading at times to inconvenience, were not
infrequent. As we knew the nature of the ground we
were careful about going near the edge of the top of
the cliff, where a precipice or a crack showed danger,
but it happened more than once that a bullock or
calf, attracted by food to be found amongst the trees
or bushes which in some places clothed the slanting
upper part, was tempted beyond safe footing, and
toppled down to the bottom to its own destruction.
On one occasion, on returning from a walk, my sister
Georgiana and I, not having noticed a fall from the
cliffs, were cut off by one of these slips from any
comfortable advance. It was not a case of danger,
but a choice between much wet and dirt from Severn
mud, or very considerable discomfort of another sort,
as the slip had brought down with it brambles, &c.,
&c., most unpleasant to brave for the sake of
dryness. We preferred the wet passage, feeling our
way with our feet through the muddy water from one
good-sized stone to another, and presently arrived
safely above the high-tide level, but to those who did
not know that beneath the muddy surface there was
a sound footing if sought for, the little episode might
have been unpleasant.
 PLATE XII.
Royal Mail starting from Old General Post Office, London.
Original lent by Arthur Ackermann & Son, 191, Regent Street, W.
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