Assessment in Learning 1

I. Preliminary Concepts and Recent Trends

A. What is educational Assessment

1. Basic Principles
Educational assessment typically follows several fundamental principles, including:
Validity: The assessment measures what it is intended to measure.
Reliability: The assessment consistently yields the same results under similar conditions.
Fairness: The assessment is free from bias and provides all students with an equal opportunity to
demonstrate their abilities.
Utility: The assessment provides useful information that can inform decision-making.

2. Types of Assessment

- Assessment for Learning

Also known as formative assessment, this type is conducted during the learning process. The goal is to
monitor student learning and provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve
their teaching and by students to improve their learning.

- Assessment as Learning
This type involves students in the process of self-assessment, encouraging them to reflect on their
learning and identify areas for improvement. It promotes a deeper understanding of the subject matter
and helps students develop critical thinking skills.

- Assessment of Learning
Also known as summative assessment, this type is typically administered at the end of a course or unit.
The goal is to evaluate student learning by comparing it against a standard or benchmark. Examples
include final exams, standardized tests, and end-of-term projects.

3. Users of Educational Assessment

Different stakeholders use educational assessments for various purposes, including:
Students: To understand their progress and identify areas where they need to improve.
Teachers: To modify instruction and provide targeted support to students.
Parents: To gauge their child's academic performance and development.
Administrators: To make decisions about curriculum, instruction, and resource allocation.
Policy Makers: To inform educational policy and practice at the school, district, or national level.

B. Common Terminologies

1. Measurement
Measurement refers to the process of quantifying an individual's knowledge, skills, attitudes, or
other attributes. It involves assigning numerical values to these attributes using various instruments or
tools, such as tests, surveys, or observations.

2. Testing
Testing is the administration of specific tasks or questions designed to measure an individual's
performance in a particular area. Here are two key types:

- Standardized Testing
Standardized tests are designed to be administered and scored consistently across all
test-takers. They are used to compare the performance of individuals or groups against a
predetermined standard or norm. Examples include the SAT, ACT, and GRE.
- High Stakes Testing
High stakes tests are assessments that carry significant consequences for students,
teachers, or schools. The results of these tests are often used to make critical decisions, such as
student promotion or graduation, teacher evaluation, and school funding.

3. Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of interpreting assessment data to make informed judgments about
the quality, effectiveness, or value of a program, course, or individual performance. It involves
analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data to draw conclusions and make recommendations.
4. Assessment "FOR," "OF," and "AS" Learning
These approaches to assessment highlight different purposes and roles in the learning process:
- Assessment for Learning
(Formative Assessment): Conducted during the learning process to provide feedback and guide
instruction.
- Assessment of Learning
(Summative Assessment): Conducted at the end of a learning period to evaluate student learning
against a standard or benchmark.
- Assessment as Learning
(Reflective Assessment): Involves students in self-assessment and reflection to enhance their
understanding and learning.

5. Types and Distinctions of Tests

Tests can be classified based on various criteria:

Formative vs. Summative Tests:

Formative Tests: Used to monitor learning progress and provide ongoing feedback.
Summative Tests: Used to evaluate learning outcomes at the end of an instructional period.

Criterion-Referenced vs. Norm-Referenced Tests:

Criterion-Referenced Tests: Measure student performance against a fixed set of criteria or learning
standards.
Norm-Referenced Tests: Compare student performance to that of a norm group, representing a
larger population.

Objective vs. Subjective Tests:

Objective Tests: Include questions with clear, correct answers (e.g., multiple-choice, true/false).
Subjective Tests: Include questions that require interpretation and judgment in scoring (e.g., essays,
open-ended questions).

C. High Quality Assessment Components

High-quality assessments are crucial to ensure that the evaluation process is effective, reliable,
and meaningful. Let's break down each of the components you mentioned:
Clear Purpose: The assessment should have a well-defined purpose, clearly outlining what it aims to
achieve. This ensures that the goals of the assessment are transparent and aligned with the intended
outcomes.
Clear and Appropriate Targets: The targets or objectives of the assessment must be specific,
measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). This helps in focusing the assessment on
key areas and ensures that the targets are aligned with the overall goals.
Appropriate Methods: The assessment methods should be suitable for the purpose and targets of the
assessment. This involves selecting the right tools and techniques to collect and analyze data, ensuring
that they are valid and reliable.
Adequate Sampling: The sampling process should be robust enough to represent the population
being assessed accurately. This involves selecting an appropriate sample size and ensuring that the
sample is representative of the larger group.
Objectivity: The assessment should be free from bias and subjectivity. This means using standardized
procedures and criteria to ensure that the evaluation is fair and impartial.
Incorporating these components helps in creating assessments that are effective, reliable, and
meaningful, leading to more accurate and actionable results.

D. Recent Trends and Focus

1. Accountability and Fairness

Description: This trend emphasizes holding educators and institutions accountable for students'
learning outcomes while ensuring fair and equitable treatment for all students.
Focus Areas:
Performance Metrics: Using standardized tests and other metrics to assess the effectiveness of
teachers and schools.
Equity: Ensuring all students, regardless of background, have access to high-quality education.
Transparency: Making educational outcomes and processes clear and accessible to stakeholders.

2. Standards-Based Education
Description: This approach centers on teaching and assessing students based on defined
learning standards.
 Focus Areas:
Curriculum Alignment: Aligning curricula with state or national standards.
Clear Expectations: Setting clear and measurable goals for student learning.
Assessment: Using assessments to determine whether students meet the established standards.

3. Outcome-Based Education (OBE)

Description: OBE focuses on what students are expected to achieve by the end of their
education and designs curricula and assessments to ensure these outcomes are met.
Focus Areas:
Student-Centered Learning: Tailoring instruction to meet the needs and learning styles of
individual students.
Competency: Ensuring students master specific skills and knowledge before progressing.
Flexibility: Adapting teaching methods and assessments to help all students succeed.

4. Item Response Theory (IRT)

Description: IRT is a modern approach to designing, analyzing, and scoring tests. It focuses on
the relationship between a student's latent ability and their item responses.
Focus Areas:
Adaptive Testing: Using IRT to create tests that adjust in difficulty based on the student's
responses.
Precision: Improving the accuracy and reliability of test scores.
Fairness: Ensuring that test items are equally valid for all test-takers, regardless of their
backgrounds.

II. Shift of Educational Focus from Content to Learning outcomes

A. Outcome-Based Education: Matching Intentions with Accomplishments

Outcome-Based Education (OBE) is an educational approach that focuses on what students are
expected to achieve at the end of their learning experience. It emphasizes setting clear objectives
(outcomes) for students and designing the curriculum, instruction, and assessment to ensure these
outcomes are met. The key principle is aligning teaching methods and evaluation processes with the
desired learning outcomes.

B. The Outcomes of Education

Outcomes of education refer to the specific skills, knowledge, attitudes, and competencies that
students are expected to acquire as a result of their educational experiences. These outcomes can be
categorized into different levels, such as cognitive (knowledge and understanding), psychomotor
(skills), and affective (attitudes and values). Measuring these outcomes helps educators understand the
effectiveness of their teaching methods and make necessary adjustments to improve student learning.

C. Institutional, Program, Course, and Learning Outcomes

Institutional Outcomes: These are broad goals that reflect the mission and vision of an
educational institution. They encompass the overall educational aims and values the institution wants
to instill in its students.
Program Outcomes: These are specific objectives related to a particular academic program or
discipline. They describe what graduates of a program should know, be able to do, and value by the
time they complete the program.
Course Outcomes: These are detailed objectives for individual courses within a program. They
outline the specific skills, knowledge, and attitudes students should develop by the end of the course.
Learning Outcomes: These are the actual results of the education process, reflecting what
students have learned and can demonstrate. Learning outcomes are typically assessed through various
evaluation methods, such as exams, projects, presentations, and practical activities.
These components work together to create a coherent and aligned educational experience, ensuring
that students achieve the intended outcomes at each level of their education.

III. Program Outcomes

A. Program Outcomes and Student Learning Outcomes

Program Outcomes are the specific objectives that a program aims to achieve. These describe
what graduates of a program should know, be able to do, and value upon completion. They are usually
broader and align with the mission and vision of the institution. Student Learning Outcomes are the
specific results of the education process that reflect what students have learned and can demonstrate.
They are usually more detailed and measurable, focusing on what students should achieve by the end
of a course or program.
B. Program Outcomes for Teacher Education
In Teacher Education, program outcomes typically focus on equipping future educators with the
necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to effectively teach and inspire students. These outcomes
often include:
Mastery of subject matter content.
Understanding of educational theories and practices.
Ability to design and implement effective lesson plans.
Skills in classroom management and student assessment.
Commitment to continuous professional development and ethical practice.
C. The Three Types of Learning
The three main types of learning are:
Cognitive Learning: Involves mental skills and the acquisition of knowledge.
Psychomotor Learning: Involves physical skills and the development of motor abilities.
Affective Learning: Involves attitudes, values, and feelings.

D. Domain 1: Cognitive (Knowledge)

The cognitive domain focuses on intellectual skills and knowledge acquisition. It includes various
levels of cognitive processes, such as:
Remembering: Recalling facts and basic concepts.
Understanding: Explaining ideas and concepts.
Applying: Using information in new situations.
Analyzing: Breaking information into parts to explore relationships.
Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards.
Creating: Combining elements to form a new, coherent whole or original product.

E. Domain II: Psychomotor (Skills)

The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination, and motor skills. It
includes:
Perception: Using sensory cues to guide motor activity.
Set: Readiness to act.
Guided Response: Early stages of learning a complex skill.
Mechanism: Intermediate stages of learning.
Complex Overt Response: Skillful performance of complex movements.
Adaptation: Modifying movements to fit new situations.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns.

F. Domain III: Affective (Attitude)

The affective domain focuses on attitudes, values, and emotions. It includes:
Receiving: Awareness and willingness to hear.
Responding: Active participation and reaction.
Valuing: Understanding and expressing the worth or value of something.
Organizing: Integrating values into one's belief system.
Characterizing: Acting consistently according to the values internalized.

G. Kendall’s and Marzano’s New Taxonomy

Kendall’s and Marzano’s New Taxonomy is a framework for categorizing educational objectives
and learning outcomes. It offers a comprehensive approach to understanding and improving
educational processes. The taxonomy includes:
Self-System: Motivation and personal beliefs.
Metacognitive System: Planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning processes.
Cognitive System: Knowledge acquisition and processing.
Knowledge Domain: Specific content knowledge and skills.

Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical model used to classify educational learning objectives into levels
of complexity and specificity. It was first introduced by Benjamin Bloom in 1956 and has since become
a widely-used framework in education. The taxonomy consists of six levels, which are often depicted as
a pyramid, with the simplest cognitive processes at the bottom and the most complex at the top. Here's
an overview:
Remembering: Recalling facts and basic concepts. This is the foundational level of learning,
involving memory and recognition.
Example: List the steps of the scientific method.
 Understanding: Comprehending the meaning of information. This involves interpreting,
summarizing, and explaining concepts.
Example: Explain the main ideas of a given topic.
Applying: Using knowledge in new situations. This level involves implementing learned material
in practical contexts.
Example: Solve a mathematical problem using a specific formula.
Analyzing: Breaking down information into parts and examining relationships. This level
includes comparing, contrasting, and identifying patterns.
Example: Analyze the themes and motifs in a piece of literature.
Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards. This involves assessing the
value or effectiveness of information, methods, or arguments.
Example: Evaluate the validity of an argument in a debate.
Creating: Combining elements to form a new, coherent whole or original product. This is the
highest level of cognitive processes, involving synthesis and innovation.
Example: Design a scientific experiment to test a hypothesis.

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy

In 2001, Bloom's Taxonomy was revised by a group of cognitive psychologists, led by Lorin
Anderson and David Krathwohl. The revised taxonomy updated the terminology and reorganized the
levels as follows:
Remembering (same)

Level Description Example

List the steps of the scientific
Remembering Recalling facts and basic concepts.
method.
Explain the main ideas of a given
Understanding Comprehending the meaning of information.
topic.
Solve a mathematical problem using
Applying Using knowledge in new situations.
a formula.
Breaking down information into parts and Analyze the themes in a piece of
Analyzing
examining relationships. literature.
Making judgments based on criteria and Evaluate the validity of an
Evaluating
standards. argument.
Combining elements to form a new, coherent Design a scientific experiment to
Creating
whole or original product. test a hypothesis.