Kinship I

ANTHROPOLOGY

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Kinship I

Definition
John Lewis's definition of kinship as “ Kinship is the social recognition and expression of genealogical
relationships. It is not only actual but may also be based on supposed ties of blood”.

Explanation: Social recognition- Society recognizes a woman as your mother

Expression- You call her mother

Genealogical - Family

Supposed ties of blood - Ex. Gotra

Abercombie’s definition is “ Social relationships deriving from blood ties(real and supposed) and marriage
are collectively referred to as kinship.”

Hence, Kinship is a web of social relationships through which an individual is associated with other individuals
in the society.

Note: Important terms

 Kin group - a group of relatives.

 Kinsmen - members of the kin group

 Agnates - Paternal kinsmen related from the father’s lineage.

 Uterine- Maternal kinsmen related from the father’s lineage.

 Cognates - A system of bilateral kinship where relations are traced through both father and mother.

Consanguinity and Affinity

Consanguineal kinship
Kinship based on blood relations is called Consanguineal kinship. Ex. Mother, Father, Son, Daughter,
Brother, Sister, etc.
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Affinal kinship
Kinship based on relations by marriage is called Affinal kinship. Ex. Husband, Wife, Father-in-law, Mother-in-
law, etc.

Types of Kin
Depending on the closeness of relations, the types of kin are:

 Primary Kin: They can be either consanguineal or affinal. These are the kins to which one is directly related.
Ex. Mother, Father, Brother, Sister, Husband, Wife, Son, Daughter.

 Secondary Kin: They can be either consanguineal or affinal. They are the primary kin of one’s primary kin.
Ex. Grandfather, Grandmother, Brother’s wife, Sister’s Husband, Fathe-in-law, etc.

 Tertiary Kin: They can be either consanguineal or affinal. They are the secondary kin of one’s primary kin
or primary kin of one’s secondary kin. Ex. Cousins, Wife’s sister’s husband, Great-Grandfather, etc.

Depending on the line of descent, kins can be divided into

 Lineal Kins: These are kins who share a common and direct ancestor with each other. Ex. Father-Son.

 Collateral Kins: These are kins who descend from a common ancestor but are not in a direct line. Ex. Uncle-
Neice; Cousins etc.

 Kindred: A collection of both consanguineal and affinal kins of an individual is called kindred.

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 Kindred are frequently described as "ego-centered" or "ego-focused" groups due to the fact that
the ego (i.e. the individual viewing the group) is placed at the group's center.

 The definition of kindred can never be the same for any two people, with the exception of siblings
(brothers and sisters).

 For example, Ego's father's relatives include the father's grandparents and cousins who are
too far away for Ego to know.

 Therefore, the kindred is not comprised of individuals who have a common ancestor but
rather of individuals who share a common relative (i.e. ego).

 Due to the dynamic nature of its members, kindred is ephemeral.

Source: Anthropology Simplified bu Dr. Vivek Bhasme

Importance of Kinship
 Regulation of marriage

 Economic function - economic dependence. Kinship also provides livelihood. Ex. Nepotism.

 Political function- resolution of disputes by heads of lineage or clan.

 In tough times, kin groups provide emotional support.

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 Religious function - the celebration of festivities, worship, religious feasts, etc.

 Continuity of traditional cultural values and occupational knowledge.

 Socialization of children and orderly transfer of property.

 Kinship is an integral part of social organization.

Principles and types of descent (Unilineal, Double,

Bilateral Ambilineal)
Kinship is based on relationship through blood and marriage. Whereas, Descent is based on blood
relationships only.

Rules of descent are the set of rules that relate an individual with a particular set of kin based on their
supposed common ancestors.

 Need for rules of descent: Humans are social beings living in groups and have cultural needs. One of
them is the transfer of rights and responsibilities pertaining to the acquisition, division, and transfer of
property. Random distribution can result in unequal distribution and chaos. To avoid this, we require
specific rules of descent.

Principles of descent
 Descent traces its origin to persons who were ancestors.

 These ancestors may be real or mythical.

 Descent thus is a genealogical concept /family concept.

 Descent is a particular pattern of inheritance

Types of descent
 Unilineal descent

 Patrilineal descent: Only the male line is used to determine descent; the female line is
disregarded.

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 Matrilineal descent: Only the female line is used to determine descent; the male line is
disregarded.

Difference between Patrilienal descent social structure and Matrilineal descent social structure

Factors Patrilineal Social Structure Matrilineal Social Structure

Principle Interest Men Men and Women

Dominant Roles Father, Son and Father’s brother Mother’s brother, Mother and Daughter

Authority in the family Father Mother’s brother

Wives of male members; reproduce Sisters of male members; reproduce

Role of women
unilineal groups unilineal groups

The husband acquires the right to sexual

Husband gains right over sexual,
and domestic services but not to
Rights over female spouse reproductive and domestic services
reproductive services because this right is
of his wife
reserved for the matrilineal group.

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After marriage, the wife’s

Transfer of membership from natal No change in man’s membership in his
membership is transferred from her
families natal descent group after marriage
natal group to her husband’s group.

Residence Patrilocality Matrilocality/Natalocality/ Avuncolocality

 Cognatic/Non-Unilineal descent: In Cognatic descent, both fathers’ and mothers’ lineage is used to some
degree in order to trace kinship. Cognatic descent occurs in 5 forms-

 Bilineal descent/ Double descent: It is a system in which descent is traced matrilineally for some
purposes and patrilineally for others i.e. some resources are transmitted through the mother’s
lineage and others through the fathers’ lineage.

 In the Herero tribe, material property is transferred matrilineally while religious functions
are transferred patrilineally.

 Among the Yako of Nigeria, land is inherited through patrilineage, while movable property
such as cattle is inherited through matrilineage.

 Observations:

 Parents and the children to whom they transfer their property to, are not fixed
(i.e. Can transfer to both son and daughter)

 Only the type of property is fixed.

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 Bilateral descent: In Eriksen’s and Murdock’s terms, Bilateral refers to a social system in which
kinship ties are traced equally through both the maternal and paternal lines.

 Found in western industrialized societies.

 Observations:

 Parents and the children to whom they transfer their property to, are not fixed

 Type of property is not fixed.

 Parallel descent: In this type of descent, men transmit membership and resources to their sons
while women transmit to their daughters.

 The only existing example of this type of descent was the Saha tribe in the Caribbean Coast
of Columbia. They were studied by Jane Safer.

 Observations:

 Parents and the children to whom they transfer their property to, are fixed.

 Type of property is not fixed.

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 Crossing descent: In this type of descent, men transmit membership and resources to their
daughters while women transmit to their sons.

 Observations:

 Parents and the children to whom they transfer their property to, are fixed.

 Type of property is not fixed.

 Ambilineal descent: Individuals are free to trace descent from any line of parentage. Ambilineal
descent groups are also called Ramages.

 People are given the option to join a group at some stage of their lives.

 Access to food and shelter, political stability, and interpersonal relationships among
relatives all have a role in determining which ramage to select. A guy who marries into a
political or wealthy family may choose to have his offspring to be identified with their
mother's family line.

 Individuals have the option of joining a husband's or wife's group instead of one of those
traced through their natal families.

 Depending on the circumstances, a family can be patrilineal in one generation and

matrilineal in the next generation.

 Ambilineal groupings are frequently observed on islands, particularly in Oceania, where the
arable ground is scarce. Ex. Samoans of West Pacific.

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 Ego has chosen to join his father's ramage & Ego's brother has decided to join his mother's
group.

A society's social and cultural requirements will determine its rules of descent. They are governed by:

 Economic factors

 Contribution to the family economy: In communities where the nature of production is the same
for both sexes, descent is traced through the line of the sexes that contributes the most to the
family. For Ex. food-gathering societies may be patrilineal or matrilineal.

 Prestige of profession: For civilizations that place a higher emphasis on the status associated with
a career than its actual productivity, the descent is traced through the line of the sex engaged in
that profession. Ex. Hunter-gatherer societies are thus patrilineal.

 Division of labor: Parallel descent is the norm in societies with a strong gender-based division of
labour; otherwise, double descent is used.

 Political factors: In societies where men are absent from their homes for extended periods, women are
responsible for maintaining social order. These societies adhere to matrilineal descent. Ex. Nayars of
Kerala

 Demographic factors: It is possible that ambilineal descent would emerge in the event of a natural
disaster that wiped away the majority of the population but had no effect on the available resources. Ex.
British Columbians.

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Forms of descent groups (lineage, clan, phratry,

moiety, and kindred)
The term "descend group" refers to any social group whose membership is based on actual or presumed
descent from a common ancestor.

According to G.P. Murdock, a Descent Group is a consanguineal group having the following features:

 Members of a descent group trace their ancestry to a single individual who lived in the past.

 Members of a descent group are linked together via blood ties.

 Since all members of the descent group share a common ancestor, marriage and sexual activity are
prohibited among them. In simple words, these are exogamous groups.

 Members of a descent group have succession and inheritance rights.

The various forms of descent groups are

Lineage
 It is a group of people who link themselves to a common ancestor.

 This common ancestor is real and is known to have existed.

 They practice strict exogamy.

 It includes around 5 to 10 generations of members who can be accurately traced.

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 In India, it is called “Vansh”.

Clan
 Many lineages combine to form a clan.

 It is an exogamous group.

 In a clan, a person assumes that he has descended from an ancestor but can't establish the exact source of
origin, as the ancestor may be real or imaginary.

 The ancestor may be

 Human

 Human-like

 Animal

 Plant

 Inanimate object

 When this "ancestor" is not human, it is called a totem, which is typically an animal.

 In India, a clan is called “Gotra”.

 Clans can be classified into 3 main types:

 Territorially Organised Clans

 One territory, One Clan.

 The concept of village exogamy(seen in North India) came from this.

 Ex. Nagas of Meghalaya.

 Totemic Clans

 When the presumed "ancestor" is not human, it is called a totem.

 Ex. Murias of Bastar district in Chhattisgarh are divided into four clans on a totemic basis
associated with totems in goats, tigers, etc.

 Wiradjuri of New South Wales (Australia)

 Clans known by nicknames: These are mostly found among the Australian tribes & The crow-
Indians of America.

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Phratries
 Several similar clans combined together is called “Phratry”.

 Members of a Phratry believe to have a common ancestor.

 Phratries in Sanskrit are called BHRATRA SAMUH meaning a group of brothers and their descendants.

Moieties
 Many Phratries combine to form a Moiety.

 Moieties Sanskrit word is ARDHANSH (half). It is half of the tribe. If a tribe is divided into only 2 groups
then that group is called moieties.

 A society where Moieties are found is called a Dual Organization society. Some examples are:

 Garo Tribe

 The whole tribe is divided into two exogamous moities. In Garo language moiety is called
chatchi. The first chatchi is known as sangama and the second one marak.

 Miwok Red Indians of California, USA

 Seneca Red Indians, USA

 There are two moieties of Seneca red Indians in the United States. Each moiety has four
clans. Clans in the first moiety are named after strong animals such as Bear, Wolf, Turtle,
and Beaver, whereas clans in the second moiety are named after weak animals such as
Dear, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk.

Kindred
A collection of both consanguineal and affinal kins of an individual is called kindred.

 Kindred are frequently described as "ego-centered" or "ego-focused" groups due to the fact that the ego
(i.e. the individual viewing the group) is placed at the group's center.

 The definition of kindred can never be the same for any two people, with the exception of siblings
(brothers and sisters).

 For example, Ego's father's relatives include the father's grandparents and cousins who are too far
away for Ego to know.

 Therefore, the kindred is not comprised of individuals who have a common ancestor but rather of
individuals who share a common relative (i.e. ego).

 Due to the dynamic nature of its members, kindred is ephemeral.

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Difference between Descent/Kin group and Kindred

Kin Group Kindred

Relations are based on common ancestor Relations are based on ego, who is a common relative.

Cancellation of membership is not possible. Hence it is a

Membership can be canceled (ephemeral)
permanent group.

Membership is based on consanguinity (descent) Membership is based on both consanguinity and affinity.

Not possible to change the composition of the Kin group Possible to change the composition of Kindred

May be Patrilineal or Matrilineal It is Bilateral

Genealogical distance is not a factor for the inclusion or Genealogical distance is a major factor for the inclusion or
exclusion of an individual. exclusion of an individual.

Always exogamous Exogamous/Endogamous

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