Classical Physics for Engineers

Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)

Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Content:
Fundamentals of Thermodynamics: Introduction to
thermodynamics: Quasi – static process. Zeroth law of
thermodynamics, Liquid, gas, resistance thermometers. Joule’s
experiment (equivalence between heat and work), Numerical
problems.
First law of thermodynamics, work done in thermodynamic quasi
static processes, Isothermal process, adiabatic process and cyclic
process, Application of first law of thermodynamics for both closed
system and Steady State System. Numerical problems.

Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with the
relations among heat, work and properties of system which are in
equilibrium. It describes state and changes in state of physical
systems.

System:
A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space which is selected for the study.

Surroundings:

The mass or region outside the system is called surroundings.

Boundary:

The real or imaginary surfaces which separates the system and

surroundings is called boundary. The real or imaginary surfaces
which separates the system and surroundings is called boundary.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics

Types of thermodynamic system

On the basis of mass and energy transfer the thermodynamic
system is divided into three types.
1. Closed system
2. Open system
3. Isolated system

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Closed system: A system in which the transfer of energy but not
mass can take place across the boundary is called closed system. The
mass inside the closed system remains constant.

For example: Boiling of water in a closed vessel. Since the water is

boiled in closed vessel so the mass of water cannot escape out of the
boundary of the system but heat energy continuously entering and
leaving the boundary of the vessel. It is an example of closed
system.
Open system: A system in which the transfer of both mass and
energy takes place is called an open system. This system is also
known as control volume.
For example: Boiling of water in an open vessel is an example of
open system because the water and heat energy both enters and
leaves the boundary of the vessel.
Isolated system: A system in which the transfer of mass and energy
cannot takes place is called an isolated system. For example: Tea
present in a thermos flask. In this the heat and the mass of the tea
cannot cross the boundary of the thermos flask. Hence the thermos
flak is an isolated system.

Control Volume:
 It’s a system of fixed volume.
 This type of system is usually referred to as "open system” or a
"control volume"
 Mass transfer can take place across a control volume.
 Energy transfer may also occur into or out of the system.
 Control Surface- It’s the boundary of a control volume across
which the transfer of both mass and energy occur.
 The mass of a control volume (open system) may or may not be
fixed.

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
 When the net influx of mass across the control surface equals
zero then the mass ofthe system is fixed and vice-versa.
 The identity of mass in a control volume always changes unlike
the case for a controlmass system (closed system).
 Most of the engineering devices, in general, represent an open
system or control volume.

Example:
Heat exchanger - Fluid enters and leaves the system continuously
with the transfer of heat across the system boundary.
Pump - A continuous flow of fluid takes place through the system
with a transfer of mechanical energy from the surroundings to the
system.
Microscopic View or Study:
 The approach considers that the system is made up of a very
large number of discrete particles known as molecules. These
molecules have different velocities are energies. The values of
these energies are constantly changing with time. This approach to
thermodynamics, which is concerned directly with the structure of
the matter, is known as statistical thermodynamics.
 The behavior of the system is found by using statistical
methods, as the number of molecules is very large. So advanced
statistical and mathematical methods are needed to explain the

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
changes in the system.
 The properties like velocity, momentum, impulse, kinetic
energy and instruments cannot easily measure force of impact etc.
that describe the molecule.
 Large numbers of variables are needed to describe a
system. So the approach is complicated.

Macroscopic View or Study:

 In this approach a certain quantity of matter is considered
without taking into account the events occurring at molecular level.
In other words, this approach to thermodynamics is concerned with
gross or overall behavior. This is known as classical
thermodynamics.
 The analysis of macroscopic system requires simple
mathematical formula.
 The value of the properties of the system are their average
values. For examples consider a sample of gas in a closed
container. The pressure of the gas is the average value of the
pressure exerted by millions of individual molecules.
 In order to describe a system only a few properties are
needed.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics

Sl. Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach

N
o
In this approach a certain The matter is considered to
quantity of matter is The effect of molecular
1
considered without taking into motion is considered.
account the events occurring
at molecular level.

Analysis is concerned with The Knowledge of the

overallbehavior of the system. structure ofmatter is essential
2 in analyzing the behavior of
the system.
This approach is used in the This approach is used in the
3
study of classical study of statistical
thermodynamics. thermodynamics.
A few properties are required Large numbers of
4
to describe the system. variables are
required to describe the
system.
The properties like pressure, The properties like velocity,
temperature, etc. needed to momentum, kinetic energy,
describe the system, can be etc. needed to describe the
5 easily measured. system, cannot be measured
easily.

The properties of a system is The properties are defined for

6
given by its average values. each molecule individually.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
This approach requires simple No. of molecules are very
7
mathematical formulas for large so it requires advanced
analyzing the system. statistical and mathematical
method to explain any change
in the system.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
A thermodynamic system is said to exist in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any macroscopic
property is registered if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
An isolated system always reaches in the course of time a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium and can never depart from it
spontaneously.
Therefore, there can be no spontaneous change in any macroscopic
property if the system exists in an equilibrium state. A
thermodynamic system will be in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium if the system is the state of Mechanical, Chemical and
Thermal equilibrium.
 Mechanical equilibrium: The criteria for Mechanical
equilibrium are the equality ofpressures.
 Chemical equilibrium: The criteria for Chemical
equilibrium are the equality ofchemical potentials.
 Thermal equilibrium: The criterion for Thermal
equilibrium is the equality oftemperatures.

Property:

Thermodynamic Properties may be extensive or intensive.

Intensive properties: The properties which are independent of the

mass of the system. For example: Temperature, pressure and density
are the intensive properties.
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Extensive properties: The properties which depend on the size
or extent of the system are called extensive properties.
For example: Total mass, total volume and total momentum.
Process:

When the system undergoes change from one thermodynamic

state to final state due change in properties like temperature,
pressure, volume, the system is said to have undergone
thermodynamic process.

Various types of thermodynamic processes are: Isothermal process,

Adiabatic process, Isochoric process, Isobaric process and
Reversible process.
Cycle:

Thermodynamic cycle refers to any closed system that

undergoes various changes due to temperature, pressure, and
volume, however, its final and initial state are equal. This cycle is
important as it allows for the continuous process of a moving piston
seen in heat engines and the expansion/compression of the working
fluid in refrigerators, for example. Without the cyclical process, a
car wouldn't be able to continuously move when fuel is added, or a
refrigerator would not be able to stay cold. Visually, any
thermodynamic cycle will appear as a closed loop on a pressure
volume diagram.
Examples are Otto cycle, Diesel Cycle, Brayton Cycle etc.
Reversibility:

Reversibility, in thermodynamics, a characteristic of certain

processes (changes of a system from an initial state to a final state
spontaneously or as a result of interactions with other systems) that

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
can be reversed, and the system restored to its initial state, without
leaving net effects in any of the systems involved.
An example of a reversible process would be a single swing of a
frictionless pendulum from one of its extreme positions to the other.
The swing of a real pendulum is irreversible because a small amount
of the mechanical energy of the pendulum would be expended in
performing work against frictional forces. Restoration of the
pendulum to its exact starting position would require the supply of
an equivalent amount of energy from a second system, such as a
compressed spring in which an irreversible change of state would
occur.

Quasi static process:

When a process is processing in such a way that system will
be remained infinitesimally close with equilibrium state at each
time, such process will be termed as quasi static process or quasi
equilibrium process.
In simple words, we can say that if system is going under a
thermodynamic process through succession of thermodynamic states
and each state is equilibrium state then the process will be termed as
quasi static process.

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
We will see one example for understanding the quasi-static
process, but let us consider one simple example for better
understanding of quasi static process. If a person is coming down
from the roof to the ground floor with the help of a ladder then it
could be considered as quasi static process. But if he jumps from
roof to ground floor then it will not be a quasi-static process.
Weight placed over the piston is just balancing the force which is
exerted in upward direction by gas. If we remove the weight from
the piston, system will have unbalanced force and piston will move
in upward direction due to force acting over the piston in upward
direction by the gas.

Irreversible Process:

The irreversible process is also called the natural process because all
the processes occurring in nature are irreversible processes. The
natural process occurs due to the finite gradient between the two
states of the system. For instance, heat flow between two bodies
occurs due to the temperature gradient between the two bodies; this
is in fact the natural flow of heat. Similarly, water flows from high
level to low level, current moves from high potential to low
potential, etc.
 In the irreversible process the initial state of the system and
surroundings cannot be restored from the final state.
 During the irreversible process the various states of the system
on the path ofchange from initial state to final state are not in
equilibrium with each other.
 During the irreversible process the entropy of the system
increases decisively and it cannot be reduced back to its initial
value.

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
The phenomenon of a system undergoing irreversible process is
called as irreversibility.
Causes of Irreversibility:
Friction: Friction is invariably present in real systems. It causes
irreversibility in the process as work done does not show an
equivalent rise in the kinetic or potential energy of the system. The
fraction of energy wasted due to frictional effects leads to deviation
from reversible states.
Free expansion: Free expansion refers to the expansion of unresisted
type such as expansion in a vacuum. During this unresisted
expansion the work interaction is zero, and without the expense of
any work, it is not possible to restore initial states. Thus, free
expansion is irreversible.
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference: Heat transfer
occurs only when there exists temperature difference between bodies
undergoing heat transfer. During heat transfer, if heat addition is
carried out in a finite number of steps then after every step the new
state shall be a non-equilibrium state.
Non equilibrium during the process: Irreversibilities are introduced
due to lack of thermodynamic equilibrium during the process. Non-
equilibrium may be due to mechanical inequilibrium, chemical
inequilibrium, thermal inequilibrium, electrical inequilibrium, etc.
and irreversibility is called mechanical irreversibility, chemical
irreversibility, thermal irreversibility, electrical irreversibility
respectively. Factors discussed above are also causing non-
equilibrium during the process and therefore make process
irreversible.

Heat:
It is the energy in transition between the system and the
surroundings by virtue of the difference in temperature Heat is
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
energy transferred from one system to another solely by reason of a
temperature difference between the systems. Heat exists only as it
crosses the boundary of a system and the direction of heat transfer is
from higher temperature to lower temperature. For thermodynamics
sign convention, heat transferred to a system is positive; Heat
transferred from a system is negative.

Work:
Thermodynamic definition of work: Positive work is done by a
system when the sole effect external to the system could be reduced
to the rise of a weight.
Work done by the system is positive and work done on the system is
negative.

Types of work interaction:

 Expansion and compression work (displacement work)
 Work of a reversible chemical cell
 Work in stretching of a liquid surface
 Work done on elastic solids
 Work of polarization and magnetization

Point and Path functions:

 Point function does not depend on the history (or path) of
the system. It only depends on the state of the system.
 Examples of point functions are: temperature, pressure,
density, mass, volume, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy
etc.
 Path function depends on history of the system (or path by
which system arrived at a given state).
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
 Examples for path functions are work and heat.
 Path functions are not properties of the system, while point
functions are properties of the system.
 Change in point function can be obtained by from the initial
and final values of the function, whereas path has to defined
in order to evaluate path functions.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

The Thermodynamics Zeroth Law states that if two systems are
at the same time in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are
in equilibrium with each other.
If an object with a higher temperature comes in contact with an
object of lower temperature, it will transfer heat to the lower
temperature object. The objects will approach the same temperature
and in the absence of loss to other objects, they will maintain a
single constant temperature. Therefore, thermal equilibrium is
attained.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Principles of Thermometry:
Thermometry is the science and practice of temperature
measurement. Any measurable change in a thermometric probe
(example: the dilation of a liquid in a capillary tube, variation of
electrical resistance of a conductor, of refractive index of a
transparent material, and so on) can be used to mark temperature
levels, that should later be calibrated against an internationally
agreed unit if the measure is to be related to other thermodynamic
variables.

Liquid (in glass) thermometers:

A liquid-in-glass thermometer measures temperature based on the
thermal expansion of mercury or spirit/ alchohol in a glass container.
The boiling point of mercury is 356.72 °C, and its melting point is -
38.86 °C. The boiling point of methyl alcohol is 64.65 °C and its
melting point is -97.78 °C. Because mercury has low thermal
capacity, high heat conductivity, inertness in relation to a glass capillary
tube and a high boiling point, it is an ideal thermometric liquid except
for its relatively high melting point. Accordingly, mercury
thermometers are used for ordinary meteorological observations, and
spirit thermometers are used for measurements involving
temperatures below the melting point of mercury.
Thermometry is sometimes split in metrological studies in two
subfields: contact thermometry and noncontact thermometry. As
there can never be complete thermal uniformity at large,
thermometry is always associated to a heat transfer problem with
some space-time coordinates of measurement, given rise to time-
series plots and temperature

The liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a capillary glass

tube with a bulb at one end filled with a thermometric liquid,

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
vacuumed and sealed. By reading the position of the liquid level on
a scale, a temperature value can be obtained. Designs can be classified
as either the sheathed type or the unsheathed type. A sheathed
thermometer consists of a bulb, a slender capillary glass tube
connected to it, a milky-white scale plate attached to the capillary
tube, and an outer glass tube that encloses them. An unsheathed
thermometer consists of a thick-walled capillary glass tube with a scale
marked directly on it.
The advantages of liquid-in-glass thermometers are their simple design,
simple observation method and the possibility of temperature
measurement anywhere as they require no electric power for operation.
The disadvantage is that careful handling is required because the glass
material is fragile. Several types of liquid-in-glass thermometers are
used to measure maximum temperature, minimum temperature and
soil temperature in addition to ordinary air temperature.

Constant Volume Gas Thermometers

This thermometer consists of a capillary tube ( C ), which
connects thermometer bulb with a U-tube manometer. A small
amount of helium-gas is contained in the bulb ‘B’. The left limb of
the manometer is kept open to atmosphere and can be moved
vertically. The mercury level on the right limb can be adjusted so
that it just touches lip ‘L’ of the capillary. The pressure of the gas in
the bulb is used as a thermometric property and is given by P = P atm
+ ρmgh. In this formula, Patm is the atmospheric pressure and ρm is
the density of Mercury. When the bulb is brought in contact with
the system whose temperature I to be measured, it comes in thermal
equilibrium with the system. The gas in the bulb will be heated and
expanded and it pushes the mercury column downwards in the right
limb. This raises the mercury column in the left column. The flexible
tube is adjusted so that the mercury again touches the lip ‘L’. The

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
difference in mercury level ‘h’ is recorded and the Pressure ‘P’ of
the gas in the bulb is calculated. Since the volume of gas in the bulb
is kept constant, from ideal gas equation PV = mRT, since m ,R is
constant we get VΔP = mRΔT. Thus we get the important relation
that ΔT is proportional to ΔP. Hence we get :
. Thus that is where

Ttp = Triple point temperature of water and P tp is the triple point

pressure of water.

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics

Six’s Maximum and Minimum thermometer (invented by James Six

in 1782)

It measures the maximum

and minimum temperatures
reached since the
thermometer was last read.
Minimum temperature occurs
during the night while the
maximum temperature during
the day. It consists of a fairly
large cylindrical bulb A which
originally contained alcohol,
although oil of creosote is now
more generally used. This is
connected by a U-shaped stem to
a second bulb nearly full of the
same liquid. The bend of the
U contains a thread of mercury.
Two scales are provided, one
against each limb of the tube so
that the temperature may be read against either of the mercury
levels. Resting on each of the mercury surfaces are small steel
indexes provided with light springs to hold them in position in the
stem. Expansion or contraction of the liquid in A causes a movement
of the mercury thread. Consequently, one or other index is pushed
forward by the mercury and left in the extreme position reached.
Thus, the lower end of the index on the left indicates the minimum
and that on the right the maximum temperature attained. After

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
readings have been taken a small magnet is used to bring the indexes
back into contact with the mercury.
Resistance thermometers
Electrical resistance thermometer, semiconductor thermometer
(thermistor) and thermocouple thermometer are three types of
electrical thermometers that are used commonly. Here we focus on
Platinum-resistance thermometer as an example of electrical
resistance thermometer.
Platinum resistance thermometer employs platinum
characteristics which changes resistance according to the
temperature. It allows us to obtain temperature by measuring
electrical resistance. High purity platinum is used since
contaminants greatly affect resistance. Sensor for meteorological
observation is made with thin sheet of mica or porcelain wrapped
with platinum wire, and it is placed in stainless protective tube
which has excellent thermal conductivity, is corrosion resistant and
is made complete water proof. Diagram of sensor and connection of
platinum resistant thermometer is shown in Figure below.

In the resistance thermometer, the change in resistance of a

metal wire due to its change in temperature is the thermometric
property. The wire, frequently platinum, may be incorporated in a
Wheatstone bridge circuit. The platinum resistance thermometer
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
measures temperature to a high degree of accuracy and sensitivity,
which makes it suitable as a standard for the calibration of other
thermometers.
In a restricted range, the following quadratic equation is used
, where where R0 is the resistance of the
platinum wire when it is surrounded by melting ice and A and B are
constants.

Resistance change of platinum due to temperature is converted

to electrical signals (current or voltage signal) by converter. Then the
signal is sent to indicator or recorder and displayed or processed as
atmospheric temperature. An example of the relation between
temperature and resistance of platinum resistance thermometer is
shown in Figure below.

The advantage of platinum resistance thermometer is the electric

measurement which allows remote measurement and automated
observation. The disadvantage is necessity of ensuring stable power
supply to platinum resistance.
There are 2-conductor system, 3-conductor system and 4-
conductor system in the method of inside conductor connection. 2-
conductor system is impractical because it is unable to remove the
effect of conductor resistance. 3-conductor system consists of 2

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
conductors on one terminal of a resistance element and 1 conductor on
the other terminal. This method enables to remove effect of conductor
resistance. However, this is based on the premise that conductor has
identical material, length and electrical resistance and that the
temperature distribution must be the same. 4-conductor system
consists of 2 conductors connected on each terminal of resistant
element. This method can remove effect of conductor resistance. 4-
conductor system has the highest accuracy as a thermometer.
Diagram of inside conductor connection

2 conductor system 3 conductor system 4 conductor system

Scales of Temperature:
There are three temperature scales in use Fahrenheit, Celsius
and Kelvin. Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for
the freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling point of water, the
interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.
The conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on
the Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation is:
F = 9/5 C + 32.
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature
scale, is the scale based on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100
for the boiling point of water.
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic
temperature measurement in the International System (SI) of
measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point
(equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases) of pure
water.
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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Joule’s experiment:
James P. Joule carried out his famous experiment; he placed
known amounts of water, oil, and mercury in an insulated container
and agitated the fluid with a rotating stirrer. The amounts of work
done on the fluid by the stirrer were accurately measured, and the
temperature changes of the fluid were carefully noted. He found for
each fluid that a fixed amount of work was required per unit mass
for every degree temperature rise caused by the stirring, and that the
original temperature of the fluid could be restored by the transfer of
heat through simple contact with a cooler object. In this experiment
you can conclude there is a relationship between heat and work or in
other word heat is a form of energy. This connection between the
work done on the liquid and the rise in temperature of the liquid can
be written as : Mgz = ΔQ = mcΔθ, where M is the mass of the body
sliding down by distance z and m is the mass of the liquid with
specific heat capacity c.

Internal Energy
In the Joule experiment what happens to energy between the time it
is added to water as work and the time it is extracted as heat? Logic

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
suggests that this energy is contained in water in another form called
the Internal energy.
Internal energy refers to energy of the molecules of a substance
which undergoes ceaseless motion and thereby has kinetic energy.
The addition of heat to a substance increases this molecular
activity, and thus causes an increase in its internal energy. Work
done on the substance can have the same effect, as was shown by
Joule. Internal energy cannot be directly measured since there are
no internal energy meters. As a result, its absolute value is
unknown. However, this is not a disadvantage in thermodynamic
analysis, because only changes in internal energy are required.

First Law of Thermodynamics:

During a thermodynamic cycle, since the system undergoes a
cyclic process, the cyclic integral of heat added is equal to integral
of work done. The First law of thermodynamics can be written in
the form,

Equation dU = dQ – dW is a corollary to the first law of

thermodynamics. It shows that there exists a property called the
internal energy (U) of the system, such that a change in its value is
equal to the difference in heat entering and work leaving the system.
The First law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither created
nor destroyed. Thus, the total energy of the universe is a constant.
However, energy can certainly be transferred from one form to
another form. The 1st law of thermodynamics can be mathematically
stated as follows:

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Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Corollary 1:
There exists property of closed system; the change in value of this
property during the process is given by the difference between heat
supplied and work done.

dU = dQ - dW

Here U is property of system and is called as total energy that

includes internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, electrical
energy, magnetic energy, chemical energy, etc.

Corollary 2:
For the isolated system, heat and work both interactions are absent
(dQ = 0, dW = 0) and U is a constant. Energy can neither be created
nor be destroyed; but it can be converted from one form to other.

Corollary 3:
A perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM1) is impossible
as it violates the 1st law of thermodynamics. PMM1 is a
hypothetical machine which can produce useful work without any
source or which can produce more energy than consumed. First law
of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created or nor
destroyed. A perpetual motion machine 1 violates the law by
creating energy. All processes in universe comply with first and
second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, PPM1 does not and can
never exist.

e.g.: An electric heater that consumes 1KW of electricity cannot

produce more than 1KW heat.

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Work done in Ideal gas process

In this section we investigate the ideal-gas process from the point of

view of work done.

We have seen that the work done by a force Fs on a system as it

moves from position si to position sf is defined as the integral:

Let us calculate the work done on a gas as it expands or compresses.

Suppose the gas is in a container closed at one end. At the other end
a tightly- fitting moveable piston enables us to apply an external
force Fext = -Fgas = -pA.

Suppose the piston moves a small distance dx to the right shown

in Figure below. As it does so, the external force (the environment)
does an amount of work on the piston and therefore on the gas of :

dW = Fext dx = - pAdx

If dx is positive (the gas expands) then dW is negative; if dx is

negative (the gas is compressed) then dW is positive. As the
piston moves the distance dx, the volume of the gas changes by an
amount dV = Adx.

Illustration of the work done by an external force on a piston, and

therefore on a gas is as below

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Consequently, we can write the above equation for the work done as:
dW = -pdV.

If in the process the volume changes from Vi to Vf the total work

done by Fext is the integral

To evaluate this integral we need to know the dependence of p

on V (the function p(V)). What is the geo met r ica l mea ning o f
work done by the external force? Eq above states that the work done
on a gas is the negative of the area under the gas’s pV curve as the
volume changes from Vi to Vf. Fig (a) below shows gas expansion.
The area under the pV curve is positive. This means that the
environment does a negative amount of work. Figure (b) below
shows a contraction. The area is negative (the integration is
performed from a larger to a smaller volume) so the work done by

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
the environment on the gas is positive. Let us consider a numerical
example of these geometrical interpretations.

The work done on a gas by an external force is the negative of the area
under the gas’s pV curve. The direction of the process is shown by
the arrow on the trajectory.

Isochoric process
In the isochoric process (Fig a) the volume does not change. The
area under the curve is zero and consequently, the work done is zero:
W = 0 (isochoric process)

Isobaric process
In the isobaric process (Fig b) the volume changes from Vi to Vf.
The area under the curve and the work done is W   pV . If ∆V is
positive (the gas expands) then W is negative. If ∆V is negative
(the gas is compressed) then W is positive.

Isothermal process
An isothermal process is shown in (Fig c). Substituting p = nRT/V
in the integral for work done, as the volume changes from Vi to Vf.
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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Vf Vf

W    pdV = -(nRT) dV/V) = -nRT [ ln(Vf) – ln(Vi) ]

Vi Vi

= -nRTln(Vf/Vi) = -PiVi ln(Vf/Vi) = -PfVf ln(Vf/Vi)

Adiabatic Expansion of Gas:

The process in which no heat enters the system undergoing the
change from the surroundings neither does any heat leave the system
to the surroundings is an Adiabatic process. The corresponding
changes in volume and pressure are said to be Adiabatic changes.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Thus in terms of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics, we can say that for
a thermodynamic process, dQ = dU + dW = 0.

Derivation of Adiabatic equation of state : PV ϒ = Constant.

dU = mCvdT, dW = PdV . Thus dQ = mC vdT + PdV = 0.

So we arrive at : mC vdT = - PdV .
But PV = mRT is the gas equation of state. Hence we get :
PdV + VdP = mRdT . So, dT = (P/mR)dV + (V/mR) dP.
Thus dQ = 0 = mCv [ (P/mR)dV + (V/mR) dP ] + PdV
So, Cv [ (P/R)dV + (V/R) dP ] + PdV = 0
Cv [ PdV + V dP ] + RPdV = 0
(Cv + R)PdV + Cv VdP = 0
But Cp – Cv = R, which means Cp = Cv + R
Thus we get : CpPdV + Cv VdP = 0
Dividing throughout by C pPV, we get :
dV/V + (Cv/Cp)(dP/P) = 0
(Cp/ Cv) dV/V + dP/P = 0
ϒ (dV/V) + (dP/P) = 0
Hence, after integration, we get PVϒ = Constant

Work done in Adiabatic Expansion of Gases :

PVϒ = K (K is the constant). This means that P = K/V ϒ

dW = PdV = (K/Vϒ)dV .
After integrating the above equation, we get : W = ∫dW = K∫V -ϒ dV

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
W = (K/(1 – ϒ))V (1-ϒ)

For adiabatic expansion, the initial and final volumes are V i and Vf,
where Vf > Vi
So work done in adiabatic expansion is
W = (K/(1 – ϒ))[Vf (1-ϒ) - Vi (1-ϒ) ] = (K/(ϒ - 1))[Vi (1-ϒ) - Vf (1-ϒ) ]
W = (1/(ϒ - 1))[ (K/ Vi (ϒ-1) ) - (K/ Vf (ϒ-1) ) ]
Putting K = PiViϒ in the first term and K = PfVfϒ in the second term,
we get :

W = (1/(ϒ - 1))[ (PiViϒ / Vi (ϒ-1) ) - (PfVfϒ / Vf (ϒ-1) ) ] = [ PiVi -

PfVf ]/( ϒ - 1)

Thus W = (PiVi - PfVf )/( ϒ - 1)

Limitations of the First Law:

 First law does not provide a clear idea about the direction of
absorption or evolution ofheat.
 The first law of thermodynamics merely indicates that in any
process there is a transformation between the various forms of
energy involved in the process but has nothing to say regarding the
feasibility of such transformation.
 First law does not provide any information regarding the
direction in which processes will take place or whether it is a
spontaneous or a non-spontaneous process.

Thermal Reservoir:

A thermal reservoir is a large system (very high mass x

specific heat value) from which a quantity of energy can be absorbed
or added as heat without changing its temperature. The atmosphere
and sea are examples of thermal reservoirs. Any physical body

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
whose thermal energy capacity is large relative to the amount of
energy it supplies or absorbs can be modelled as a thermal reservoir.
A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source
and one that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink.

Heat Engine:
It is a cyclically operating device which absorbs energy as heat
from a high temperature reservoir, converts part of the energy into
work and rejects the rest of the energy as heat to a thermal reservoir
at low temperature.
The working fluid is a substance, which absorbs energy as heat from
a source, and rejects energy as heat to a sink.

Schematic representation of Heat Engine

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics

SL Sample short answer questions CO

No
What is meant by thermodynamic equilibrium? Explain with the help of
1
examples.
1
Write about constant volume gas Thermometer? Why it is preferred over a
2
constant pressure gas Thermometer.
1
Distinguish between macroscopic and microscopic point of view
3 1
Discuss Quasi Static process, what are its characteristics
4 2
Discuss First law of thermodynamics, explain Joule’s experiment
5 2
6 The pressure of as in a pipe line is measured with a mercury manometer having 3
one limb open to the atmosphere. If the difference in the height of mercury in the
two limbs is 562 mm, calculate the gas pressure. The barometer reads 761 mm
Hg, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.79 m/s2, and the density of mercury is
13,640 kg/m3.
Solution:

At the lower liquid plane in the manometer, we have p = po + ρgz

Now po = ρgz o
where z o is the barometric height, ρ the density of mercury and po the atmospheric
pressure.
Therefore p = ρg (z + z 0)
= 13,640 kg/m3 × 9.79 m/s 2 (0.562 + 0.761) m
= 177 × 103 N/m2 = 177 kPa
= 1.77 bar
= 1.746 atm
7
A turbine is supplied with steam at a gauge pressure of 1.4 MPa. After expansion
2
in the turbine the steam flows into a condenser which is maintained at a vacuum of
710 mm Hg. The barometric pressure is 772 mm Hg. Express the inlet and exhaust
steam pressure in pascals (absolute). Take the density of mercury as 13.6 × 103
kg/m3
Solution:
The atmospheric pressure p = ρgz = 13.6 × 103 kg/m3 × 9.81 m/s2 × 0.772 m
= 1.03 × 105 Pa
Inlet steam pressure = (1.4 × 106) + (1.03 × 105) Pa
= 15.03 × 105 Pa = 1.503 MPa
Condenser pressure = (0.772 − 0.710) m × 9.81 m/s2 × 13.6 × 103
kg/m3
= 0.827 × 104 Pa = 8.27 kPa

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
When the valve of the evacuated bottle is opened, atmospheric air rush pressure is
8 3
101.325 kPa, and 0.6 m3 of air (measured at atmospheric conditions) enters into
the bottle, calculate the work done by air.
Solution:
The displacement work done by air

= 0 + pΔv
= 101.325 ×0.6
= 60.8 kJ
Since the free-air boundary is contracting, the work done by the system is negative
(ΔV being negative), andthe surroundings do positive work upon the system.

9 A piston and cylinder machine containing a fluid system has a stirring device in 3
the cylinder. The piston is frictionless, and it is held down against the fluid due to
the atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa.The stirring device is turned
10,000 times with an average torque against the fluid of 1.275 N-m per turn. The
piston of 0.6 m diameter moves out 0.8 m. Find the net work transfer for the system.

p = 101.32
101.325
P

W W
1 2

Solution:
Work done by the stirring device upon the system
W1 = 2πTN
= 2π × 1.275 × 10,000 Nm = 80 kJ
This is negative work for the system.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
Work done by the system upon the surroundings
W2 = ( pA) ⋅ L = 101.325 kN × (π/4) x (0.6) 2 m2 × 0.80 m = 22.9 kJ
This is positive work for the system. Hence, the net work transfer for the system
W = W1 + W2 = – 80 + 22.9 = – 57.1 kJ
How much metal can be melted per hour with an electric furnace of 2.17 kW
10
rating, if one wants to melt aluminium from 15 oC to 700 oC, given melting point of
3
aluminium is 660 C, solid state specific heat 0.9 kJ/kg-K, latent heat 390 kJ/kg,
atomic weight 27, molten state density 2400 kg/m3, molten state specific heat
(29.93/atomic weight) kJ/kg-K. Find the mass of aluminium that the above
furnace will hold, given its volume is 2.18m3. Efficiency of the furnace is 70%.
Solution:
Heat required per kg of aluminium to raise temperature of solid state from 15 C
to melting point of 660 C , melt it and then raise molten state temperature from
660 C to 700 C is given by the sum of the following three terms:
= 0.9 (660 – 15) + 390 + (700 – 660)(29.93/27)
= 580.5 + 390 + 44.34 = 1014.84 kJ/kg
Since the efficiency of furnace is 70%, heat needs to be supplied at the rate of
1014.8/0.7 = 1449.7 kJ/kg.
The rate of heat supplied by the furnace is 2.17 kW x 3600 = 7812 kJ/h
So, the rate at which aluminium can be melted = 7812 kJ/h /1449.7 kJ/kg
= 5.39 kg/h
Mass of aluminium that can be held in the above furnace
= 2.18 × 2400 kg = 5.23 tonnes

11 A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.3 3
m3 and 0.105 MPa to afinal state of 0.15 m3 and 0.105 MPa, the pressure remaining
constant during the process. There is a transfer of 37.6 kJ of heat from the gas during
the process. How much does the internal energy of the gas change?
Solution:
First law for a stationary system in a process gives
Q = ΔU + W
Or Q1 – 2 = U2 − U1 + W1 – 2 (1)

Here W12 = ∫P dV = P(V2 -V1) = 0.105 (0.15 – 0.30) MJ = -15.75 kJ

Q1 – 2 = – 37.6 kJ

∴ Substituting in Eq. (1), we get : – 37.6 kJ = (U2 – U1) - 15.75 kJ

So, U2 – U1 = – 21.85 kJ
The internal energy of the gas decreases by 21.85 kJ in the process.

12 When a system is taken from state a to state b, along path acb, 84 kJ of heat flow 3
into the system, and the system does 32 kJ of work. a) How much heat flows into

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
the system along path adb, if the work done is 10.5 kJ. b) When the system is
returned from b to a along the curved path, the work done on the system is 21 kJ.
Does the system absorb or liberate heat, and how much? c) If Ua = 0 and Ud =
42 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the processes ad and db.

Solution:
a)Qacb = 84 kJ, Wacb = 32 kJ
Qacb = Ub – Ua + Wacb
Ub – Ua = 84 – 32 = 52 kJ,
Qadb = Ub – Ua + Wadb =
52 + 10.5 = 62.5 kJ

b) Qb – a = (Ua – Ub) + Wb – a = -52 -21 = -73 kJ.

Hence, the system liberates 73 kJ of heat.
c) Wadb = Wad + Wdb = Wad = 10.5 kJ,
Qad = (Ud – Ua) + Wad = (42 – 0) + 10.5 = 52.5 kJ,
Qadb = 62.5 kJ = Qad + Qdb
Qdb = 62.5- 52.5 = 10 kJ

13 The internal energy of a certain substance is given by the following equation 3

U = 3.56 PV + 84, where U is given in kJ/kg, P is in kPa, and V is in m3/kg.
A system composed of 3 kg of this substance expands from an initial
pressure of 500 kPa and volume of 0.22 m3 to a final pressure 100 kPa in a
process in which pressure and volume are related by PV1.2 = constant.
a) If the expansion is quasi static, find Q, ΔU, and W for the process.
b) In another process the same system expands according to the same pressure
volume relationship as in part a, and from the same initial state to the same final
state as in part a, but the heat transfer in this case is 30 kJ. Find the work transfer
for this process.
c) Explain the difference in work transfer in parts a and b.
Solution:
P2V2 1…2 = P1 V1 1.2 . Thus V2 = (P1/P2) 0.833 V1 = 0.845 m3
U = 3.56 PV + 84, ΔU = U 2 – U1 = 3.56 ( P2V2 – P1V 1),
ΔU = 356 (1 × 0.845 – 5 × 0.22) kJ = - 356 × 0.255 = -91 kJ
Quasi-static process, work done = ∫ PdV = ( P2V2 – P1V1)/(1-ϒ), with ϒ = 1.2
= (1x0.845 – 5x0.22)100/(1-1.2) = 127.5 kJ.
So we get Q = ΔU + W = – 91 + 127.5 = 36.5 kJ

b) Here Q = 30 kJ. Since the end states are the same, ΔU would remain the same
as in (a). So, W = Q – ΔU = 30 – (– 91) = 121 kJ

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
c) The work in (b) is not equal to ∫ PdV since the process is not quasi-static.

14
A piston cylinder device operates 1kg of fluid at 20 atm pressure with initial
3
volumeis 0.04 m3. Fluid is allowed to expand reversibly following PV1.45=C. So
that the volume becomes double. The fluid is cooled at constant pressure until the
piston comes back. Determine the work done in each process?
15
A stationary mass of gas was compressed without friction at constant pressure. Its
initial state of 0.4m3 at 0.105 MPa was found to change to final state of 0.20 m3
and 0.105MPa. There was a transfer of 42.5kJ of heat from the gas during the
process. Determine the change in internal energy of the gas?

16
0.44 kg of air at 1800C, expands adiabatically to 3 times its original volume and
3
during the process there is a fall in temperature to 150 oC. The work done
during the process is 52.5kJ. Calculate Cp and Cv .
17 A new scale N of temperature is divided in such a way that the freezing point of 3
ice is 1000 N and the boiling point is 4000 N. What is the temperature reading on
this new scale when the temperature is 1500 C? At what temperature both the
Celsius and the new scale reading would be the same?
18 A piston-cylinder device operates 1 kg of fluid at 20 atm. Pressure. The initial 3
volume is 0.04 m3. The fluid is allowed to expand reversibly following a process
pV1.4 = constant so that the volume becomes double. The fluid is then cooled at a
constant pressure until the piston comes back to the original position. Keeping the
piston unaltered, heat is added reversibly to restore it to the initial pressure.
Calculate the work done in the cycle.
19 1.8 kg of oxygen at 480 C is mixed with 6.2 kg of nitrogen at the same 3
temperature. Both oxygen and nitrogen are at the pressure of 102 k Pa before and
after mixing. Find the increase in entropy
20
A mixture of ideal air and water vapour at a dbt of 220 C and a total pressure of 3
730 mm Hg abs. has a temperature of adiabatic saturation of 150C. Calculate: i)
the specific humidity in gms per kg of dry air. ii) the partial pressure of water
vapour, iii) the relative humidity and iv. enthalpy of the mixture per kg of dry
air.

21 Atmospheric air at 1.0132 bar has a DBT of 30°C and WBT of 24°C. Compute, 3
(i) The partial pressure of water vapour (ii) Specific humidity (iii) The dew point
temperature (iv) Relative humidity (v) Degree of saturation (vi) Density of air
in the mixture (vii) Density of the vapour in the mixture (viii) The enthalpy of
the mixture.

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 Classical Physics for Engineers
Mechanical Engineering Stream – (ME, AS, CH, IM)
Unit-III- Thermodynamics
A mixture of ideal gases consists of 3 kg of nitrogen and 6 kg of CO2 at a
22 3
pressure of 250 kpa and a temperature of 230C. Find (a) the mole fraction of
each constituent (b) equivalent weightof the mixture (c) equivalent gas constant
of the mixture (d) partial pressures and partial volumes (e) volume and density
of mixture Cp and Cv of mixture. If the mixture is heated at constant volume to
60C and the internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of mixture. Find the changes
in internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of mixture if the heating is done
at constant pressure.Take γ for CO2and N2 be 1.286 and 1.4.

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