Lectures in Logic and Set Theory Volume 1

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This page intentionally left blank
CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN
ADVANCED MATHEMATICS
EDITORIAL BOARD
B. BOLLOBAS, W. FULTON, A. KATOK, F. KIRWAN,
P. SARNAK

Lectures in Logic and Set Theory Volume 1

This two-volume work bridges the gap between introductory expositions of

logic or set theory on one hand, and the research literature on the other. It can
be used as a text in an advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate course
in mathematics, computer science, or philosophy. The volumes are written in
a user-friendly conversational lecture style that makes them equally effective
for self-study or class use.
Volume 1 includes formal proof techniques, a section on applications of
compactness (including non-standard analysis), a generous dose of computa-
bility and its relation to the incompleteness phenomenon, and the first presen-
tation of a complete proof of Gödel’s second incompleteness theorem since
Hilbert and Bernay’s Grundlagen.
Already published
2 K. Petersen Ergodic theory
3 P.T. Johnstone Stone spaces
5 J.-P. Kahane Some random series of functions, 2nd edition
7 J. Lambek & P.J. Scott Introduction to higher-order categorical logic
8 H. Matsumura Commutative ring theory
10 M. Aschbacher Finite group theory, 2nd edition
11 J.L. Alperin Local representation theory
12 P. Koosis The logarithmic integral I
14 S.J. Patterson An introduction to the theory of the Riemann zeta-function
15 H.J. Baues Algebraic homotopy
16 V.S. Varadarajan Introduction to harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups
17 W. Dicks & M. Dunwoody Groups acting on graphs
19 R. Fritsch & R. Piccinini Cellular structures in topology
20 H. Klingen Introductory lectures on Siegel modular forms
21 P. Koosis The logarithmic integral II
22 M.J. Collins Representations and characters of finite groups
24 H. Kunita Stochastic flows and stochastic differential equations
25 P. Wojtaszczyk Banach spaces for analysts
26 J.E. Gilbert & M.A.M. Murray Clifford algebras and Dirac operators in harmonic analysis
27 A. Frohlich & M.J. Taylor Algebraic number theory
28 K. Goebel & W.A. Kirk Topics in metric fixed point theory
29 J.F. Humphreys Reflection groups and Coxeter groups
30 D.J. Benson Representations and cohomology I
31 D.J. Benson Representations and cohomology II
32 C. Allday & V. Puppe Cohomological methods in transformation groups
33 C. Soule et al. Lectures on Arakelov geometry
34 A. Ambrosetti & G. Prodi A primer of nonlinear analysis
35 J. Palis & F. Takens Hyperbolicity, stability and chaos at homoclinic bifurcations
37 Y. Meyer Wavelets and operators 1
38 C. Weibel, An introduction to homological algebra
39 W. Bruns & J. Herzog Cohen-Macaulay rings
40 V. Snaith Explicit Brauer induction
41 G. Laumon Cohomology of Drinfeld modular varieties I
42 E.B. Davies Spectral theory and differential operators
43 J. Diestel, H. Jarchow, & A. Tonge Absolutely summing operators
44 P. Mattila Geometry of sets and measures in Euclidean spaces
45 R. Pinsky Positive harmonic functions and diffusion
46 G. Tenenbaum Introduction to analytic and probabilistic number theory
47 C. Peskine An algebraic introduction to complex projective geometry
48 Y. Meyer & R. Coifman Wavelets
49 R. Stanley Enumerative combinatorics I
50 I. Porteous Clifford algebras and the classical groups
51 M. Audin Spinning tops
52 V. Jurdjevic Geometric control theory
53 H. Volklein Groups as Galois groups
54 J. Le Potier Lectures on vector bundles
55 D. Bump Automorphic forms and representations
56 G. Laumon Cohomology of Drinfeld modular varieties II
57 D.M. Clark & B.A. Davey Natural dualities for the working algebraist
58 J. McCleary A user’s guide to spectral sequences II
59 P. Taylor Practical foundations of mathematics
60 M.P. Brodmann & R.Y. Sharp Local cohomology
61 J.D. Dixon et al. Analytic pro-P groups
62 R. Stanley Enumerative combinatorics II
63 R.M. Dudley Uniform central limit theorems
64 J. Jost & X. Li-Jost Calculus of variations
65 A.J. Berrick & M.E. Keating An introduction to rings and modules
66 S. Morosawa Holomorphic dynamics
67 A.J. Berrick & M.E. Keating Categories and modules with K-theory in view
68 K. Sato Levy processes and infinitely divisible distributions
69 H. Hida Modular forms and Galois cohomology
70 R. Iorio & V. Iorio Fourier analysis and partial differential equations
71 R. Blei Analysis in integer and fractional dimensions
72 F. Borceaux & G. Janelidze Galois theories
73 B. Bollobas Random graphs
LECTURES IN LOGIC
AND SET THEORY

Volume 1: Mathematical Logic

GEORGE TOURLAKIS
York University
  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , United Kingdom
Published in the United States by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521753739

© George Tourlakis 2003

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2003

ISBN-13 978-0-511-06871-3 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-10 0-511-06871-9 eBook (EBL)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-75373-9 hardback

ISBN-10 0-521-75373-2 hardback

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s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
για την δεσπoινα, την µαρινα και τoν γιαννη
 Contents

Preface page ix
I Basic Logic 1
I.1 First Order Languages 5
I.2 A Digression into the Metatheory:
Informal Induction and Recursion 19
I.3 Axioms and Rules of Inference 28
I.4 Basic Metatheorems 42
I.5 Semantics; Soundness, Completeness, Compactness 52
I.6 Substructures, Diagrams, and Applications 75
I.7 Defined Symbols 112
I.8 Computability and Uncomputability 123
I.9 Arithmetic, Definability, Undefinability,
and Incompletableness 155
I.10 Exercises 191
II The Second Incompleteness Theorem 205
II.1 Peano Arithmetic 206
II.2 A Formal β-Function 232
II.3 Formal Primitive Recursion 248
II.4 The Boldface  and  256
II.5 Arithmetization 265
II.6 Derivability Conditions; Fixed Points 272
II.7 Exercises 316
Bibliography 319
List of Symbols 321
Index 323

vii
 Preface

Both volumes in this series are about what mathematicians, especially logicians,
call the “foundations” (of mathematics) – that is, the tools of the axiomatic
method, an assessment of their effectiveness, and two major examples of ap-
plication of these tools, namely, in the development of number theory and set
theory.
There have been, in hindsight, two main reasons for writing this volume.
One was the existence of notes I wrote for my lectures in mathematical logic
and computability that had been accumulating over the span of several years
and badly needed sorting out. The other was the need to write a small section
on logic, “A Bit of Logic” as I originally called it, that would bootstrap my
volume on set theory† on which I had been labouring for a while. Well, one
thing led to another, and a 30 or so page section that I initially wrote for the
latter purpose grew to become a self-standing volume of some 300 pages. You
see, this material on logic is a good story and, as with all good stories, one does
get carried away wanting to tell more.
I decided to include what many people will consider, I should hope, as
being the absolutely essential topics in proof, model, and recursion theory –
“absolutely essential” in the context of courses taught near the upper end of
undergraduate, and at the lower end of graduate curricula in mathematics, com-
puter science, or philosophy. But no more.‡ This is the substance of Chapter I;
hence its title “Basic Logic”.

† A chapter by that name now carries out these bootstrapping duties – the proverbial “Chapter 0”
(actually Chapter I) of volume 2.
‡ These topics include the foundation and development of non-standard analysis up to the ex-
treme value theorem, elementary equivalence, diagrams, and Löwenheim-Skolem theorems, and
Gödel’s first incompleteness theorem (along with Rosser’s sharpening).

ix
x Preface
But then it occurred to me to also say something about one of the most
remarkable theorems of logic – arguably the most remarkable – about the lim-
itations of formalized theories: Gödel’s second incompleteness theorem. Now,
like most reasonable people, I never doubted that this theorem is true, but, as the
devil is in the details, I decided to learn its proof – right from Peano’s axioms.
What better way to do this than writing down the proof, gory details and all?
This is what Chapter II is about.†
As a side effect, the chapter includes many theorems and techniques of one
of the two most important – from the point of view of foundations – “applied”
logics (formalized theories), namely, Peano arithmetic (the other one, set theory,
taking all of volume 2).
I have hinted above that this (and the second) volume are aimed at a fairly
advanced reader: The level of exposition is designed to fit a spectrum of math-
ematical sophistication from third year undergraduate to junior graduate level
(each group will find here its favourite sections that serve its interests and level
of preparation – and should not hesitate to judiciously omit topics).
There are no specific prerequisites beyond some immersion in the “proof
culture”, as this is attainable through junior level courses in calculus, linear al-
gebra, or discrete mathematics. However, some familiarity with concepts from
elementary naı̈ve set theory such as finiteness, infinity, countability, and un-
countability will be an asset.‡
A word on approach. I have tried to make these lectures user-friendly, and thus
accessible to readers who do not have the benefit of an instructor’s guidance.
Devices to that end include anticipation of questions, frequent promptings for
the reader to rethink an issue that might be misunderstood if glossed over
(“Pauses”), and the marking of important passages, by , as well as those that
can be skipped at first reading, by .
Moreover, I give (mostly) very detailed proofs, as I know from experience
that omitting details normally annoys students.

† It is strongly conjectured here that this is the only complete proof in print other than the one
that was given in Hilbert and Bernays (1968). It is fair to clarify that I use the term “complete
proof” with a strong assumption in mind: That the axiom system we start with is just Peano
arithmetic. Proofs based on a stronger – thus technically more convenient – system, namely,
primitive recursive arithmetic, have already appeared in print (Diller (1976), Smoryński (1985)).
The difficulty with using Peano arithmetic as the starting point is that the only primitive recursive
functions initially available are the successor, identity, plus, and times. An awful amount of work
is needed – a preliminary “coding trick” – to prove that all the rest of the primitive recursive
functions “exist”. By then are we already midway in Chapter II, and only then are we ready to
build Gödel numbers of terms, formulas, and proofs and to prove the theorem.
‡ I have included a short paragraph nicknamed “a crash course on countable sets” (Section I.5,
p. 62), which certainly helps. But having seen these topics before helps even more.
 Preface xi
The first chapter has a lot of exercises (the second having proportionally
fewer). Many of these have hints, but none are marked as “hard” vs. “just about
right”, a subjective distinction I prefer to avoid. In this connection here is some
good advice I received when I was a graduate student at the University of
Toronto: “Attempt all the problems. Those you can do, don’t do. Do the ones
you cannot”.
What to read. Consistently with the advice above, I suggest that you read this
volume from cover to cover – including footnotes! – skipping only what you
already know. Now, in a class environment this advice may be impossible to
take, due to scope and time constraints. An undergraduate (one semester) course
in logic at the third year level will probably cover Sections I.1–I.5, making light
of Section I.2, and will introduce the student to the elements of computability
along with a hand-waving “proof” of Gödel’s first incompleteness theorem (the
“semantic version” ought to suffice). A fourth year class will probably attempt
to cover the entire Chapter I. A first year graduate class has no more time than
the others at its disposal, but it usually goes much faster, skipping over familiar
ground, thus it will probably additionally cover Peano arithmetic and will get
to see how Gödel’s second theorem follows from Löb’s derivability conditions.

Acknowledgments. I wish to offer my gratitude to all those who taught me,

a group led by my parents and too large to enumerate. I certainly include my
students here. I also include Raymond Wilder’s book on the foundations of
mathematics, which introduced me, long long ago, to this very exciting field
and whetted my appetite for more (Wilder (1963)).
I should like to thank the staff at Cambridge University Press for their pro-
fessionalism, support, and cooperation, with special appreciation due to Lauren
Cowles and Caitlin Doggart, who made all the steps of this process, from ref-
ereeing to production, totally painless.
This volume is the last installment of a long project that would have not been
successful without the support and warmth of an understanding family (thank
you).
I finally wish to record my appreciation to Donald Knuth and Leslie Lamport
for the typesetting tools TEX and LATEX that they have made available to the tech-
nical writing community, making the writing of books such as this one almost
easy.

George Tourlakis
Toronto, March 2002
 I

Basic Logic

Logic is the science of reasoning. Mathematical logic applies to mathematical

reasoning – the art and science of writing down deductions. This volume is
about the form, meaning, use, and limitations of logical deductions, also called
proofs. While the user of mathematical logic will practise the various proof
techniques with a view of applying them in everyday mathematical practice,
the student of the subject will also want to know about the power and limitations
of the deductive apparatus. We will find that there are some inherent limitations
in the quest to discover truth by purely formal – that is, syntactic – techniques.
In the process we will also discover a close affinity between formal proofs and
computations that persists all the way up to and including issues of limitations:
Not only is there a remarkable similarity between the types of respective limi-
tations (computations vs. uncomputable functions, and proofs vs. unprovable,
but “true”, sentences), but, in a way, you cannot have one type of limitation
without having the other.
The modern use of the term mathematical logic encompasses (at least) the
areas of proof theory (it studies the structure, properties, and limitations of
proofs), model theory (it studies the interplay between syntax and meaning – or
semantics – by looking at the algebraic structures where formal languages are
interpreted), recursion theory (or computability, which studies the properties
and limitations of algorithmic processes), and set theory. The fact that the last-
mentioned will totally occupy our attention in volume 2 is reflected in the
prominence of the term in the title of these lectures. It also reflects a tendency,
even today, to think of set theory as a branch in its own right, rather than as an
“area” under a wider umbrella.

1
2 I. Basic Logic

Volume 1 is a brief study of the other three areas of logic† mentioned above.
This is the point where an author usually apologizes for what has been omitted,
blaming space or scope (or competence) limitations. Let me start by outlin-
ing what is included: “Standard” phenomena such as completeness, compact-
ness and its startling application to analysis, incompleteness or unprovabil-
ity (including a complete proof of the second incompleteness theorem), and a
fair amount of recursion theory are thoroughly discussed. Recursion theory,
or computability, is of interest to a wide range of audiences, including stu-
dents with main areas of study such as computer science, philosophy, and, of
course, mathematical logic. It studies among other things the phenomenon of
uncomputability, which is closely related to that of unprovability, as we see in
Section I.9.
Among the topics that I have deliberately left out are certain algebraic tech-
niques in model theory (such as the method of ultrapowers), formal interpre-
tations of one theory into another,‡ the introduction of “other” logics (modal,
higher order, intuitionistic, etc.), and several topics in recursion theory (oracle
computability, Turing reducibility, recursive operators, degrees, Post’s theorem
in the arithmetic hierarchy, the analytic hierarchy, etc.) – but then, the decision
to stop writing within 300 or so pages was firm. On the other hand, the topics
included here form a synergistic whole in that I have (largely) included at every
stage material that is prerequisite to what follows. The absence of a section on
propositional calculus is deliberate, as it does not in my opinion further the
understanding of logic in any substantial way, while it delays one’s plunging
into what really matters. To compensate, I include all tautologies as “proposi-
tional” (or Boolean) logical axioms and present a mini-course on propositional
calculus in the exercises of this chapter (I.26–I.41, pp. 193–195), including the
completeness and compactness of the calculus.
It is inevitable that the language of sets intrudes in this chapter (as it indeed
does in all mathematics) and, more importantly, some of the results of (informal)
set theory are needed here (especially in our proofs of the completeness and
compactness metatheorems). Conversely, formal set theory of volume 2 needs
some of the results developed here. This “chicken or egg” phenomenon is often
called “bootstrapping” (not to be confused with “circularity” – which it is not§ ),
the term suggesting one pulling oneself up by one’s bootstraps.¶

† I trust that the reader will not object to my dropping the qualifier “mathematical” from now on.
‡ Although this topic is included in volume 2 (Chapter I), since it is employed in the relative
consistency techniques applied there.
§ Only informal, or naı̈ve, set theory notation and results are needed in Chapter I at the meta-level,
i.e, outside the formal system that logic is.
¶ I am told that Baron Münchhausen was the first one to apply this technique, with success.
 I. Basic Logic 3

This is a good place to outline how our story will unfold: First, our objective is to
formalize the rules of reasoning in general – as these apply to all mathematics –
and develop their properties. In particular, we will study the interaction between
formalized rules and their “intended meaning” (semantics), as well as the limi-
tations of these formalized rules: That is, how good (= potent) are they for
capturing the informal notions of truth?
Secondly, once we have acquired these tools of formalized reasoning, we start
behaving (mostly† ) as users of formal logic so that we can discover important
theorems of two important mathematical theories: Peano arithmetic (Chapter II)
and set theory (volume 2).
By formalization (of logic) we understand the faithful representation or
simulation of the “reasoning processes” of mathematics in general (pure logic),
or of a particular mathematical theory (applied logic: e.g., Peano arithmetic),
within an activity that – in principle – is driven exclusively by the form or syntax
of mathematical statements, totally ignoring their meaning.
We build, describe, and study the properties of this artificial replica of the
reasoning processes – the formal theory – within “everyday mathematics” (also
called “informal” or “real” mathematics), using the usual abundance of mathe-
matical symbolism, notions, and techniques available to us, augmented by the
descriptive power of English (or Greek, or French, or German, or Russian,
or . . . , as particular circumstances or geography might dictate). This milieu
within which we build, pursue, and study our theories is often called the meta-
theory, or more generally, metamathematics. The language we speak while at
it, this mélange of mathematics and “natural language”, is the metalanguage.
Formalization turns mathematical theories into mathematical objects that
we can study. For example, such study may include interesting questions such
as “is the continuum hypothesis provable from the axioms of set theory?” or
“can we prove the consistency of (axiomatic) Peano arithmetic within Peano
arithmetic?”‡ This is analogous to building a “model airplane”, a replica of the
real thing, with a view of studying through the replica the properties, power,
and limitations of the real thing.
But one can also use the formal theory to generate theorems, i.e., discover
“truths” in the real domain by simply “running” the simulation that this theory-
replica is.§ Running the simulation “by hand” (rather than using the program

† Some tasks in Chapter II of this volume, and some others in volume 2, will be to treat the “theory”
at hand as an object of study rather than using it, as a machine, to crank out theorems.
‡ By the way, the answer to both these questions is “no” (Cohen (1963) for the first, Gödel (1938)
for the second).
§ The analogy implied in the terminology “running the simulation” is apt. For formal theories such
as set theory and Peano arithmetic we can build within real mathematics a so-called “provability
4 I. Basic Logic

of the previous footnote) means that you are acting as a “user” of the formal
system, a formalist, proving theorems through it. It turns out that once you get
the hang of it, it is easier and safer to reason formally than to do so informally.
The latter mode often mixes syntax and semantics (meaning), and there is
always the danger that the “user” may assign incorrect (i.e., convenient, but not
general ) meanings to the symbols that he† manipulates, a phenomenon that has
distressed many a mathematics or computer science instructor.
“Formalism for the user” is hardly a revolutionary slogan. It was advocated
by Hilbert, the founder of formalism, partly as a means of – as he believed‡ –
formulating mathematical theories in a manner that allows one to check them
(i.e., run “diagnostic tests” on them) for freedom from contradiction,§ but also
as the right way to “do” mathematics. By this proposal he hoped to salvage
mathematics itself, which, Hilbert felt, was about to be destroyed by the Brouwer
school of intuitionist thought. In a way, his program could bridge the gap
between the classical and the intuitionist camps, and there is some evidence
that Heyting (an influential intuitionist and contemporary of Hilbert) thought
that such a rapprochement was possible. After all, since meaning is irrelevant to
a formalist, then all that he is doing (in a proof) is shuffling finite sequences of
symbols, never having to handle or argue about infinite objects – a good thing,
as far as an intuitionist is concerned.¶

predicate”, that is, a relationP(y, x) which is true of two natural numbers y and x just in case y
codes a proof of the formula coded by x. It turns out that P(y, x) has so simple a structure that it
is programmable, say in the C programming language. But then we can write a program (also in
C) as follows: “Systematically generate all the pairs of numbers (y, x). For each pair generated,
if P(y, x) holds, then print the formula coded by x”. Letting this process run for ever, we obtain
a listing of all the theorems of Peano arithmetic or set theory! This fact does not induce any
insomnia in mathematicians, since this is an extremely impractical way to obtain theorems. By
the way, we will see in Chapter II that either set theory or Peano arithmetic is sufficiently strong
to formally express a provability predicate, and this leads to the incompletableness phenomenon.
† In this volume, the terms “he”, “his”, “him”, and their derivatives are by definition gender-neutral.
‡ This belief was unfounded, as Gödel’s incompleteness theorems showed.
§ Hilbert’s metatheory – that is, the “world” or “lab” outside the theory, where the replica is
actually manufactured – was finitary. Thus – Hilbert advocated – all this theory building and
theory checking ought to be effected by finitary means. This ingredient of his “program” was
consistent with peaceful coexistence with the intuitionists. And, alas, this ingredient was the one
that – as some writers put it – destroyed Hilbert’s program to found mathematics on his version
of formalism. Gödel’s incompleteness theorems showed that a finitary metatheory is not up to
the task.
¶ True, a formalist applies classical logic, while an intuitionist applies a different logic where, for
example, double negation is not removable. Yet, unlike a Platonist, a Hilbert-style formalist does
not believe – or he does not have to disclose to his intuitionist friends that he might believe – that
infinite sets exist in the metatheory, as his tools are just finite symbol sequences. To appreciate the
tension here, consider this anecdote: It is said that when Kronecker – the father of intuitionism –
was informed of Lindemann’s proof (1882) that π is transcendental, while he granted that this was
an interesting result, he also dismissed it, suggesting that “π ” – whose decimal expansion is, of
 I.1. First Order Languages 5
In support of the “formalism for the user” position we must definitely men-
tion the premier paradigm, Bourbaki’s monumental work (1966a), which is a
formalization of a huge chunk of mathematics, including set theory, algebra,
topology, and theory of integration. This work is strictly for the user of mathe-
matics, not for the metamathematician who studies formal theories. Yet, it is
fully formalized, true to the spirit of Hilbert, and it comes in a self-contained
package, including a “Chapter 0” on formal logic.
More recently, the proposal to employ formal reasoning as a tool has been
gaining support in a number of computer science undergraduate curricula, where
logic and discrete mathematics are taught in a formalized setting, starting with
a rigorous course in the two logical calculi (propositional and predicate), em-
phasizing the point of view of the user of logic (and mathematics) – hence with
an attendant emphasis on “calculating” (i.e., writing and annotating formal)
proofs. Pioneering works in this domain are the undergraduate text (1994) and
the paper (1995) of Gries and Schneider.

I.1. First Order Languages

In the most abstract (therefore simplest) manner of describing it, a formalized
mathematical theory consists of the following sets of things: A set of basic
or primitive symbols, V , used to build symbol sequences (also called strings,
or expressions, or words) “over V ”. A set of strings, Wff, over V , called the
formulas of the theory. Finally, a subset of Wff, called Thm, the set of theorems
of the theory.†
Well, this is the extension of a theory, that is, the explicit set of objects in it.
How is a theory “given”?
In most cases of interest to the mathematician it is given by V and two
sets of simple rules: formula-building rules and theorem-building rules. Rules
from the first set allow us to build, or generate, Wff from V . The rules of the
second set generate Thm from Wff. In short (e.g., Bourbaki (1966b)), a theory
consists of an alphabet of primitive symbols, some rules used to generate the
“language of the theory” (meaning, essentially, Wff) from these symbols, and
some additional rules used to generate the theorems. We expand on this below:

course, infinite but not periodic – “does not exist” (see Wilder (1963, p. 193)). We are not to pro-
pound the tenets of intuitionism here, but it is fair to state that infinite sets are possible in intuition-
istic mathematics as this has later evolved in the hands of Brouwer and his Amsterdam “school”.
However, such sets must be (like all sets of intuitionistic mathematics) finitely generated – just
as our formal languages and the set of theorems are (the latter provided our axioms are too) – in
a sense that may be familiar to some readers who have had a course in “automata and language
theory”. See Wilder (1963, p. 234)
† For a less abstract, but more detailed view of theories see p. 38.
6 I. Basic Logic

I.1.1 Remark . What is a “rule”? We run the danger of becoming circular or too
pedantic if we overdefine this notion. Intuitively, the rules we have in mind are
string manipulation rules, that is, “black boxes” (or functions) that receive string
inputs and respond with string outputs. For example, a well-known theorem-
building rule receives as input a formula and a variable, and returns (essentially)
the string composed of the symbol ∀, immediately followed by the variable and,
in turn, immediately followed by the formula.†

(1) First off, the ( first order) formal language, L, where the theory is “spoken”,‡
is a triple (V , Term, Wff), that is, it has three important components, each
of them a set.
V is the alphabet or vocabulary of the language. It is the collection of the
basic syntactic “bricks” (symbols) that we use to form expressions that
are terms (members of Term) or formulas (members of Wff). We will
ensure that the processes that build terms or formulas, using the basic
building blocks in V , are intuitively algorithmic or “mechanical”.
Terms will formally codify “objects”, while formulas will formally
codify “statements” about objects.
(2) Reasoning in the theory will be the process of discovering true statements
about objects – that is, theorems. This discovery journey begins with certain
formulas which codify statements that we take for granted (i.e., we accept
without “proof” as “basic truths”). Such formulas are the axioms. There are
two types of axioms:
Special or nonlogical axioms are to describe specific aspects of any
specific theory that we might be building. For example, “x + 1 = 0”
is a special axiom that contributes towards the characterization of
number theory over the natural numbers, N.
The other kind of axiom will be found in all theories. It is the kind that is
“universally valid”, that is, not theory-specific (for example, “x = x”
is such a “universal truth”). For that reason this type of axiom will be
called logical.
(3) Finally, we will need rules for reasoning, actually called rules of inference.
These are rules that allow us to deduce, or derive, a true statement from
other statements that we have already established as being true.§ These
rules will be chosen to be oblivious to meaning, being only concerned with

† This rule is usually called “generalization”.

‡ We will soon say what makes a language “first order”.
§ The generous use of the term “true” here is only meant for motivation. “Provable” or “deducible”
(formula), or “theorem”, will be the technically precise terminology that we will soon define to
replace the term “true statement”.
 I.1. First Order Languages 7
form. They will apply to statement “configurations” of certain recognizable
forms and will produce (derive) new statements of some corresponding
recognizable forms (See Remark I.1.1).

I.1.2 Remark. We may think of axioms of either logical or nonlogical type as

special cases of rules, that is, rules that receive no input in order to produce an
output. In this manner item (2) above is subsumed by item (3), and thus we are
faithful to our abstract definition of theory where axioms were not mentioned.
An example, outside mathematics, of an inputless rule is the rule invoked
when you type date on your computer keyboard. This rule receives no input,
and outputs on your screen the current date.

We next look carefully into (first order) formal languages.

There are two parts in each first order alphabet. The first, the collection of
the logical symbols, is common to all first order languages regardless of which
theory is “spoken” in them. We describe this part immediately below.

Logical Symbols

LS.1. Object or individual variables. An object variable is any one symbol

out of the non-ending sequence v0 , v1 , v2 , . . . . In practice – whether
we are using logic as a tool or as an object of study – we agree to be
sloppy with notation and use, generically, x, y, z, u, v, w with or without
subscripts or primes as names of object variables.† This is just a matter
of notational convenience. We allow ourselves to write, say, z instead of,
say, v1200000000560000009 . Object variables (intuitively) “vary over” (i.e.,
are allowed to take values that are) the objects that the theory studies
(numbers, sets, atoms, lines, points, etc., as the case may be).
LS.2. The Boolean or propositional connectives. These are the symbols “¬”
and “∨”.‡ They are pronounced not and or respectively.
LS.3. The existential quantifier, that is, the symbol “∃”, pronounced exists or
for some.
LS.4. Brackets, that is, “(” and “)”.
LS.5. The equality predicate. This is the symbol “=”, which we use to indicate
that objects are “equal”. It is pronounced equals.

† Conventions such as this one are essentially agreements – effected in the metatheory – on how
to be sloppy and get away with it. They are offered in the interest of user-friendliness.
‡ The quotes are not part of the symbol. They serve to indicate clearly here, in particular in the
case of “∨”, what is part of the symbol and what is not (the following period).
8 I. Basic Logic

The logical symbols will have a fixed interpretation. In particular, “=” will
always be expected to mean equals.

The theory-specific part of the alphabet is not fixed, but varies from theory
to theory. For example, in set theory we just add the nonlogical (or special)
symbols, ∈ and U . The first is a special predicate symbol (or just predicate) of
arity 2, the second is a predicate symbol of arity 1.†
In number theory we adopt instead the special symbols S (intended meaning:
successor, or “ + 1” function), +, ×, 0, <, and (sometimes) a symbol for the
exponentiation operation (function) a b . The first three are function symbols of
arities 1, 2, and 2 respectively. 0 is a constant symbol, < a predicate of arity 2,
and whatever symbol we might introduce to denote a b would have arity 2.
The following list gives the general picture.

Nonlogical Symbols
NLS.1. A (possibly empty) set of symbols for constants. We normally use
the metasymbols‡ a, b, c, d, e, with or without subscripts or primes, to
stand for constants unless we have in mind some alternative “standard”
formal notation in specific theories (e.g., ∅, 0, ω).
NLS.2. A (possibly empty) set of symbols for predicate symbols or relation
symbols for each possible “arity” n > 0. We normally use P, Q, R
generically, with or without primes or subscripts, to stand for predicate
symbols. Note that = is in the logical camp. Also note that theory-
specific formal symbols are possible for predicates, e.g., <, ∈.
NLS.3. Finally, a (possibly empty) set of symbols for functions for each possi-
ble “arity” n > 0. We normally use f, g, h, generically, with or without
primes or subscripts, to stand for function symbols. Note that theory-
specific formal symbols are possible for functions, e.g., +, ×.

I.1.3 Remark. (1) We have the option of assuming that each of the logical
symbols that we named in LS.1–LS.5 have no further “structure” and that the
symbols are, ontologically, identical to their names, that is, they are just these
exact signs drawn on paper (or on any equivalent display medium).
In this case, changing the symbols, say, ¬ and ∃ to ∼ and E respectively
results in a “different” logic, but one that is, trivially, “isomorphic” to the one

† “Arity” is a term mathematicians have made up. It is derived from “ary” of “unary”, “binary”,
etc. It denotes the number of arguments needed by a symbol according to the dictates of correct
syntax. Function and predicate symbols need arguments.
‡ Metasymbols are informal (i.e., outside the formal language) symbols that we use within
“everyday” or “real” mathematics – the metatheory – in order to describe, as we are doing here,
the formal language.
 I.1. First Order Languages 9
we are describing: Anything that we may do in, or say about, one logic trivially
translates to an equivalent activity in, or utterance about, the other as long as
we systematically carry out the translations of all occurrences of ¬ and ∃ to ∼
and E respectively (or vice versa).
An alternative point of view is that the symbol names are not the same as
(identical with) the symbols they are naming. Thus, for example, “¬” names
the connective we pronounce not, but we do not know (or care) exactly what
the nature of this connective is (we only care about how it behaves). Thus, the
name “¬” becomes just a typographical expedient and may be replaced by other
names that name the same object, not.
This point of view gives one flexibility in, for example, deciding how the
variable symbols are “implemented”. It often is convenient to think that the
entire sequence of variable symbols was built from just two symbols, say, “v”
and “|”.† One way to do this is by saying that vi is a name for the symbol
sequence‡

“v | . . . | ”

 
i|’s

Or, preferably – see (2) below – vi might be a name for the symbol sequence

“v | . . . | v”

 
i|’s

Regardless of option, vi and v j will name distinct objects if i = j.

This is not the case for the metavariables (“abbreviated informal names”)
x, y, z, u, v, w. Unless we say so explicitly otherwise, x and y may name the
same formal variable, say, v131 .
We will mostly abuse language and deliberately confuse names with the
symbols they name. For example, we will say, e.g., “let v1007 be an object
variable . . . ” rather than “let v1007 name an object variable . . . ”, thus appearing
to favour option one.
(2) Any two symbols included in the alphabet are distinct. Moreover, if any of
them are built from simpler “sub-symbols” – e.g., v0 , v1 , v2 , . . . might really
name the strings vv, v|v, v||v, . . . – then none of them is a substring (or subex-
pression) of any other.§

† We intend these two symbols to be identical to their names. No philosophical or other purpose
will be served by allowing “more indirection” here (such as “v names u, which actually names
w, which actually is . . . ”).
‡ Not including the quotes.
§ What we have stated under (2) are requirements, not metatheorems! That is, they are nothing of
the sort that we can prove about our formal language within everyday mathematics.
10 I. Basic Logic

(3) A formal language, just like a “natural” language (such as English or

Greek), is “alive” and evolving. The particular type of evolution we have in
mind is the one effected by formal definitions. Such definitions continually add
nonlogical symbols to the language.†
Thus, when we say that, e.g., “∈ and U are the only nonlogical symbols of
set theory”, we are telling a small white lie. More accurately, we ought to have
said that “∈ and U are the only ‘primitive’ nonlogical symbols of set theory”,
for we will add loads of other symbols such as ∪, ω, ∅, ⊂, ⊆.
This evolution affects the (formal) language of any theory, not just set
theory.

Wait a minute! If formal set theory is “the foundation of all mathematics”, and
if, ostensibly, this chapter on logic assists us to found set theory itself, then
how come we are employing natural numbers like 1200000000560000009 as
subscripts in the names of object variables? How is it permissible to already talk
about “sets of symbols” when we are about to found a theory of sets formally?
Surely we do not “have”‡ any of these “items” yet, do we?
First off, the presence of subscripts such as 1200000000560000009 in
v1200000000560000009
is a non-issue. One way to interpret what has been said in the definition is
to view the various vi as abbreviated names of the real thing, the latter being
strings that employ the symbols v and | as in Remark I.1.3. In this connection
saying that vi is “implemented” as
v|...|v (1)

 
i|’s

especially the use of “i” above, is only illustrative, thus totally superfluous. We
can say instead that strings of type (1) are the variables which we define as
follows without the help of the “natural number i” (this is a variation of how
this is done in Bourbaki (1966b) and Hermes (1973)):
An “|-calculation” forms a string like this: Write a “|”.§ This is the “current
string”. Repeat a finite number of times: Add (i.e., concatenate) one | imme-
diately to the right of the current string. Write this new string (it is now the
current string).

† This phenomenon will be studied in some detail in what follows. By the way, any additions are
made to the nonlogical side of the alphabet. All the logical symbols have been given, once and
for all.
‡ “Do not have” in the sense of having not formally defined – or proved to exist – or both.
§ Without the quotes. These were placed to exclude the punctuation following.
 I.1. First Order Languages 11
Let us call any string that figures in some |-calculation a “|-string”. A variable
either is the string vv, or is obtained as the concatenation from left to right of
v followed by an |-string, followed by v.
All we now need is the ability to generate as many as necessary distinct
variables (this is the “non-ending sequence” part of the definition, p. 7): For
any two variables we get a new one that is different from either one by forming
the string “v, followed by the concatenation of the two |-parts, followed by v”.
Similarly if we had three, four, . . . variables. By the way, two strings of | are
distinct iff† both occur in the same |-calculation, one, but not both, as the last
string.
Another, more direct way to interpret what was said about object variables
on p. 7 is to take the definition literally, i.e., to suppose that it speaks about the
ontology of the variables.‡ Namely, the subscript is just a a string of meaningless
symbols taken from the list below:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Again we can pretend that we know nothing about natural numbers, and when-
ever, e.g., we want a variable other than either of v123 or v321 , we may offer
either of v123321 or v321123 as such a new variable.
O.K., so we have not used natural numbers in the definition. But we did say
“sets” and also “non-ending sequence”, implying the presence of infinite sets!
As we have already noted, on one hand we have “real mathematics”, and on
the other hand we have syntactic replicas of theories – the formal theories –
that we built within real mathematics. Having built a formal theory, we can then
choose to use it (acting like formalists) to generate theorems, the latter being
codified as symbol sequences (formulas). Thus, the assertion “axiomatic set
theory is the foundation of all mathematics” is just a colloquialism proffered
in the metatheory that means that “within axiomatic set theory we can construct
the known sets of mathematics, such as the reals R and the complex numbers
C, and moreover we can simulate what we informally do whenever we are
working in real or complex analysis, algebra, topology, theory of measure and
integration, functional analysis, etc., etc.”
There is no circularity here, but simply an empirical boastful observation in
the metatheory of what our simulator can do. Moreover, our metatheory does
† If and only if.
‡ Why not just say exactly what a definition is meant to say rather than leave it up to interpretation?
One certainly could, as in Bourbaki (1966b), make the ontology of variables crystal-clear right in
the definition. Instead, we have followed the custom of more recent writings and given the defi-
nition in a quasi-sloppy manner that leaves the ontology of variables as a matter for speculation.
This gives one the excuse to write footnotes like this one and remarks like I.1.3.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
scaled from any chart, because of the error due to the distortion of
paper in printing.
The use of protractors on charts in plotting by angles in the three-
point problem will be referred to later.
The course to be steered to allow for a set due to current or wind
may be obtained by a graphical solution on the chart, though it will
be preferable to do this on other paper, using a larger scale. (Fig.
38.) The direction and velocity of the set and the course and speed
of the ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of
forces, of which the diagonal is the distance and course made good.
To obtain the course to steer to reach a given point with a given
current and speed of vessel, lay down the direction of the
destination; from the starting point lay off the direction of set and
the amount in one hour; from the extremity of this describe an arc
with radius equal to the speed of the vessel in one hour. A line
drawn from the extremity of the direction of set to the point of
intersection of the arc and the course to be made good will give the
direction of the course to be steered, and the point of intersection
will also be the estimated position of the vessel at the end of the
hour's run.
Methods of locating a vessel. The principal methods used for
locating the position of a vessel are by astronomical observations, by
dead reckoning, by compass bearings, by ranges, by horizontal
angles, by soundings, by vertical angles, and by sound. The full
discussion of these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage, and
they will be only briefly referred to here as to their graphical
application to charts.
Astronomical methods. There are a number of methods of
obtaining the position of a vessel by astronomical observations.
When the position is computed the chart enters into these only in
the plotting of the final result, so that with one exception these
methods will not be referred to further here.
 The elegant method discovered by an American seaman, Captain
Sumner, in 1843, is in part graphical, to be worked out upon the
chart. This method is based on the obvious fact that at any instant
there is a point on the earth having the sun in its zenith and which is
the center of circles on the earth's surface along the circumference
of any one of which the sun's altitude is the same at all points. A
short portion of such a circle may be considered as a straight line
and can be determined by locating one point and its direction, or
two points in it. This is known as a Sumner line. (Fig. 39.)
From an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth and an
assumed latitude a position is computed and plotted and a line
drawn on the chart through this position at right angles to the
azimuth of the sun as taken from the azimuth tables and laid off
from a meridian. Another method is to compute positions with two
assumed latitudes and plot the two resulting positions and draw a
line through them. The vessel must be somewhere on the resulting
Sumner line. A good determination may be obtained by the
intersection of two Sumner lines obtained from two observations of
the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a change of
azimuth of as much as 30 degrees to give a fair intersection.
Allowance must be made for the movement of the vessel between
the two observations by drawing a line parallel to the first and at a
distance equal to the distance made good. An excellent intersection
may be obtained by observation of the sun, and before or after it of
a star in the twilight at a different azimuth.
CO URSE TO AL LO W FO R SET, GRAP HIC AL
SO L UTIO N

FIG. 3 8.
 P O SITIO N BY INTERSEC TIO N O F SUM NER
L INES

FIG. 3 9.

P O SITIO N BY C O M PASS BEARINGS

FIG. 4 0.

Even a single Sumner line, however, furnishes valuable

information, as it may be combined with other sources of
information to obtain an approximation to the position. The vessel
must be somewhere on this line, and this gives a good check on the
position by dead reckoning, or an intersection may be obtained with
a line or bearing of a distant land object, or a line of soundings may
be compared on the chart with the Sumner line.
If an observation is taken when the observed heavenly body is
bearing abeam, it is evident that the resulting Sumner line will be
the direction of the course of the vessel, and this fact may be useful
in shaping the course when nearing the land or a danger.
Dead reckoning. When impossible to obtain the position by any
other means, it is computed or plotted from the last determined
position, using the courses and distances run as shown by compass
and log and allowing for effect of current and wind. Because of
uncertainties in all these elements, positions so obtained may be
from five to twenty miles in error in a two-hundred-mile run,
depending of course to some extent on the speed of the vessel.
Compass bearings. A compass bearing of a single object, as a
lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land, laid down on the chart,
shows that the vessel is somewhere on that line, and when
combined with other information, as with a Sumner line or the
course by dead reckoning or the distance by a vertical angle, will
give a position whose correctness of course depends on the
accuracy of the data used. Bearings of two objects not in the same
direction give two lines on the chart whose intersection is the
position. This will be very weak if the angle of intersection is acute,
and will become stronger as it approaches a right angle. A bearing
of a third object should be taken when practicable, as it affords a
valuable check in that the three lines should intersect in the same
point; if they do not do so when plotted the error is either in the
observations, or the compass, or the plotting, or the chart. (Fig. 40).
All compass bearings are of course dependent upon the accuracy of
the compass and the knowledge of its errors due to the local
magnetic effect of the ship, and also upon the correctness with
which the magnetic variation from true north is known. Bearings of
near objects should therefore always be preferred, and those of
distant objects considered as giving only approximate positions. An
error of one degree in the bearing of an object 30 miles away will
deflect the plotted line about one-half mile. Because of the facility
with which they may be taken compass bearings are much used for
inshore navigation, but in point of reliability they are inferior to some
of the other methods.
A single or "danger" bearing of an object is often a valuable guide
in avoiding a danger. For example, a reef may lie to the westward of
a line drawn South 10° East from a lighthouse; in approaching a
vessel will pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse is
not allowed to bear any to the northward of North 10° West. (Fig.
41.)
Two successive bearings of a single object, as, for instance, a
lighthouse, noting the distance run in the interval, afford a
convenient and much used means of locating the position with
respect to that object. Such bearings are drawn on the chart in
reversed direction from the object. The distance run between the
bearings, as read by the log and corrected for current if practicable,
is scaled off with dividers and the course of the vessel is set off with
parallel ruler; the latter is then moved across the two plotted
directions until the distance intercepted between them equals that
scaled with the dividers, and the edge of the ruler then represents
the track of the vessel. (Fig. 42.) If the angle from the bow, or from
the course of the vessel, for the second bearing is double that for
the first bearing, the distance from the object at the second bearing
is equal to that run by the vessel in the interval, and the use of this
simple relation is designated as "doubling the angle on the bow." If
the angles between the course and the object are respectively 45°
and 90° when the two bearings are taken on an object on the shore,
the distance that the ship passes offshore when the object is abeam
is equal to the distance run between the two bearings; this is a
much used navigational device, known as the "bow and beam
bearing" or the "four-point bearing." There is an advantage,
however, in using bearings at two and four points (or 22.5° and
45°), as these give the probable distance that the object will be
passed before it is abeam.
Ranges. A valuable line of position is obtained by noting when
two well-situated objects are in range, that is, one back of the other
in the line of sight from the vessel, as, for instance, a church spire
appearing behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent
point. Such ranges are of course entirely free from compass errors,
and should be noted whenever there is favorable opportunity. The
value of the range in plotting will increase with the distance between
the objects, and if the two are close in proportion to the distance to
the vessel the direction will be weak owing to the uncertainty in
drawing a direction through close points. Artificial ranges are often
erected as aids to navigation, usually to indicate the course to be
followed in passing through a channel. Ranges afford a valuable
guide in avoiding dangers, as for example an inspection of the chart
may show that if a certain lighthouse is kept in line with or open
from an islet a dangerous shoal will be given a good berth; on coasts
not well buoyed such danger ranges are sometimes marked on the
charts. (Fig. 43.)

DANGER BEARING

FIG. 4 1.
 P O SITIO N BY SUC CESSIVE
BEARINGS TWO AND FO UR P O INT
BEARINGS

FIG. 4 2.
 RANGE TO AVO ID
DANGER

FIG. 4 3.

Horizontal sextant angles. The location of a position by the

three-point problem, using sextant angles, is much more exact than
by bearings, but is less used because not so well known and also
because additional instruments are required and the conditions are
not always favorable. It is so valuable a method, however, that it
should be used, when necessary, on every well-equipped vessel. A
single horizontal angle taken with a sextant between objects, as two
lighthouses, defines the position of the vessel as somewhere on the
circumference of a circle passing through the two objects and the
vessel. A protractor laid on the chart with two of its arms set at the
observed angle and passing through the two objects, will permit of
locating two or more points of this circle on the chart. This furnishes
a line of position which may be combined with other information to
locate the vessel. With a compass bearing of one of the objects the
position may be plotted directly from the single angle. Two sextant
angles measured at the same instant between three objects furnish
one of the most accurate means of locating the position of a vessel,
this being the same method that is ordinarily used in hydrographic
surveying, known as the three-point problem. (Fig. 44.) The two
angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm protractor, which is
shifted on the chart until the three arms touch the three points,
when the position of the center is plotted. A third angle to a fourth
point furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt. Two angles may
also be taken to four objects without any common point, and in this
case portions of the two circles of position are plotted and their
intersection will be the ship's position.
The value of this method depends largely on the selection of
favorably located objects, and it is quite important that the principles
of the three-point problem be understood. If the ship is on or near
the circumference of a circle which passes through the three objects
the position will be very weak, and the same is true if the distance
between any two of the objects is small as compared with the
distance from them to the vessel. A useful general rule is that the
position will be strong if the middle one of the three objects is the
nearest to the vessel, provided that no two of the objects are close
together in comparison with the distance to the vessel.
A single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a known
danger by using what is known as the horizontal "danger angle."
(Fig. 45.) Note two well-defined objects on the coast either side of
the danger to be avoided and describe a circle through them and
passing sufficiently outside of the reef to give it a safe berth. With a
protractor on the chart note the angle between the objects at any
point on the outer part of this circle. If in passing, the angle at the
ship between the two objects is not allowed to become greater than
this "danger angle" the danger will be given a sufficient berth. This
method as well as any use of sextant angles or bearings depends of
course on the accuracy of the chart, and caution must be used
where it is not certain that the chart depends upon an accurate
survey.
P O SITIO N BY SEXTANT ANGL ES THREE P O INT
P RO BL EM

FIG. 4 4.
 HO RIZO NTAL DANGER ANGL E

FIG. 4 5.

DISTANCE BY VERTICAL ANGL E

VERTIC AL DANGER ANGL E

FIG. 4 6.

Soundings. Even if objects cannot be seen, due to distance or

thick weather, the chart furnishes a valuable aid when a vessel has
approached within the limits where it is practicable to obtain
soundings. Modern navigational sounding machines permit of
obtaining soundings to depths of nearly one hundred fathoms
without stopping the vessel. A rough check is at once obtained by
comparing such soundings with those given on the chart for the
position carried forward by dead reckoning. If a number of
soundings are taken and plotted on a piece of tracing paper, spaced
by the log readings to the scale of the chart, and this tracing paper
is laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity of the probable
position until the soundings best agree with those on the chart, a
valuable verification of position may be obtained. This is particularly
the case if the area has been well surveyed, and the soundings
taken on the vessel are accurate, and the configuration of the
bottom has marked characteristics. For instance, in approaching New
York the crossing of the 30, 20, and 10 fathom curves will give a fair
warning of the distance off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts,
and soundings across such a feature as the submerged Hudson
gorge extending to the southeastward of Sandy Hook will give a
valuable indication of position. The taking of soundings should be
resorted to even in favorable conditions, in approaching shoal water,
as a check on other means of locating the vessel. Many marine
disasters are attributed to failure to make sufficient use of the lead,
the simplest of navigational aids.
Vertical angles. The vertical angle of elevation of an object
whose height is known will give the distance, and combined with a
bearing or other information this permits of locating a vessel where
better means cannot be used. Distance tables are published for this
method. (Fig. 46.) The vertical angle is measured with a sextant and
must be the angle at the ship between the top of the object and the
sea level vertically beneath it; for a hill or mountain, therefore, the
eye of the observer should be near the water. The object should not
be so distant that curvature becomes appreciable. The "vertical
danger angle" is a means of avoiding a known danger, on a principle
similar to that of the horizontal danger angle; that is, the angle of
elevation of a known object is not permitted to become greater than
a fixed amount depending on the distance from the object to the
danger to be avoided.
Positions by sound. In thick weather sound affords a valuable
aid to the navigator. In narrow passages noting the echo of the
whistle from a cliff is a method resorted to, as for instance in Puget
Sound and along the Alaska coast. Fog whistles and bell buoys are
maintained at many places. Submarine bells have recently been
introduced at a number of points along the Atlantic coast, and
vessels may be equipped to receive these submarine signals
transmitted through the water, which indicate also the general
direction from which the sound comes.
 Need of vigilance. Too great importance cannot be attached to
frequent verification of positions by the best available means,
particularly when approaching the land. Neglect of this or
overconfidence has caused many disasters. A notable instance was
the loss of one of the largest Pacific steamers on the coast of Japan
in March, 1907. In the afternoon of a clear day this vessel ran on to
a well-known reef about a mile from a lighthouse, resulting in the
total loss of vessel and cargo valued at three and a half million
dollars. The captain was so confident of his position and that he was
giving the reef a sufficient berth that he laid down no bearings on
the chart and took no soundings.
 FIG. 4 7. FIEL D'S P ROTRAC TO R AND PARAL L EL RU L ER IN
USE O N A C HART, P LOTTING BEARING O F A L IGHTHO USE.

Instruments. The principal instruments needed for use with

charts are; dividers for taking off distances and latitudes and
longitudes, parallel ruler for transferring directions to or from a
compass rose and for taking off or plotting the latitude on a
mercator chart, protractor of 180 degrees for reading the angle with
the meridian of any direction or for laying off on the chart any given
angle with the meridian, and three-arm or other full-circle protractor
for plotting a position by the three-point problem.
Parallel rulers on the principle of Field's are strongly recommended
for chart work, as they combine in a single instrument the
advantages of a parallel ruler and a 180-degree protractor. Any
direction can be read or laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler
to the nearest projection line, which is a process not only more
convenient than referring to the compass rose printed on the chart
but also more accurate because of the longer radius. These
instruments can also be used the same as a plain parallel ruler.
Field's parallel rulers are made in two forms, one rolling and the
other sliding. The former is a single ruler with edge graduated 90
degrees either way, and mounted on rollers; it is the most rapid
instrument for reading or laying off a direction, but it requires a
smooth surface. The latter is an ordinary two-bar parallel ruler with
edge when closed graduated 90 degrees either way; it is a very
serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for
ordinary use than the rolling form. Some form of combined
protractor and parallel ruler should be in every navigational
equipment, and it is unfortunate that these instruments are not
better known in this country. There are other forms of half-circle
protractors which are used on the same principle, that is, of bringing
the center on to a projection line and reading where the line cuts the
border graduation of the protractor. Thus a semicircular protractor is
used with a separate straight edge, along which it is slid to the
nearest meridian; another form is the simple circular protractor with
a thread fastened at the center. All these forms of protractors, it will
be noted, are intended to work from the true meridian, and they are
usually graduated in degrees only; the use of degrees instead of
points is becoming much more general in navigational work, and
reference to the true meridian is also more common than formerly.
The standard three-arm protractor, or station pointer, as it is
known to the English, should be a part of every navigational outfit
because of its value in locating a position by the three-point
problem. A recent American invention, Court's three-arm protractor,
is an instrument made of celluloid for the same purpose. It should
not be considered as a substitute for the standard metal instrument,
but it is a simple, cheap, and handy supplement to it, as it may be
readily used for small angles and short distances where there are
mechanical difficulties in working with the metal three-arm
protractor. Other protractors can be used for the three-point
problem, as, for instance, Cust's protractor on celluloid, on which the
angles are drawn in pencil and erased, and the tracing-paper
protractor.
Degree of reliance on charts. The value of a chart must not be
judged alone from its general appearance, as skill in preparation and
publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete
survey. On the other hand a thorough survey might through poor
preparation result in a chart defective either in information or in
utility.
 FIG. 48. THREE-ARM P ROTRAC TO R IN U SE O N A C HART,
P LOTTING P O SITIO N FRO M TWO ANGL ES.

The degree of completeness of the soundings, the character of the

region, and the date of the survey should be taken into account in
deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart.
Areas where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity
may be assumed not to have been completely surveyed. Caution
should be used in navigating on charts where the survey is not
complete, and even where careful surveys exist care must be taken
if the bottom is of very irregular nature with lumps near the
navigable depth, as for instance on some of the coral reef coasts.
Isolated soundings shoaler than the surrounding depths should be
avoided, as there may be less water than shown. In such a region,
unless the whole area is dragged, it is impossible to make it entirely
certain that all obstructions are charted.
While an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the
preparation of many charts, the user must constantly exercise his
own judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them. A coast is
not to be considered as clear unless it is shown to be; buoys may
get adrift and be in a different position or be gone altogether; fog
signals vary in distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions;
extreme or unusual tides may fall below the plane of reference;
owing to strong winds the actual tide may differ from the predicted
tide. Errors sometimes creep in from various sources, such as those
due to different reference longitudes or the use of a corrected
longitude for a portion of the chart without changing other positions
to which the same correction is applicable; clerical and printing
errors may occur; there are sometimes omissions in surveys; a
feature may get plotted in two different positions; tide rips are
reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands, and
thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found
again, and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one
from blame. Most of these classes of errors and uncertainties,
however, disappear in the use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed
coast.
Use the latest editions of charts. The latest edition of a chart
should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since
its issue. Carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest
scale or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one
marine disaster.
The British Board of Trade issue the following official notice to
shipowners and agents: "The attention of the Board of Trade has
frequently been called to cases in which British vessels have been
endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate
them by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts. The
Board of Trade desires, therefore, to direct the especial attention of
shipowners and their agents to the necessity of seeing that the
charts taken or sent on board their ships are corrected to the time of
sailing. Neglect to supply a ship with proper charts will be brought
prominently before the Court of Inquiry in the event of a wreck
occurring from that cause."
The following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the
catalogue of charts published by the German government: "Owners
and masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents
in which the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts,
have frequently been before the admiralty courts. In consequence of
this, the 'Instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers
and sailing vessels,' issued by the Seeberufsgenossenschaft have
been amended by the following additional paragraph: 'It is obligatory
upon every master, except when engaged in local coastwise
navigation, to keep the Notices to Mariners regularly, and with the
aid of them to carefully keep his charts up to date.'"
The British shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to
sea in such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is
thereby endangered, and the House of Lords has defined the term
"seaworthy" to mean "in a fit state as to repairs, equipment, and
crew, and in all other respects, to encounter the ordinary perils of
the voyage." Proper charts and sailing directions are a necessary
part of the equipment of a vessel, and the courts have frequently
inquired into this.
The records of the British courts, however, show that even in
recent years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly
or indirectly to failure to have the latest information on board. The
following are instances from these records.
In 1890 the steamer Dunluce was lost owing to the use of an old
edition of the Admiralty chart which showed a depth of 4 12 fathoms
on the Wikesgrund, whereas the later chart showed much less water.
In this case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him
the latest chart.
In 1891 the steamer St. Donats got ashore on a patch which was
not shown on the chart in use, which was privately published in
1881; the danger was, however, shown on the Admiralty chart
corrected to 1889.
Also in 1891 the steamer Trent was lost on the Missipezza Rock in
the Adriatic. The ship was navigated by a private chart published in
1890 which did not show this rock, and by sailing directions
published in 1866.
The steamer Aboraca, stranded in the Gulf of Bothnia in 1894, was
being navigated by a chart corrected to 1881 which did not show
that the Storkallagrund light-vessel had been moved eight miles.
The steamer Ravenspur was lost on Bilbao Breakwater owing to
the use of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater.
In 1898 the steamer Cromarty was lost in attempting to enter Ponta
Delgada harbor, and in 1901 the steamer "Dinnington" was lost by
steaming on to the new breakwater in Portland harbor; both of these
disasters were likewise due to the use of old charts which did not
show the breakwaters. In these three cases the masters of the
vessels had authority to obtain the necessary charts at the owners'
expense.
Not so, however, in the following case from the finding of a British
marine court in 1877: "The primary cause of the ship's getting on
shore was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an
obsolete Admiralty chart dated September 1, 1852, and corrected to
April, 1862, and on which no lights are shown to exist either in ... or
... and to his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions.
The Court, considering that the master was obliged to furnish
himself with chronometer, barometer, sextant, charts, sailing
directions, and everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel
out of his private resources, which, under very favorable
circumstances, might perhaps reach £150 a year, find themselves
unable in this instance to pass a heavier censure upon him than that
he be severely reprimanded."
The loss of the German steamer Baker on the coast of Cuba on
January 31, 1908, was declared by the marine court at Hamburg to
be due in part to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show
the latest surveys on that coast.
Use the largest scale charts. The largest scale chart available
should be employed when entering channels, bays, or harbors, as it
gives information with more clearness and detail, positions may be
more accurately plotted, and sometimes it is the first corrected for
new information.
The records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels
have been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale.
In 1890 the steamer Lady Ailsa was lost on the Plateau du Four.
The only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the
Bay of Biscay, and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking
one buoy for another. The court found that the chart, although a
proper one for general use, was not sufficient for the navigation of a
vessel in such narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast.
The Zenobia was stranded on the San Thomé Bank in 1891. On
this vessel the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the
master the charts and sailing directions. The master was, however,
apparently satisfied with only a general chart of the South Atlantic
for navigation on the coast of Brazil, and had no sailing directions at
all.
The depth curves on charts furnish a valuable guide, and if the
curves are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that
the information is incomplete. The 100-fathom curve is a general
warning of approach to the coast. The 10-fathom curve on rocky
coasts should be considered as a danger curve, and caution used
after crossing it. The 5-fathom curve is the most important for
modern vessels of medium draft, as it indicates for them the
practical limit of navigation. The 3, 2, and 1-fathom curves are a
guide to smaller vessels, but have less significance than formerly
because of the increase of draft of vessels.
The shrinkage of paper, especially in plate printing, has been
referred to. This introduces two possible sources of error: first, the
shrinkage being different in the two directions, any scale printed on
the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to
itself; second, for the same reason, angles and directions will be
somewhat distorted. Fortunately these errors are not serious in the
ordinary navigational use of a chart, but they should not be
overlooked when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is
attempted on a plate-printed chart.
The actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates
varies from 13 inch to 1 inch in a length of chart of 36 inches. On
British and American plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually
from two to nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in
the other.
Care of charts. In order that they may be properly used charts
should be filed flat and not rolled. They should be systematically
arranged so that the desired chart can be instantly found. They
should be cared for and when in bad condition replaced by new
copies. They can be most conveniently filed in shallow drawers, thus
avoiding the placing of many charts in a single drawer. The latter is a
common fault; it not only increases the labor of handling the charts
but adds to the liability of their injury.
 PUBLICATIONS SUPPLEMENTING NAUTICAL
CHARTS.
There are several publications in book and in chart form which are
either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical
charts. These comprise the coast pilots, notices to mariners, tide
tables, light and buoy lists, and various special charts.
Coast pilots, or sailing directions, are books giving descriptions
of the main features, as far as of interest to seamen, of the coast
and adjacent waters, with directions for navigation. They contain
much miscellaneous information of value to the mariner, especially
the stranger. Although they contain additional facts which cannot be
shown on the charts, they are not at all intended to supersede the
latter; the mariner should in general rely on the charts. The sailing
directions can be less readily corrected than the charts, and in all
cases where they differ the charts are to be taken as the guide.
The most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by
the British Admiralty, comprising fifty-six volumes and including all
the navigable regions of the world. In the United States the Coast
and Geodetic Survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the
Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, Porto Rico, and southeastern
Alaska, and eight volumes of sailing directions for Alaska and the
Philippine Islands. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes
sixteen volumes of sailing directions for various parts of the world.
Notices to Mariners are published at frequent intervals, giving
all important corrections, which should be at once applied by hand
to the charts, such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and
buoys established or moved. New charts, new editions, and canceled
charts are also announced.
These notices should be carefully examined and the necessary
corrections made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel. A
chart should be considered as a growing rather than a finished
instrument, and constant watchfulness is required to see that it is
kept up to date. Neglect of this may cause shipwreck, as the
following instance shows. Report came to Manila in 1904 that there
was a low sand islet lying off the very poorly charted northeast coast
of Samar; this information was promptly published in the local Notice
to Mariners. About a month later a small steamer was sent to land
some native constabulary on that coast. The captain failed to obtain
or observe this notice, and approached the coast before daylight on
a course which led directly across the sand islet. The vessel was
driven far up on the sand, where it still lies.
In the United States, weekly Notices to Mariners are published by
the Department of Commerce and Labor for the coasts under the
jurisdiction of the United States, and by the Navy Department for all
regions. These notices are distributed free and can be obtained from
chart agents and consular officers. In Great Britain the notices are
published at frequent intervals by the Hydrographic Office, and
practically all countries issuing charts also issue such notices.
Information as to important changes in lights and other
announcements of navigational interest are also sometimes printed
in the marine columns of newspapers and in nautical periodicals.
Tide Tables. Brief information as to the time and height of the
tide is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart. More
complete information is published in the Tide Tables, with which
every navigator should be provided. "The Tide Tables for United
States and foreign ports," published annually in advance by the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, give complete predictions
of the time and height of high and low water for each day of the
year for 70 of the principal ports of the world, and the tidal
differences from some principal port for 3000 subordinate ports. The
other leading nations also publish annual tide tables; those of the
British government are entitled "Tide Tables for British and Irish
ports, and also the times of high water for the principal places on
the globe."
 Light and buoy lists. Brief information as to all artificial aids to
navigation is shown on the charts. Every vessel should also have on
board the latest official light and buoy lists, which give a more
detailed description than can be placed on the charts.
Light and buoy lists for the coasts of the United States are
published annually by the Light-House Board. The United States
Hydrographic Office publishes a "List of Lights of the World"
(excepting the United States), in three volumes.
The British Hydrographic Office publishes eight volumes of Lists of
Lights, and these are corrected annually.
Chart catalogues are published in connection with all series of
charts. They give the particulars and price of each chart published,
and are usually arranged in geographical order, with both
alphabetical and numerical indexes, for convenience in finding charts
either by position, name, or number.
Charts for special purposes. There are various special charts
published for the benefit of mariners, although not intended for
direct use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position.
Some of the more important of these are mentioned below.
Gnomonic charts are intended solely for laying down the great
circle or shortest practicable courses between points, for which
purpose they are very convenient. Their use has already been
described. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes six such
charts, for the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Pacific, North Pacific,
South Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
Current charts are published by the British Hydrographic Office
for the various oceans; these usually show the average ocean
currents, but for the Atlantic there are monthly and for the Pacific
quarterly current charts.
Magnetic variation charts are published by both the United
States and British governments. They show on a mercator chart of
the world the isogonic lines, or lines along which the variation of the
needle from true north is the same. The lines are drawn for each
degree of variation. The annual change in the variation is also
indicated.
Other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal
magnetic dip, horizontal magnetic force, and vertical magnetic force.
Meteorological ocean charts are published by several
governments, including the United States, Great Britain, and
Germany, and give the average weather conditions, winds, fogs,
currents, ice, tracks of storms, and other information. "Pilot charts"
of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans are issued by the
United States Hydrographic Office about the first of each month, and
give "a forecast of the weather for the ensuing and a review of that
for the preceding month, together with all obtainable information as
to the most available sailing and steam routes, dangers to
navigation, ice, fog, derelicts, etc., and any additional information
that may be received of value to navigation." Mariners in all parts of
the world have joined in contributing the information which has been
used in compiling these pilot charts.
Track charts are published by the British and United States
governments. That of the latter is entitled "Track and distance chart
of the world, showing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers
between the principal ports of the world, and the corresponding
distances."
Telegraph charts are published showing the "telegraphic
connections afforded by the submarine cables and the principal
overland telegraph lines."
Index charts are outline plans showing the area covered by each
chart of a series, and furnish a convenient means of finding a chart
of any desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any
purpose. These index charts are published either in sets, showing all
the charts of a series, or are bound into the chart catalogues.
Star charts are included in navigational series, and are
conveniently arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the
brighter stars. The United States Hydrographic Office publishes two,
constellations of the northern and of the southern hemispheres.
Explanatory sheets are published in connection with various
series of charts, giving explanations of the symbols and
abbreviations used and of other important features. In the United
States the Coast and Geodetic Survey has issued a small pamphlet,
"Notes on the use of charts," which contains explanations of its chart
symbols, and the Hydrographic Office has published "A manual of
conventional symbols and abbreviations in use on the official charts
of the principal maritime nations."
 INDEX
PAGE
Aids to navigation, 118
Arbitrary projection, 79
Astronomical observations, 32
Astronomical positions, 126

Bearings, position by, 130

Board of Trade notice, 148

Care of charts, 153

Catalogues of charts, 157
Changes in the coast, 98
Chart making, development of, 6
Chart publications of various nations, 18
Charts, earliest nautical, 6
Charts, loxodromic, 7
Charts, plain, 8
Chart schemes, 67
Chart working, 124
Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States, 13
Coast pilots, 154
Compass bearings, 130
Compass, nautical use of, 6
Compass, variation of, 7
Compilation of information, 67
Correction of charts, method of, 110
Cosa, Juan de la, 8
Current charts, 157
Currents, 50, 121
Danger angle, horizontal, 136
Danger bearing, 131
Danger range, 132
Dangers, reports of, 56
Dates on charts, 123
Dead reckoning, 129
Depth curves, 116, 152
Depths, unit for, 19, 116
Depth units, relation of, 118
Directions on charts, 115
Distances, measured on chart, 125
Distribution of charts, 96
Doubling angle on bow, 131
Draft of vessels, 97
Dragging for dangers, 55

Earthquakes, 109
Electrotyping plates, 89
Elevations, 122
Engraving machines, 89
Engraving on copper, 84
Engraving on stone, 93
Eskimo map, 1
Etching on copper, 95
Explanatory sheets, 159

Flattening of the earth, 3

France, establishment of chart office, 10

Geographic position on charts, 115

Geography, early, 2
Germany, contributions to hydrography, 14
Gnomonic charts, 79, 157
Gnomonic projection, 74
Great Britain, contributions to geography, 14

Holland, development of chart making, 10

Hydrographic Office, British, 13
Hydrographic Office, United States, 13
Hydrography, 40

Index charts, 158

Information on charts, 23
Instruments used on charts, 141

Lake Survey, United States, 13

Largest scale chart, 151
Latest editions of charts, 148
Light and buoy lists, 156
Lithographic printing, 94
Locating a vessel, 126
Longitude, initial, 19
Longitude, uncertainties in, 10

Magnetic charts, 157

Magnetic variation, 56
Map, earliest, 2
Map making, development of, 2
Maps, need of, 1
Maritime surveys, extension of, 17
Mercator chart, history, 8
Mercator projection, 68
Meteorological charts (pilot charts), 158

Navigation, use of charts in, 124

Notices to mariners, 111, 155

Paper, shrinkage of, 152

Parallel rulers, Field's, 141
Photolithography, 93
Plane of reference, 20, 119
Plotting positions, 124
Polyconic projection, 73
Printing, plate, 84, 90
Privately published charts, 21
Progress of hydrographic surveys, 17
Projection, explanation of, 114
Projections, 68, 114
Protractor, three-arm, 144
Ptolemy, 3
Publication of charts, methods, 84
Purpose of charts, 22

Ranges, 132
Reading charts, 112
Reliance on charts, 144
Reports of dangers, erroneous, 57
Requirements for charts, 23
Revision of charts, need of, 97
Rock, Brooklyn, 50

Sailing directions, early, 4

Sailing directions, 154
Scale equivalents, 113
Scales of charts, 79, 112
Set, graphical allowance for, 125
Sextant angles, 132
Sheets for surveys, 39
Shrinkage of paper, 152
Sound, position by, 140
Sounding machines, 49
Soundings, position by, 136
Star charts, 159
Station pointer, 144
Steamer for surveying, 49
Sumner's method, 126
Supplementary publications, 154
Surveys on foreign coasts, 14
Surveys, need of thorough, 31
Symbols on charts, 20

Telegraph charts, 158

Three-point problem, 132, 135
Tides, 50, 120
Tide tables, 156
Topography, 39
Topography on charts, 123
Track charts, 158
Triangulation, 32

Uniformity in charts, 21
Use of charts in navigation, 124

Vertical angles, 139

Vigias, removal of, 62
Vigilance, need of, 140
Volcanic action, 109

Wrecks due to deficient charts, 149

 SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
OF THE
PUBLICATIONS
OF
JOHN WILEY & SONS,
New York.
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an
asterisk (*) are sold at net prices only. All books are bound in cloth
unless otherwise stated.
AGRICULTURE.
Armsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding. 12mo, $1 75
Principles of Animal Nutrition. 8vo, 4 00
Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:
Part I. Propagation, Culture, and Improvement. 12mo, 1 50
Part II. Systematic Pomology. 12mo, 1 50
Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage. 12mo, 1 50
Practical Farm Drainage. 12mo, 1 00
Graves's Forest Mensuration. 8vo, 4 00
Green's Principles of American Forestry. 12mo, 1 50
Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) 12mo, 2 00
Hanausek's Microscopy of Technical Products. (Winton.) 8vo, 5 00
Herrick's Denatured or Industrial Alcohol. 8vo, 4 00
Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home
Decoration. 12mo, 1 50
* McKay and Larsen's Principles and Practice of Butter-
making. 8vo, 1 50
Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops. 12mo, 1 50
* Schwarz's Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest. 12mo, 1 25
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils. 8vo, 2 50
Winton's Microscopy of Vegetable Foods. 8vo, 7 50
Woll's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen. 16mo, 1 50

ARCHITECTURE.
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings. 12mo, 2 50
Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House. 12mo, 1 00
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American
Railroads. 4to, 5 00
Birkmire's Planning and Construction of
American Theatres. 8vo, 3 00
Architectural Iron and Steel. 8vo, 3 50
Compound Rivetée Girders as Applied in
Buildings. 8vo, 2 00
Planning and Construction of High Office
Buildings. 8vo, 3 50
Skeleton Construction in Buildings. 8vo, 3 00
Brigg's Modern American School Buildings. 8vo, 4 00
Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of
Buildings. 8vo, 4 00
Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 8vo, 3 50
Fireproofing of Steel Buildings. 8vo, 2 50
French and Ives's Stereotomy. 8vo, 2 50
Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection. 16mo, 1 00
Sanitation of Public Buildings. 12mo, 1 50
Theatre Fires and Panics. 12mo, 1 50
* Greene's Structural Mechanics. 8vo, 2 50
Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook. 18mo, 75
Johnson's Statics by Algebraic and Graphic
Methods. 8vo, 2 00
Kellaway's How to Lay Out Suburban Home
Grounds. 8vo, 2 00
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