Elements of civil engineering and engineering mechanics 10CIV13

Unit I: Introduction to Civil Engineering

1.1 Introduction
Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical
applications, where the materials & forces in nature are effectively used for the benefit of
mankind.
An Engineer is a person who plays a key role in such activities.

1.1.1 Civil Engineering: It is the oldest branch of professional engineering, where the civil
engineers are concerned with projects for the public or civilians.
The role of civil engineers is seen in every walk of life or infrastructure development activity
such as follows:-
1. Providing shelter to people in the form of low cost houses to high rise
apartments.
2. Laying ordinary village roads to express highways.
3. Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams & canals for supplying water to
agricultural fields.
4. Supplying safe and potable water for public & industrial uses.
5. Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment & solid waste disposal
techniques.
6. Constructing hydro-electric & thermal-power plants for generating electricity.
7. Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbour & airports.
8. Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas.
9. Tunneling across mountains & also under water to connect places easily & reduce
distance.
As seen above, civil engineering is a very broad discipline that incorporates many activates in
various fields. However, civil engineers specialize themselves in one field of civil
engineering. The different fields of civil engineering and the scope of each can be briefly
discussed as follows.
1. Surveying: It is a science and art of determining the relative position of points on the
earth‟s surface by measuring distances, directions and vertical heights directly or
indirectly. Surveying helps in preparing maps and plans, which help in project
implementation. (setting out the alignment for a road or railway track or canal,
deciding the location for a dam or airport or harbour) The cost of the project can also
be estimated before implementing the project. Now-a-days, using data from remote
sensing satellites is helping to prepare maps & plans & thus cut down the cost of
surveying.
2. Geo-Technical Engineering (Soil Mechanics): Any building, bridge, dam, retaining
wall etc. consist of components like foundations. The foundation is laid from a
certain depth below the ground surface till a hard layer is reached. The soil should be
thoroughly checked for its suitability for construction purposes. The study dealing
with the properties & behaviour of soil under loads & changes in environmental
conditions is called geo-technical engineering. The knowledge of the geology of an
area is also very much necessary.
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3. Structural Engineering: A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements

like foundations, columns, beams, slabs etc. These components are always subjected
to forces. It becomes important to determine the magnitude & direction the nature of
the forces and acting all the time. Depending upon the materials available or that can
be used for construction, the components or the parts of the building should be safely
& economically designed. A structured engineer is involved in such designing
activity. The use of computers in designing the members, is reducing the time and
also to maintain accuracy.
4. Transportation Engineering: The transport system includes roadways, railways, air
& waterways. Here the role of civil engineers is to construct facilities related to each
one. Sometimes crucial sections of railways & roads should be improved. Roads to
remote places should be developed. Ports & harbours should be designed to
accommodate, all sizes of vehicles. For an airport, the runway & other facilities such
as taxiways, terminal buildings, control towers etc. should be properly designed.
5. Irrigation & Water resources engineering (Hydraulics Engineering): Irrigation is
the process of supplying water by artificial means to agricultural fields for raising
crops. Since rainfall in an area is insufficient or unpredictable in an area, water
flowing in a river can be stored by constructing dams and diverting the water into the
canals & conveyed to the agricultural fields. Apart from dams & canals other
associated structures like canals regulators, aqua ducts, weirs, barrages etc. are also
necessary. Hydro electric power generation facilities are also included under this
aspect.
6. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (Environmental Engineering): People
in every village, town & city need potable water. The water available (surface water
& ground water) may not be fit for direct consumption. In such cases, the water
should be purified and then supplied to the public. For water purification,
sedimentation tanks, filter beds, etc. should be designed. If the treatment plants are for
away from the town or city, suitable pipelines for conveying water & distributing it
should also be designed. In a town or city, a part of the water supplied returns as
sewage. This sewage should be systematically collected and then disposed into the
natural environment after providing suitable treatment. The solid waster that is
generated in a town or locality should be systematically collected and disposed off
suitably. Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so that any material
can be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.
7. Building Materials & Construction Technology: Any engineering structure requires
a wide range of materials known as building materials. The choice of the materials is
wide & open. It becomes important for any construction engineer to be well versed
with the properties & applications of the different materials. Any construction project
involves many activities and also required many materials, manpower, machinery &
money. The different activities should be planned properly; the manpower, materials
& machinery should be optimally utilized, so that the construction is completed in
time and in an economical manner. In case of large construction projects management
techniques of preparing bar charts & network diagrams, help in completing the project
orderly in time.

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1.1.1 Effects of Infrastructure development on the Socio-economic development of a

country:

The term infrastructure is widely used to denote the facilities available for the socio-economic
development of a region. The infrastructure facilities to be provided for the public include:

1. Transport facilities
2. Drinking water and sanitation facilities
3. Irrigation facilities
4. Power generation & transmission facilities
5. Education facilities
6. Health care facilities
7. Housing facilities
8. Recreation facilities
The well being of a nation is dependent on the quality & the quantity of the above services
that are provided to the public. Development of infrastructure has number of good effects
which can be listed as follows.
1. It is a basic necessity for any country or state.
2. It forms a part of business, research & education.
3. It improved health care & Cultural activities.
4. It provided housing & means of communication to people.
5. It provided direct employment to many number of skilled, semiskilled & unskilled
laborers.
6. It leads to the growth of associated industries like cement, steel, glass, timber, plastics,
paints, electrical goods etc.
7. It helps in increasing food production & protection from famine.
8. Exporting agricultural goods can fetch foreign currency.
Some ill effects of infrastructure development can also be listed as follows:
1. Exploitation of natural resources can lead to environmental disasters.
2. Migration of people from villages to towns & cities in search of job takes place.
3. Slums are created in cities.
4. It becomes a huge financial burden on the government and tax prayers.
1.2 ROADS
Transportation of goods & people can be done by roadways, railways, waterways & airways.
Each mode of transportation has advantages and disadvantages of its own in comparison to
the others.
Roads play a crucial role in any country‟s development. They have the following advantages
when compared with other modes of transportation.
1. They give maximum service to one and all.
2. They have maximum flexibility with respect to route, direction and speed.
3. They are directly accessible to the users at all destination points.

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4. Other modes of transportation are dependent on roads to serve, the people from their
terminals.
5. Roads can be used by various types of vehicles but other modes of transportation can
cater to a particular locomotive only.
6. Roads can provide door to door service.
7. Construction of roads is easier when compared to other modes.
8. For short distance traveling, road travel is easier.

At the same time, the disadvantages of roads can be listed as follows:-

1. The severity of accidents is related to speed.
2. Frequency of accidents among road users is more.
3. It does not provide much comfort for long distance travel.
4. Roads get easily damaged in heavy rainfall areas and require frequent maintenance.
1.2.1: Components or Cross section elements of a road:
All roads should essentially consist of the following components:-
1. Pavement or Carriage way
2. Shoulders
Pavement or Carriage way: It refers to the path over which the vehicles and other traffic
can move lawfully. It also includes the path way and other related structures like bridges,
flyovers, underpasses which make road traveling easier. The width of the road is designed
according to the traffic volume on the road. According to Indian Road Congress (IRC)
specification, the maximum width of a vehicle should not be more than 2.44 mts. A side
clearance of 0.68 mts for safety should also be provided. Hence, the width of the pavement
for a single lane road becomes 3.8 mts. In case of multi lane traffic, the width of each lane
should be at least 3.5 mts. Depending upon the number of lanes, that can be provided; the
total width of the pavement can be fixed.
The different cross section elements of a road can be represented as follows.

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1. Sub Soil: It refers to the natural soil or prepared soil on which the loads coming on
the road are ultimately transferred. Hence the Sub Soil should be prepared by
compacting it properly by rollers.
2. Sub grade: This layer gives support to the road structure. This should remain dry
and stable throughout the year. Much attention should be given in preparing the sub
grade. This layer consists of disintegrated rocks mixed with gravel. Now a day, a lean
mixture of concrete with large amounts of sand and stones is used in preparing this
layer. The thickness of this layer depends upon, the type of vehicles and traffic
volume on the road.
3. Base Course: This layer is constructed in one or two layers consisting of stones mixed
with gravel. Bigger stones are used at the bottom. At the top level, smaller stones
mixed with cohesive soil or cement are provided and thoroughly compacted. This
layer provides a proper support for the upper layers.

4. Surface course/wearing course: It is the topmost layer of the carriage way. It takes
the loads directly. This layer is either made of flexible materials (bitumen or coal tar
mixed with stones) or a rigid material (concrete). This layer should be moderately
rough to provide good grip for the vehicles. The top surface of the varying course is
provided a lateral slope (camber), to drain off the rain water from the road surface
quickly and effectively.
5. Shoulders: The width of a road is always extended beyond the road on both sides by
a width of at least 2 to 5 mts. This space acts as a space for moving away any broken
down vehicles or parking vehicles in an emergency. The shoulders should satisfy the
following requirements:-
They should have a sufficient bearing capacity even in wet condition.
The shoulders should have distinctive colour from the pavement to guide the vehicles
users on the pavement only.
The surface of the shoulder should be rough to avoid the drivers from using the
shoulders frequently.
1.2.2: Other components of roads:
The following components are also essential for roads depending upon, the places where
the roads are provided.
1. Traffic separators: These are provided to separate the traffic moving in opposite
directions, thus avoiding head on collision. These can be provided as a yellow colour
strip or steel barricade or a permanent median all along the centre lines of the road.
2. Kerbs:
Footpath Kerb
Pavement

Within the city limits, to separate the pavements from the footpath, a raised stone
(kerb) is provided at the edge of the pavement. The height of the kerb is normally 15
to 20 cms.
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3. Footpath: Apart from vehicles, the pedestrians should also be provided some space
for moving at the edge of the roads. Footpaths should be provided essentially
everywhere. The footpath may be in level with the road surface or slightly raised
higher than the road surface.
4. Parking Lanes: These are usually provided or reserved on the road edges within a
city limit for allowing the vehicles to be parked conveniently. The parking lanes are
distinctively separated by white colour strips so that moving vehicles do not enter
parking lanes.
5. Cycle tracks: In some countries in urban areas, separate cycle tracks of 2 mts. width
are provided all along the length of the road.
6. Guard stones and guard rails: Whenever, the road formation level is higher than the
natural ground level, at the edges of the shoulders, guard stones or guard rails should
be provided to avoid accidental fall of vehicles from the earth slope.
7. Fencing: Whenever a highway or an expressway passes through urban areas, fencing
is provided all along the road to prevent the cattle and people from entering the traffic
zone.
1.2.3 Classification or types of roads:
Depending upon various criteria, roads can be classified as follows:
1. Based on seasonal usage:
a. All weather roads: These are roads which are usable in all seasons including rainy
season in a year.
b. Fair weather roads: These are roads which are usable during the dry seasons in a
year.
2. Based on the nature of pavement surface provided:
a. Surfaced roads: These are roads in which the topmost layer is covered with a
bituminous material or a rigid material like concrete.
b. Un- surfaced roads: These are roads in which the topmost layer is not covered by a
bituminous material or concrete but covered with a layer of stones mixed with gravel
& thoroughly compacted.
3. Based on the importance of connectivity, function & traffic volume:
a. Expressways: These are roads which are developed to inter connect two important
cities only, where the traffic volume is very high. On these roads cross traffic &
traffic in opposite direction is not allowed. Throughout the length of the road medians
are provided & vehicles can move at high speeds. Fencing is also provided all along
the road.
b. National highways: These are the main network of roads, running through the length
& breadth of a country. These roads inter connect state capitals, union territories,
major ports, industrial areas and tourist destinations.
c. State highways: These are roads at a state level, which interconnect district
headquarters and also interlink national highways running through a state or
neighbouring states.

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d. Major district roads: These are important roads within a district, which help in
moving goods from agricultural production areas to market places. These roads may
also inter connect state highways and national highways. The permissible speed and
traveling comforts on such roads is lesser.
e. Other district roads: These are roads which interlink taluk headquarters and other
main roads. They also serve as a link between agricultural areas and market places.
f. Village roads: These are roads connecting villages & remote habitat groups with
major district roads & other district roads. The surface of such roads may not be
covered with a bituminous layer, but fairly leveled and covered with stones and gravel.
Typical Cross Sections of a Highway:
1. Highway running over an embankment:

2. Highway running in cutting:

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3. Highway running in urban areas:

1.3 BRIDGES

A bridge is a structure which provides a safe passage for a road or railway track over
obstacles, without closing the obstacle below. The obstacle to be crossed may be a river
or stream, a canal, road or a railway track. A bridge may also be built for the safe passage
of a canal (aqua duct).

Components of a bridge: A bridge basically consists of following two components.

a. Super Structure
b. Sub Structure

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a. Super Structure: It refers to the part of the bridge above the bearing level. The
components included in the super structure are RCC beam, Deck slab, guard rails,
pavement etc.
b. Sub Structure: It refers to the part of the bridge below the bearing level. The
components included in the substructure are bearings, piers, abutments, wing walls,
foundation, etc.

Classification of bridges:
Depending upon the position of the road surface or road formation level with respect to the
bearing level in a bridge, bridges are classified as follows.
a. Deck bridges: These are bridges in which road formation level or pavement is above
the bearing level in a bridge.

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In such bridges sufficient head room for all vehicles is available. RCC beam bridges,
Steel girder bridges are example for Deck bridges.
b. Through bridges: These are bridges in which the road formation level is lower than
the bearing level in the bridge.

Cable stayed bridges & truss bridges are example for through bridges. Such bridges
may not provide sufficient head room for all vehicles, if the road formation level is
increased subsequently.
c. Semi -through bridges: These are bridges in which the road formation level is at
some intermediate level of the super structure.

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Such bridges do not provide sufficient head room for all vehicles when the road formation
level increases subsequently. Steel girder bridges are examples of semi -through bridges.

Square bridges & skew bridges:

Whenever a bridge is to be constructed over a stream or river, the centre line of the bridge
should be aligned at right angles to the direction of flowing water in the river. In such cases,
the flowing water does not exert excessive forces on the piers and abutments. If the centre line
of the bridge is at right angles to the direction of flowing water in the river, the bridge is
known as square bridge.
If the centre line of the bridge is not at right angles to the direction of flowing water in the
river, the bridge is known as skew bridge.

Square Bridge Skew bridge

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1.4 DAMS

A Dam is an obstruction or barrier or a hydraulic structure which is constructed across

a river or stream to store water on the upstream side as an artificial lake or reservoir.

Dams serve the following purposes:

1. Storing water for irrigation
2. Supplying water for domestic & industrial uses
3. Supplying water for hydroelectric power generation
4. Aquaculture
5. For controlling floods in a river
6. For inland navigation
Classification of Dams:
Depending upon various criteria, dams can be classified as follows.
1. Based on the purpose served:
a. Coffer dams: These are temporary dams which are constructed during the
construction of actual main dam to keep the dam site free from water.
b. Storage dams: These are dams built across non perennial rivers to store water in a
reservoir during excess flow. The stored water is released to the down stream side
through canals and can be utilized for various uses.
c. Diversion dams: These are irrigation structures which are constructed across a river
to slightly raise the water level, without making an attempt to store water. By

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increasing the water level, water is directly diverted into the canals. Barrages are
examples of diversion dams.
d. Detention dams: These are dams which are constructed to store water temporarily
only during floods. The water is then released to the down stream side when the
floods recede.
e. Debris dams: These are small dams which are built across, the streams or tributaries
which join the main river. By constructing these dams across streams or tributaries on
the upstream side of the main dam, entry of silt & debris can be controlled & the
useful life of the reservoir can be increased.
2. Based on the hydraulic design:
a. Overflow dams: Any dam is designed or constructed to store water up to a certain
maximum height only. When the water level exceeds the maximum level, the excess
water should be discharged to the down stream side safely. In overflow dams, the
excess water is allowed to overtop the body of the dam.

b. Non-over flow dams: In majority of the dams, the excess water entering the reservoir
is not allowed to overtop the entire length of the dam. The excess water is released to
the down stream side through a separate spill way & such dams are called non over
flow dams. The spill may be included in the main portion of dam or through a
separate spill way section.

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3. Based on the resisting action to external forces:

When water is stored in a dam or reservoir, the stored water exerts forces on the
upstream face of the dam. Some amount of water also seeps through the bottom of the
dam. This seeping water exerts (applies) uplift pressure on the dam. The down stream
face of the dam is exposed to wind pressure. The waves that are generated at the top
of the reservoir also exert forces on the dam. The body of the dam should be able to
resist all such forces and different dams resist these forces in different ways.
a. Gravity dams: These are dams which are built of rigid materials like concrete & stone
masonry. The cross sections of such dams are very large & also have enormous self
weight. The destabilizing forces like hydrostatic pressure, wind pressure, uplift
pressure, and wave pressure are resisted by the self weight of the dam only.

b. Arch dams: These are dams which are also constructed of rigid material like concrete
or stone masonry. These dams are curved in plan. The cross section of such dams is
slender when compared to gravity dams. These dams transfer the water pressure, wind
pressure etc. to the banks of the river by arch action.

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c. Buttress dams: These are dams in which the water pressure from the stored water
acts on a thin deck slab, which is supported over a series of buttresses (piers or
columns). The loads are transferred from the deck slab to the buttresses and then to
the bed of the river.

4. Based on materials used:

a. Rigid dams: These are dams which are constructed of rigid materials like concrete,
stone masonry, steel sheets. Gravity dams, Arch dams and Buttress dams are examples
of rigid dams.
b. Non rigid dams: These are dams which are constructed art of non rigid materials like
earth fill & rock fill. Such dams cannot exceed 30 mtrs. in height.

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