NAME: FREVAN P.

CADABONA

LAB SCHED: F_7:00-10:00 AM/ W_10:00-1:00PM

Activity 4: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Procedure:

- this lab should enhance your understanding of the lectures on these topics and give you a
visual explanation of events, so you have to open the web site below and watch the video: -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snBVFnwHqWE
- - work in your groups

THE REFLEX ARC

Reflexes are rapid, predictable responses to stimuli. The pathway along which the electrical signals
travel is called a reflex arc. There are five parts to a reflex arc:

1. The receptor detects a stimulus.

2. The sensory (afferent) neuron sends an electrical signal to the CNS.
3. The integration center consists of one or more synapses in the CNS, and processes the
information.
4. The motor (efferent) neuron sends an electrical signal from the CNS to the effector.
5. The effector, which may be muscle tissue or a gland, responds appropriately.

A monosynaptic reflex has only one synapse. An example is the patellar or knee-jerk reflex. Most
reflexes, however, are polysynaptic, involving more than one synapse. The more synapses involved,
the longer the reflex takes. A spinal reflex needs only the spinal cord to function, while other more
complex reflexes require brain participation. Somatic reflexes involve skeletal muscle stimulation by
the somatic division of the nervous system. Autonomic reflexes are dealt with through the autonomic
division and activate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or glands. Reflex testing is an important
diagnostic tool for assessing the general health of the nervous system. Distorted, exaggerated or
absent reflexes may indicate pathology. If the spinal cord is damaged, reflex tests can help pinpoint
the level of damage.

SPINAL REFLEXES
Activity 5.1: The Patellar Reflex
The patellar (or knee-jerk) reflex is called a stretch reflex because it is initiated by tapping a
tendon, which stretches the muscle, stimulating the muscle spindle (the proprioceptor inside the
muscle) and causing reflex contraction of the quadriceps muscles. Stretch reflexes generally act
to maintain posture, balance and locomotion.
While this reflex is occurring, the antagonistic muscle group, in this case the hamstrings, reflexively
relaxes to prevent interference with the patellar reflex. The brain will also receive information and
the subject will be consciously aware of what is happening, although this is not necessary for the
reflex to operate. Stretch reflexes tend to be absent or hypoactive with peripheral nerve damage or
ventral horn disease, and hyperactive in corticospinal tract lesions. They are absent with deep
sedation or coma.
 .

In this figure the quadriceps

muscles are on the front of the
thigh and the hamstrings are on
the back. The reflex arc involving
the quads (patellar reflex) is a
monosynaptic reflex. The reflex
arc involving the hamstrings is
polysynaptic, and is an example of
reciprocal inhibition. That is, when
the quads contract in the patellar
reflex, the hamstrings must
reflexively relax, because they
would otherwise oppose the action
of the quads.

1. The subject should sit on the lab bench with

legs hanging freely. Tap the patellar ligament (see figure above). This assesses the
L2-L4 level of the spinal cord. Test both sides. This will represent the baseline
response. (take photo of the subject)
2. Have the subject add several numbers together as you test again. This tests
the effect of mental distraction. Is the response greater than or less than the
baseline?
The subject does not add several numbers as we test again. The
response is greater than the baseline.

2. Test again while the subject pulls up on the lab bench with the arms while
relaxing the lower limbs. This tests the effect of other simultaneous muscular
activity. Is the response greater than or less than baseline?

The response is less than the baseline.

3. Which is more likely responsible for the changes you observed – nervous
system activity or muscular system activity?

Nervous system activity is more likely responsible for the changes we

observed.
Activity 5.2: Crossed Extensor Reflex
This is more complex than the patellar reflex. It involves a withdrawal of one limb followed
by extension of the other limb. This would work if a stranger suddenly grabbed your arm as
you walked down the street – you would pull away with the grabbed arm and push with the
other. It rarely works under laboratory conditions because people typically do not feel
threatened in lab, but try it.

1. The subject should sit with eyes closed and one hand resting, palm up, on the
lab bench. With a sharp pencil prick the subject’s index finger. What happens?
(Take photo of the subject).

No reaction was observed.

2. Even if the extensor part of the reflex did not work, do you think it should be
slow compared to the reflexes you have observed so far? Why?

We think it should be slow compared to the other reflexes we observe

because it took more time to go through more neurons since it was
polysynaptic.
Activity 5.3: Pupillary Reflexes
We will test the pupillary light reflex and the consensual reflex. In both, the retina of the eye
is the receptor, the optic nerve holds the afferent fibers, the oculomotor nerve contains the
efferent fibers, and the smooth muscle of the iris is the effector organ. Many CNS areas are
involved. The absence of these reflexes indicates severe trauma or damage to the brain
stem from metabolic imbalance.

1. For the pupillary light reflex, have the subject in a relatively dim area (turn off
lights in lab if helpful) (take photo of the subject). The subject should shield the
right eye. Shine a penlight into the subject’s left eye. What happens to the pupil?

The pupil of the subject became constricted.

2. Also observe the right pupil. Does the same change (called a consensual
response) occur?
The equal change was seen while looking at the right pupil. The double
decussation in the pupillary light reflex pathway causes equal constriction of
both pupils. The direct response was observed in the right pupil while the
consensual response was observed in the left.

When a reflex is observed on the same side of the body that was
stimulated, that is called an ipsilateral response. When a reflex occurs on
the opposite side of the body that was stimulated, that is a contralateral
response.

2. If there is a contralateral response in a reflex, what does that indicate

about the pathways involved in the reflex?

If there is a contralateral response in a reflex, this might indicate an

efferent defect which is a problem in the final pathway of constriction for
effective sight.
 4. What is the purpose of the pupillary reflex you just tested?

The pupillary light reflex is used to evaluate the condition of the brain stem.
Optic nerve impairment, oculomotor nerve damage, brain stem lesions like tumors,
and drugs like barbiturates can all cause an abnormal pupillary light reaction.

4. Do you think these reflexes involve sympathetic or parasympathetic pathways?

(you may want to try the next reflex before you answer)
The light reflex pathway causes the constrictor pupillae muscle to contract,
which constricts the pupil. This pupil contraction is aided by the simultaneous
suppression of the sympathetic output to the dilator pupillae muscle.

Activity 5.4: Ciliospinal Reflex

This response is somewhat unusual, but interesting.

1. Have the subject stare straight ahead. Look into the subject's eyes as you gently
stroke the skin, or just the hairs, on the left side of the back of the neck, near
the hairline. What is the reaction of the left pupil? Is there any reaction on the
right? If you see no reaction, try a gentle pinch instead of stroking (take photo
of the subject).

Based on observation, as the left side of the back of the neck was gently
pinched, the left pupil dilates because sympathetic are going to activate in response
to pain. On the other hand, the right pupil has no reaction.

2. Do you note a contralateral response?

There is no contralateral response since the reflex does not occur on the opposite
(right pupil) side when the left side of the back of the neck is pinched.
 3. The dilation of the pupil you should have noted is a sympathetic response. This can
happen when one pupil receives more sympathetic stimulation than the other for any
reason. Try to explain why dilation is sympathetic while constriction is a
parasympathetic response.
The sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, which is known
to set off "fight or flight" reactions when the body is under stress, is stimulated,
which results in pupil dilation. Contrarily, constriction results from stimulation of the
parasympathetic system, which is recognized for its "rest and digest" tasks.

Activity 5.5: Reaction Time of Unlearned Responses

The body's reaction time to a stimulus depends on many things, including sensitivity of
receptors, speed of nerve conduction, number of synapses involved, etc. The type of
response is also key. If the response involves an established reflex arc, response time will
be short. If the response is an unlearned response, as we will demonstrate, then more
pathways and higher level processing will be needed, and response time will be greater. It
is critical that you follow the instructions precisely, or results will not be valid. You must use
the same person as the subject for all three parts.

1. The subject should sit with hand out, thumb and index finger extended. Hold a
ruler vertically so it is one inch above the subject's hand, numbers read from
the bottom up. Drop the ruler, and let the subject grasp it with index finger and
thumb. The relative speed of reaction time is determined by reading the number
at the subject's fingertips. Record five successful trials. If the subject cannot
catch the ruler, hold it a bit higher above the hand before dropping (take photo
of the subject).

Trial 1 -177 mm Trial 2- 254 mm Trial 3- 191 mm

Trial 4- 140 mm Trial 5- 89 mm
 2. Test again, this time saying a simple word before dropping the ruler. Designate
a certain word that will be the signal for the subject to catch the ruler. If any
other word is said, the subject must let the ruler pass through the fingers. If the
subject catches the ruler on the wrong word, disregard that trial. Does this
increase or decrease the reaction time?

Trial 1- 254 mm Trial 2- 241 mm Trial 3- 152 mm

Trial 4- 254 mm Trial 5- 178 mm

3. Do the test again, now with word association. Say a simple word just before
you drop the ruler. The subject must say a response word he/she associates
with the stimulus word, before catching the ruler. If the subject cannot think of
a word, the ruler must be allowed to pass through the fingers. Does this
increase or decrease response time? How many times did the subject miss the
ruler?

Trial 1- 228 mm Trial 2- 152 mm Trial 3- 127 mm

Trial 4- X Trial 5- 165 mm

There was probably a great deal of variation in this particular set of trials. Why?

Response time refers to the amount of time that takes place between when
we perceive something and when we respond to it. It is the ability to detect, process,
and respond to a stimulus. Reaction time depends on various factors, such as
perception, processing, and response. In the activity, it was observed that in every
particular set of trials, there was a great deal of variation. In the first set of trials, it
takes 11 trials to achieve five successful trials. It is because the subject is not aware
when to respond since there is no go signal. In the second set of trials, it only takes
7 trials to achieve five successful trials since there is a certain word that will be the
signal for the subject to catch the ruler. Then on the third trial, only 4 were caught,
and 1 were not.

Activity 5.6: Two-point Discrimination Test

1. Using calipers, test the ability of the subject to differentiate two distinct
sensations when the skin is touched simultaneously at two points. If calipers
are not available, use two blunt probes (or forceps) and a metric ruler. Start with
the points right together, then gradually increase the distance apart. Record
the distance at which the subject first reports feeling two distinct points of
contact with the skin (the two-point threshold). Test the areas of the body as
listed in the chart below. Of the tested areas of the body, which ones seem to
have the greatest density of receptors (smallest two-point threshold)? (Take
photo of the subject)
Face

Back of hand

Palm of hand
Fingertips

Lips

Back of neck
 Back of calf

Body area Two-point threshold (mm)

Face 38.10 mm

Back of hand 61 mm

Palm of hand 20 mm

Fingertips 12.7 mm

Lips 7.60 mm

Back of neck 33 mm

Back of calf 53 mm

Activity 5.7: Tactile Localization

Tactile localization is the ability to determine exactly which portion of the skin has been
touched. Some areas of the body have a high density of touch receptors, and a strong ability
to localize a stimulus. Other areas have a lower density of receptors and less ability to
localize a stimulus.
1. The subject should sit with eyes closed. Touch the palm of the subject's hand with a
colored marker or pen. The subject then tries to touch that exact point with a different
colored marker or pen. Measure the error in millimeters. Test all the areas three times,
recording the results in the table below. (Take photo of the subject).
Body area Photo Documentation
Upper back

Fingertip

Anterior forearm
Anterior arm

Palm of hand
Which areas seem to have a greater density of receptors? Does this agree with your
findings in the two-point discrimination test?

The fingertip seems to heve the greatest density of receptors, as per the measured
errors amount the three trials, averaging 6.86 mm. This is followed by the anterior forearm
(10.16 mm), palm (12.70 mm), anterior arm (16.002 mm), and upper back (33.78 mm). It
does agree to the findings in the two-point discrimination test in terms of the similarity of
the measured range between the two points and the two marks made for both tests.

Does the ability to localize the stimulus consistently improve over all three trials? Explain.

For the fingertip and anterior arm, there was a clear improvement over the three
trials. The anterior forearm had an improvement by the third trial but the second had a
higher error than the first. The palm was consistent all throughout, with all trials having the
same measured error. Whereas, the measured errors in the upper back increased for every
tria made. This can be explained by the density of receptors present wherein the hands,
particularly the fingertips and the palm, have the greatest density since it is used to hold
and grasp things. In contrast, the upper back, since it lies on the area of the body that is not
resposnible for holding and grasping things, had the least density of receptors.

Activity 5.8: Adaptation of Touch Receptors

The number of signals sent by the sensory receptors may change with the intensity of the
stimulus and the length of time the stimulus is applied. When the awareness of a stimulus
decreases, it is called adaptation. Some receptors adapt rapidly, such as certain types of
touch receptors, and others, such a pain receptor, may not adapt at all. 1. The subject
should sit with eyes closed, arm resting on the lab bench. Place a coin on the anterior
surface of the subject's forearm. Time (in seconds) how long it takes for the sensation to
disappear. (Take photo of the subject).
1 coin
- The sensation of the 1 coin
placed on the subject's
forearm lasted in 15.41
seconds.
 2. Now stack three more coins on top of the first one. Does the sensation return? How
long does it take for the sensation to disappear?
4 coins
-The sensation returned as
soon as three coins were
added on top of the first one.
This time, it took 20.82 seconds
for the sensation to disappear.

Do you think the same receptors are being stimulated by the four coins as with the one
coin?
Since the three of the coins were just stacked over the one coin already placed on the
anterior surface of the forearm, it is very likely that the same receptors were stimulated.

3. Using the tip of a pen or pencil, slowly bend back one of the tiny hairs on the subject’s
forearm. This is being sensed by the root hair plexus. If this type of receptor did not adapt,
what would be the consequences to a person wearing their hair in a ponytail?
Without the adaptation of the root hair plexus to the bending of hairs, a person wearing a
ponytail would be able to feel the movement of the hair everytime the person moves.
SPECIAL SENSES
Activity 5.9: Demonstration of the Blind Spot
A portion of the retina (the sensory part of the eye) does not have any photoreceptors,
because this is where the neurons head out of the eye via the optic nerve. Use the procedure
below to demonstrate the existence of the blind spot. Take photo of the subject)

1. Hold the figure of the 6 and λ about 18 inches from your eyes, straight out in front of your
face. Close your left eye, and keep your right eye focused on the 6, which should be directly
in line with your right eye. Move the figure slowly toward your face. The spot should disappear
at some point, then reappear as the figure is moved closer. You can try it with the left eye as
well, but you'll look at the n.
6λ

Observations:
While the subject focused on the figure 6 using their right eye at a distance of 18
inches, it appeared blurry or completely disappeared. As the figure moved closer, it
reappeared. This provided context on the existence of blind spots.
Activity 5.10: Afterimages
When light bouncing off an object strikes the rhodopsin pigment in the rods of the retina,
the rhodopsin is split into its colorless precursor molecules. This is called bleaching of the
pigment, and it ultimately results in a signal being sent along the optic nerve. When bleaching
occurs, the pigment must then be remade before the rod can be stimulated again. This takes
a bit of time. Both the stimulation of the rods and the following inactive period can be
demonstrated. (Take photo of the subject).

1. Stare at a bright light bulb for a few seconds, then close your eyes.

First, you should have seen a positive afterimage caused by the continued firing of the rods
after you first closed your eyes. Then, a negative afterimage (a dark image of the light bulb
on a lighter background) is seen. This is because the pigment in the rods had been
bleached.

Observations:

Upon closing the eyes after looking at a bulb for few seconds, the subject’s vision seen a
positive afterimage of the light bulb, whereas a negative after image of the bulb is seen after
several seconds of closing the eyes. This phenomenon is mainly because of the bleaching of
rhodopsin pigment in the rods of the retina.
Activity 5.11: More Eye Reflexes
Test the accommodation pupillary reflex by having the subject stare at a distant object (not
a light source). Observe the subject's pupils. Then hold up printed material several inches
in front of the subject and have him/her focus on it (Take photo of the subject). What
happens to the pupils? Why is this change useful?

Pupils dilated when the person fixed their attention on or stared at the distant
printed item. However, the subject's pupil suddenly contracts when they stared
several inches away from the printed content. This change in pupil dilation is
advantageous because it aids in regulating light concentration, and depth of focus
during the near vision accommodation process.
Test the convergence reflex by having the subject stare at a distant object (not a light
source). Observe the subject's pupils. Then hold up a pen or pencil and have the subject
focus on it. How does the position of the eyeballs change? Why is this important?

The two eyeballs converge and bend inward towards one another. Thus, the
image processed from both eyes are combined. Then, the pupils dilated significantly
as a result, allowing accommodation and focusing the picture on the retina.
Ultimately, this eye reflex aids in improving depth of focus on nearby objects.
Activity 5.12: Sound Localization
The tests should be performed in a relatively quiet area. If the room is too noisy, you may
step outside. (Take photo of the subject).

1. The subject should close the eyes. Hold a watch with an audible tick (if one is not
available, click together two blunt probes to make a noise) and move it to various
locations around the subject's head (front, back, sides, above). Have the subject locate
the position of the noise by pointing toward it. Is the sound localized equally well at all
positions?

No. Typically, sounds or noise are best heard when created adjacent to the ear.
Further, the subject cannot easily locate sound from above or behind them.

The ability to localize a source of sound depends on the difference in loudness of the
sound reaching each ear and the time difference in the arrival of the sound at each ear.
How does this help explain your results?

Based on the findings of the said experiment above, it was concluded that the
distance needed for sound waves to travel varies, and that as they go further, their loudness
decreases. Thus, it is more difficult to locate a sound when the source of it is not
concentrated and quite distant from the ear.
Activity 5.13: Tests of Balance and Equilibrium
The equilibrium apparatus, sometimes known as the vestibular apparatus, is part of
your inner ear, but separate from the structures of hearing. The following tests
demonstrate proper functioning of these structures. (Take photo of the subject).

1. Have the subject walk in a straight line, placing one foot directly in front of the other.
Does the subject experience wobble or dizziness? If not, this indicates a properly
functioning equilibrium apparatus.

The subject appears to have a properly functioning equilibrium apparatus because

she does not experience any wobbling or dizziness when walking with one foot directly in
front of the other.

2. Have the subject stand with his/her back to the blackboard. Draw parallel lines on
each side of the subject's body. Subject should stand straight, eyes open, for about two
minutes while you observe. Do you note any gross swaying movements?

The subject's body sways slightly or not at all as she stands with her back to the
wall.
3. Repeat steps 2 and 3, this time with the subject's eyes closed. What difference do you
note with eyes closed?

When the subject closes her eyes and stands with her side against the wall, she notices
her body wobbling more intensely than in the first trial with her eyes open. The difference
between the two is that when the subject's eyes are closed and she is standing sideways,
there is more swaying movement because she appears to be unable to balance herself well.

5. Have the subject stand on one foot for about one minute, eyes open. Then try it with eyes
closed. What is the difference?

When the subject performs the task with her eyes open, she finds it easy to balance
and control the wobbling movement of her body; however, when she closes her eyes, she
constantly sways and is unable to control and balance her body.

Do you think that the subject's equilibrium apparatus was working equally well in all the tests?
Were the subject's proprioceptors working? What conclusions can you draw about which
factors are necessary for maintaining balance and equilibrium?

The subject's equilibrium apparatus, the ear, performed equally well in all tasks
performed, regardless of whether the eyes were open or closed, and the proprioceptors
functioned in both conditions. In terms of the wobbling movement demonstrated and
observed by the subject, vision is an important factor in maintaining our balance. The
swaying movement is caused by a lack of vision, but the subject can still balance herself,
though somewhat not as well as when her eyes are open.
 Activity 5.14: Effects of Smell and Texture on Taste
Obtain samples of the foods available. The subject should not be allowed to know what is
available beforehand. Anyone with food allergies should not be a subject in this test. (Take
photo).

1. Subject should have eyes closed and nose pinched shut. Place a cube of food in the
subject’s mouth and record with a check mark the point at which the identification was
made. First the subject should manipulate the food with the tongue and try to identify it. If
no identification is made the subject should chew and again try to identify. If no identification
is made the subject should continue chewing with nostrils open and try to identify the food.
 Was the sense of smell equally important in all cases? Explain.
Some foods can be determined by their texture only, however chewing them with
nostrils open helps the subject to taste the food in his mouth. Therefore, the sense of
smell is very important especially when tasting or eating foods since the smell is essential
in the perception of taste and it is actually responsible for 80% of what we taste.
Taste and smell are distinct senses with their own receptor organs. Tastants, which
are substances found in foods, are sensed by taste buds, which are made up of unique
sensory cells. When triggered, these cells convey messages to specific parts of the brain,
causing individuals to become aware of their taste sense. Similarly, odorants, or airborne
odor molecules, are picked up by specific cells in the nose. Odorants activate receptor
proteins present on hairlike cilia at the ends of sensory cells, triggering a neurological
response. Eventually, messages regarding taste and smell combine, allowing individuals
to perceive food flavors.

2. Obtain fresh cotton swabs dipped in three different scented oils. Place the swabs on a paper
plate or paper towel to keep them clean and do not dip a swab back in the bottle of oil after
it has touched any surface. The subject should not know what oils are available beforehand.
Have the subject sit with eyes closed and nostrils pinched shut. Apply one of the oils to the
subject's tongue. Can the subject identify the oil (or at least describe the taste)?

The subject did not recognize the scented oil, and she was not able to describe its taste.

3. Now have the subject open the nostrils. Can the subject identify the oil?

As the subject opens her nostril, she recognizes the oil being tasted.

4. Use the other two oils for this step. Simultaneously place one swab near the subject’s
nostrils and the other on the tongue. Which oil is identified first?

The subject first identified the oil that is on her nostrils.

Do you think smell is important in what we generally call taste?

As previously stated, smell plays an important role in the sense of taste. If we can't
use our sense of smell when eating, food and other objects will be nothing more than an
object with different textures and edible but no flavors at all. Evidently, what is the point
of tasting if we can't taste the flavor of the food? Additionally, smell enhances the flavor
of the food. The senses of smell and taste work together to provide the information
required to identify an object or food.
Activity 5.15: Olfactory Adaptation
You will need two swabs dipped in scented oils for this test. They may be different from the
previous ones used if you wish. (Take photo of the subject).

1. Place one swab near the subject's nostrils while the subject breathes through the nose,
and record the time it takes for the scent to disappear (if it does not completely disappear,
record the time it takes for the sensation to significantly decrease). Once the sensation has
disappeared or decreased, immediately place the new oil at the subject's nostrils. Is the new
scent detected?

At 12.25 seconds, the sensation from the first oil fades but does not completely
disappear. Since the first oil was immediately replaced by the second, the subject can
identify the oil right away.

What can you conclude about olfactory adaptation?

In olfaction, adaptation allows the olfactory system to maintain equilibrium with

ambient odorant densities while properly responding to new scents or changes in odorant
density