ceandar

tofl
ooki
ngaf
terl
iv
est
ockandgr
owi
ngcr
opst
osat
isf
yman’
sneeds

NB: Agr
icul
tur
ecur
rent
lycont
ri
but
est
hebi
ggestper
cent
ageofUganda’
sincome
t
oday
.

I
mpor
tanceofAgr i
cul
tur e
 Isasour ceofrawmat er
ialsusedi ndust ri
ese.g.cot tonfortext i
leindustri
es
,
Hi desandski nsusedi nleat herusedi ni ndustry.
 Sugar cane–sugari ndust ry.
 Itpr ovidesempl oymentbot hi ndirectlyandi ndirectl
yl i
keAgr icult
uraloffi
cers,
farm manager sandaccount antswor kingi nagr i
cultureinsti
tut i
ons.
 Iti
sasour ceofincomet ot hef armert hrought hesal eofagr icultur
epr oducts.
 Iti
sasour ceoff oodt obot ht herur al andur banhumanpopul ati
on.
 Iti
sasour ceofgov ernmentr ev enuet hr oughtaxat i
ongov er
nmentr evenuecan
beusedt oimprov esoci al serv i
cesl ikeheal t
handeducat i
on.
 Iti
sasour ceoff oreignexchanget hroughagr i
cultureexpor ts.
 Agr icultureisasour ceofener gyusedf orotherpur posese. g.
Baggase( wastef rom sugarmanuf act ur e)canbeusedi nproduci ngelectri
city
.
 Tradei nagr i
cultural product sbet weencount ri
esbr ingsabouti nter
national
relation.
 Itcanbeasour ceoft ouristat tr
act ion.

PROBLEMSOFAGRI
CULTUREI
NUGANDA

1. Pestanddi seases(Theseat t
ackbot
hcropsandani
mal sleadi
ngtolowy i
elds)
Tomost dest
ructi
vecropdiseasesi
nUgandatodayar
e:coffeewilt
,cassav
a
mosaic,Banana bact er
ialwil
t.
Inanimalstheseri
ousdiseasesaref
ootandmouthdiseases,Naganaand
cont
iguous abortions.

2. Poortr
ansportandcommuni cati
on
Mostofthefeederr
oadsi nruralar
easareseasonal
l
yhenceaff
ect
ing
t
ranspor
tat
ionofour agr
icult
uralproduct
stothemarketdur
ingt
herai
nyseason.

3. Natur
aldisaster
se.g.longdroughtandf
loodscausedest
ruct
ionofcropand
ani
mal
s leadingtoloses.Thi
shasbeengreatl
ycausedbycli
mat echanges.

4 Povert
y
Mostofther
uralf
armersarepoort
heref
orecannotaffor
dtheexpensi
ve
agr
icul
tur
alunit likef
erti
l
izer
s,woodseedsandpesti
cides.
5. Inadequateknowl
edgeandskill
s:
Mostf ar
mer sl
ackenoughknowledgewhi
chhasgreatl
yaff
ect
edt hei
rlevel
of
production.E.
g.mostofthem cannotr
eadorwri
tehencecannott
akeinstr
ucti
onson
pesti
cides.

6. Poorcropv
ariet
iesandani
malsbreeds:
Cropandanimalsbei
ngrai
sedareoflowpr
oduct
ionl
eadi
ngt
oloses.

7. Poort
echnol
ogy
/ t
oolsused
Themajor
it
yofthefarmersar
eusi
ngpoort
ool
sthatcannotsuppor
tlar
gescal
e
pr
oducts.

8. Poorf
undi
ngofagr
icul
tur
esect
orbygov
ernment
.

9. Thef
undi
ngofagr
icul
tur
ear
est
il
lver
ylowwhi
chaf
fectt
hel
evel
ofpr
oduct
ion.

10. Pr
icefl
uctuat
ion.Duetoov
erproduct
ionandbadweather
,pr
icesf
oragr
icul
tur
e
pr
oductsarenotstabl
ewhichaf
fectt
hefarmer’
sincome.

PROBLEMSOFAGRI
CULTUREI
NUGANDA

Hight axesoni nputs

Thismakesagr i
cultur
alproduct stobeexpensi veast hecostofproducti
onincr
ease.
Conser vation
Duet ot heloweducat ionamongf armers,theyarenotwill
ingtochangethedoingof
things.
Inadequat emar ketinf
ormat i
on
Duet ot helowt echnologyandr emot enessofmanyr uralareasaccesstomarket
i
nf ormat i
onbyf armersdi f
fi
cult.
Compet it
ionatthewor ldmar ket
Duet olowqual i
tyofagr i
cult
ural produceinUganda, i
tmaynotcompet efav
ourabl
ywith
thepr oductf r
om thedev el
opedwor l
d.
Landdegr adati
on
Duet oincr easi
nghumanpopul ation,mostoft helandavail
ablehasbeenoverused
l
eadi ngt oexhaustion.

SOLUTIONFORAGRI CULTUREPROBLEMS
1. Far mersshouldbeprovidedwit
hloansatal owi
nteresttobeused.
2. Pest sanddiseasesshouldbecontr
oll
edthroughgrowi nginst
antv ar
iet
ies,
vacci
nati
on.
3. Agr icul
tur
alr
esearchshouldbecarr
iedoutimprovethequal i
tyofseedsand
animal
s.
4. Agr icul
tur
alr
esearchstati
onareKawandaforcrops,
Ser ereforcropsandanimals
Entebbeforl
ivest
ockandNamul ongeforcropsandlivestock
5. Agr icul
tur
eshouldbeprocessedtoimprovequali
tymai ntai
npricesinthemarket
.
6. St or
agest r
uctur
esshouldbeconstructedsot hatexcessproduceisstor
efor
fut
uresoast o maintai
nthepri
ces.
7. Gov ernmentshouldsubsi
dizeagri
cultureinputstomakeitaf f
ordabl
etothe
far
mers.
8. Compul sor
y,pri
maryandsecondaryeducat i
onshoul dbeencouragedsothatal
l
peopl
e r
eceiveeducat
iontofi
ghti
gnor anceandi ll
i
ter
acy.
9. Far mersshouldprovi
dewithenoughmar kedinformati
onthroughthemediaand
eit
hermeans.

Local
farmingsy
stems
1 Tesosystem

 I ti
scommoni nthedi
stri
ctsofKumiandBukenda.
 I ti
schar acter
izedbyuseofox–dr awnequipmentli
keox–ploughs.
 Thear eahasl i
ghtsoi
lssparseveget
ati
onwhichhasencour
agedtheuseof
ox–cul
ture.
 Themai ncashcr opgrowni scot
tonwhil
eothercr
opsarefi
ngermil
let
,peas,
sweetpot atoesandsorghum.
 I nt
ercroppingisacommonpr act
icei
nthisar
ea.

2. Bananaandcof f
eesy stem
 Thi sispracti
cedi nt hemostf er
ti
leplacesi nUgandaar oundLakeVict
ori
a.
 I tcoversthedistri
ct sofMubende, Masi ndi,Wakiso,
Jinjaandsomepartsof
Iganga,Luwer oandKamul i
.
 Thear eareceivest woseasonsofr ainfall
.
 Themancashcr opgr owniscof f
ee( Robst a)
.Thecommonf oodcropsare
bananas, sweetpot atoes,
mai zeandv eget abl
es,sugarcanesandteaar
e
grownatest at
esf ound i nLugaziandKaki r
a.
 Af ewanimalsar ekeptandox–pl oughingi snotcommon.

3. Bananami l
letandcot t
onsy st em
 Itiscommoni nt hedistrictofTororo,Namut umba, Budaka,Kamul i
,Kir
o
Nakasongol a,Kay ungaandpar t
sofMasi ndi andKilyandongo.
 Mostoft hesear eashav elongper i
odofr ainfall
whi chbeginsf r
om Aprilt
o
Nov ember
 Themai ncashcr opgr ownher ehasbeencot tonthroughRobust acoffeeis
alsogr ownandsomear easthathav etwoseasonsofr ainf
all.
 Thef oodcr opsgr ownar esweetpot atoes,cassava, Maizebeansgr ound
nutsandBanana.
 Ox–pl oughi ngisdonei nsomear eassincet heyhav eli
ghtsoi l
s.
4. Nort
her nsyst em
Thi
ssy stem ispr acticedindi stri
ctsofPachwechi ,Gulu,Kit
gum, Pader.
Themaj orcashcr opsar ecot tontobacco, sorghum f i
guremi l
letpigeonpeas,
si
msi
m, Cassav a,sunflowerandGroundnut s.
- Int
ercr
oppi ngiscommonwhi l
et heuseofox- ploughingbecomesl ess
commonasy oumov efurt
herinNor th.
- Thearear eceivesonelongseasonsofr ainfal
lfrom Aprilt
oOct ober
.
5. ThewestNi l
esy stem
 Thissy stem cover
sthedist
ri
ctofAr ua, Koboko,Moy o,Adjumani.
 Themaj orcashcropinthi
sar eaiscottonandt obaccot houghArabi
ca
coffeeisgr ownatahighalti
tude.
 Thef oodcr opsarefi
ngermill
et,sorghum, mill
et,cassavaandpeas.

6. Mont
anesy stem
 I
tispract icedaroundt hemount ai
nrangesofKigezi,
RwenzoriandElgon.
 Thesy stem issimilartothebanana,Robastacoffeesyst
em butiti
s
modifi
edby r eli
efandpopul ati
ondensity
.
 Themai ncashcr opf r
om theareaisArabicacoff
eeandtea.
 Thefoodcr opsareBananas, I
rishpotatoes,Gr
oundnuts,yams,beans,
Sweetpotatoes, maizeet c.
 Vegetablesandf r
uitli
kepassionfrui
taregrownforcommer ci
alpurposes.

7. Past
oral
syst
em

I
tispracti
cedbythepast
rol
tri
besofUganda,
i.
e.BahimaandKaramajong,Ankol
eand
Bahi
ma.
Theyoftenli
veanomadicwayofli
fe,
mov i
ngfr
om placet
oplacewit
ht hei
rani
mals.

Theygr
owdr
oughtr
esi
stantcr
opsl
i
kesor
ghum,
bul
rushmi
l
let
,Gr
oundnutandmai
ze.

POPULATIONANDAGRI CULTURE
Popul
ati
ondensi
tyi
sthenumberofpeopl
epersquar
eki
l
omet
er.

Thehumanpopul
ati
onofUgandahasbeengr
owi
ngf
rom about3000,
000i
n1962t
o
33,
000,
000t
oday2013.

Ugandahasonethehi
ghestpopul
ati
ongrowthi
nt hewor
ldsi
ncet
hewomenar
ehi
ghl
y
fer
ti
lehav
inganaver
ageofseven(7)chi
l
dreneach.

Thehighlypopul
ati
ongr
owthhasabi
ginf
luenceinagr
icul
tur
ewhi
chnei
thernegat
iveor
posi
ti
ve.
Posi
ti
v eeff
ectsofahi
ghpopul
ati
oni
nAgricul
tur
e.

 Itpr
ovidesenoughlabourusedi
nagricul
ture.
 Itpr
ovidesmarketforagri
cul
tur
eproduce.
 Itpr
ovideshi
ghr ev
enuethatcanbeinvestedinagr
icul
tur
etoi
ncr
easepr
oduct
ion.
Negat
iveeff
ects
 Landav ailablef
oragr i
cultureproducti
onr educes.
 Itleadstol anddegradationduet ocontinuoususeofl and.
 Itmayi ncreaselevelofpol lut
ioni
nt heenv i
ronmentasswampsandforest
sare
redeemed.
 Mostoft hegov ernmentf undswillbespentonsoci al
servi
cesl
i
keeducati
onand
healthli
vingoutAgr icul
tur e.

CLI
MATEANDAGRI
CULTURE

Whatiscl i
mate?
Cli
matei stheaverageweat herconditionofapl acer ecordedandst udi
edf oralong
peri
odoft i
me.
Weather
I
sthedai l
yconditi
on
I
sthest ateoftheatmospher eobser vedstudiedandr ecordedashor tperi
odoft i
me.
Rainf
all
I
tistheamountofr ainf
alli
nanar eaatacer taint i
me.
Rainf
alli
smeasur edusi ngar ai
ngauge.Thewat eriscollectedduri
ngt heprevi
ous
24hoursandmeasur edandr ecorded.Thisisdoneev erydayf orthemot htogivea
monthlytotal
.

Typesofrainfall
1. Rel i
efr ainfall
2. Conv entionr ainfal
l
3. Fr ontal/cy clonicrainf
all
4. Conv ergence
Themosti mpor tantat tr
ibut
esofr
ainf
all
inagr
icul
tur
ear
e;
1. Rai nfalldistri
but i
on
2. Rai nfallintensity
3. Rai nfalleffectiveness
4. Rai nfallreli
abilit
y

1. Rai
nfal
ldi
str
ibut
ion
Thi
sisthewayrainf
all
isspr
eadov
ert
hemont
hsi
nyear
s.

Thedi
str
ibut
ionofr
ainf
all
maybedescr
ibedi
nter
msofr
ainseason.

Apl acewithtwoseasonsi sreferredtoasBimodalr

ainwhil
ethatonewi
tha
si
ngle l ong seasonisref
erredt oasMonomodal r
ain.
Rainfal
ldistri
buti
onmayi nf
luencet ypeofcr
opsgrown,ti
meofplanti
ngand
har
vesting.
2. Rai nfal
lintensi
ty
Thisisthemeasur eoft
heheav inessofrai
noveragivenper
iodofti
me.
I
tismeasur esusingarai
ngauge.
 NB. Highint
ensityofrai
nfal
lcanresul
tintoerosi
onsincet
hesoi
lnotbeabl
e
to absorbmostoft hewater.
3. Rainfal
leffect
iveness
Thi
sisthemeasur eoftheamount edrai
nfall
thatisabl
etoensur
esuccessf
ul
growt
hof cr ops.

4. Rainf
all
reli
abil
it
y
Thisi
stheabi l
i
tyofrai
nfal
ltocomeasandwhenexpect
ed.Thi
sgr
eat
ly
i
nfl
uences t heplanti
ngseason.

EFFECTSOFRAI
NFALLI
NAGRI
CULTURE

 I
tcancausepol l
i
nationincr ops
 I
tprovideswat er
/soilmoistureneededforcropgr owth.
 I
tregulatessoilt
emper atures
 I
tprovideswi t
hwat eratthef armforwashing,dri
nkingetc.
 Pr
ov i
deswat erneededi nseedger minat
ion.
 Howev er,r
aincanbedest r
uct i
vet
hroughsoilerosionandfl
oodi
ng.

Temper
ature
I
tist
hemeasureoft hehotnessorcol
dnessusi
ngathermomet er
.Temper
atur
eis
o (
o
measur
esindegrees,cent
igrade(C)anddegr
eeFahrenhei
t(F) .
Toconv toCt
er ooF

Example
Theaveraget
emperat
ureofNaal
yas.
sfort
hemont
hofMar 5oC.Conv
chwas28. ertt
o
degr
eesFahrenhei
t

CLI
MATEANDAGRI
CULTURE

Ef
fect
soft
emper
atur
einAgr
icul
tur
e

1. Highertemperaturesareusedi ndr y
ingcr opproduce.
2. I
taf f
ectstherateofphot osy
nt hesi
sincr ops.
3. I
taf f
ectsgerminationofseeds.
4. I
taf f
ectstherateoftranspir
ationincrops.
5. Highertemperaturemayi ncreasetheev aporati
onrat eofwat
erfrom t
hesoi
l.
6. WIND
Thisismovingairandi t
sdirectionismeasur edbyt hewindvane.Whil
ethe
speedismeasur edbyt heAnemomet er.

I
mpor
tanceofwi
ndi
nAgr
icul
tur
e

I
thel
psi
nseeddi
sper
sal
I
tisimport
antincroppoll
inati
on
I
tisasourceofpowerinwi ndmill
s
I
tisusedinwinnowingofseeds
I
tisuseddyingofcropproduce
Windcurr
entscanhelpinrainf
all
format
ion.

HUMI DI
TY
Thisist
heamountofwat
erv
apouri
ntheat
mospher
e.I
tismeasur
edusi
nga
hygrometer
.

Ef
fect
sofhumi dit
y
- Itaf
fect
st herateoftr
anspir
ati
onincrops.
- Itaf
fect
spr esenceoffungaldi
seases.
- Iti
nfl
uencest herat
eofdy i
ngcropproduce.
- Itmayaffectsenvir
onmenttemperatur
es

LANDUSE/
LANDFORMSI
NUGANDA

Thi
sisthewayhowl andi
sputtouse.I
nUgandal
andi
susedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s.
 Weusel andforset
tl
ement
 Agr iculture
 Mi ning
 Bur ialgrounds
 Transpor tandcommunicati
on
 Indust ri
al i
zat
ion
 Wi l
dl i
fe
 Wat erbodi es
 For ests
 Mor tgage.

1. Settl
ement
Inthisform oflanduse,l
andisoccupi edbyhousi
ngestates,
school
s,hospi
tal
s,
urban cent erset c.
2. Agr icult
ure
Thisisthebiggestf ormlanduseinUganda.Landisputtoagr owi
ngofcropsand
reari
ng ofani mals.
3. Mi ning
Thisislandwhi chisoccupiedbymi nesforcopper
,phosphatespet
rol
eum and
sand.
4. Wi l
dl i
fe
Thisislandoccupi edbyNat i
onalparksandgamer eser
ves.
5. Wat erbodies
Thiscov ersl
akes, r
iver
sandspr i
ngs.
6. Tour i
sm
 Thi
srefer
stolandwhichisoccupiedbynat
ionalparksandgamer eser
ves.I
tisa
ver
y goodsour ceoffor
eignexchangefort
hecountry
.
7. For ests
Thi
slandisoccupi
edbynat ur
alandart
if
ici
alfor
estsinthedi
ff
erentpartsof
Uganda.

I
mpor
tanceoff
orest
s

1. Impor tantinrainfal
lformation(convect ionalrai
nfall
)
2. Theyr educegl obal warmingbyabsor bingexcesscar bondioxidefrom the
atmospher e.
3. Theypr ovi
det i
mbert hatcanbeusedi nt heconstruct
ionoffar m str
uctur
e.
4. Theycanactashabi t
antsf orwil
dani mal s.
5. Theyar easour ceofher bsusedi nthemanuf acturerofmedi cine.
6. Theyat tr
acttourist
sbr i
nginginforeignexchangef orthecount ry.
Conserv at
ionoff orests
Thesear emeasur esaimedatpr eserv
ingandpr ot
ecti
ngf orest
sforgener ati
onsto
come.
Measur esoff orestconser vat
ion
Carry
ingoutagr o–f orestry
Pract
iceaf forestati
on
Carry
ingoutr e–af forest
ation

1. Afforestation
Mor eareasofl andshoul dbet urnedi nt
of orest
sbypl antingtr
ees.
2. Re–af forestation
Everyt r
eeoutshoul dber epl
acedt hroughpl anti
ngothert rees.
3. Agr o–f orest r
y
Treesshoul dbei ntegrat
edwi thcr opsandani malsofforests
4. Gov ernmentshoul dsetupst rictlawsagai nstdeforestati
on.
5. Educat i
on
Peopl eshoul dbeeducat edaboutt heimpor t
anceoff orests.
6. Useofal t
er nati
vesour ces
Gov ernmentshoul dencour aget heuseofal t
ernati
vesour cesoffuel
li
kebi
ogas,
pet
rol
eum, solar.
7. Rur al el
ectrifi
cat i
onshoul dbeencour agedt oreducethedependence

FARMINGSYSTEM
Subsi
stencef ar
ming
Thi
sisthegr owingofcr opsforconsumpt
ionandsel
l
ingt
hesur
plus.
Formsofsubsi st
encef arming
 Shifti
ngcul t
ivat
ion
 Rot ationalbushfur rowing
 Nomadi cpastor
alism.
Advantagesofsubsi stencef armi ng
 I
tr equi r
esleslandt obepr acti
ced.
 I
tr equi r
eslessinitialcapital
 I
tr equi r
essimplet oolst hatarecheap
 I
tr equi r
eslesslaboursi ncei tmainlydependsonf ami
lyl
abour.(Womenand
children).
 I
tr equi r
eslessski l
lstobepr acti
ced.
 I
tusescheapi nput s.
Di
sadv ant agesofsubsi stencef arming
 I
tleadst opov er
tybecauset hepeasantslackincome
 Product i
onislowwhi chmayeasi l
yleadtof ood.
 I
tr educesgov er
nmentr evenuesi ncepeasantsar edif
fi
culttot
ax.
 I
tmayl eadtosoi lexhaust i
onduet opoormet hodsoffarmingpract
iced.
 I
tincr easesunempl oymenti nthecommuni ty.

Shif
ti
ngcult
ivat
ion
Thisiswher
eaf ar
mercl
ear
slandusesi
tunt
ili
tlosesf
ert
il
it
ythenshe/
hemov
est
o
fr
eshplace.

Char
acteristicsofshi fti
ngcul tivati
on
 Landi scl ear edbycut t
ingandbur ni
ngveget
ation.
 Iti
spr acticedi nareaswi t
hl owhumanpopulati
on
 Simpl et oolsar eused
 Smal l
ar easar eclear ed
 Fewannual cropsar egr own.
 Intercroppi ngiscommon
 Lit
t l
eat t
entioni sgivent ot hecr
ops
 Cropsar emai nlygrownf orhomeconsumption.

Advant
agesofshi f
tingcul t
ivat
ion
1. I tusessimplet oolsthereforeitischeapt omai ntain.
2. Theuseoff i
remakescl earanceofl andeasy
3. Bushbur ni
ngadds, mor emi neralstothesoi l
.
4. I nter
croppingguar dsagai nstcropf ai
lur
e.
5. I ti
seasyt ocont rolpestsanddi seasessincethef armer
scanmov
etoaf
resh
pl
ace.
6. Cr opy i
eldsareusual lyhighduet ouseoff reshland.
7. Ther eislessweedi ngast hefir
eusedcanbur nweedsseeds.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofshif
ti
ngcul
ti
vat
ion
1. Bushburni
ngleadst
othedest
ruct
ionofsoi
ll
iv
ingor
gani
sms.
2. I
tcanonl ybepracti
cedinareaswithlowpopulati
on.
3. I
tcannotprovideenoughfoodf orabigpopul
ation.
4. I
tmayl eavethelandbearandexhaust edwhi
chexposesi
ttoer
osi
on.
5. I
tleadstomassi vedest
ruct
ionofforests.

Nomadi
cPast
oral
i
sm

Nomadi sm:Meansmov i
ngf r
om onepl
acetoplacetoanother.
Pastor
alism meansreari
ngofanimalsmoreespeciall
ycat
tl
e.
Theref
or e
Nomadi cPastoral
ism
I
st hepracti
ceisthereari
ngofcatt
lewhil
emovingf r
om oneplacet
oanot
her
.Insear
ch
forwaterandpasturesfortheani
mals.

Char
act
eristi
csofnomadi cPastorali
sm
1. Theykeepv erylargenumberofani mal s.
2. Ther eismov ementf rom placet opl ace.
3. Ther e’
sgr owingoff ewannual cropsonasmal lscale.
4. Ani mal skeptar eofpoorbr eeds.
5. Poorani mal husbandrypr acti
cesar ecar ri
edout.
6. Ov ergr azi
ngi scommonwhi chl eadst osoiler
osion.
7. Ani mal sdependonnat uralpastur es.
8. Ani mal saregr azedonlandownedbyt hecommuni t
y.
9. Thepr acti
cei smai nl
ycarr i
edouti nt hearidandsemi -
ari
dar
eas.

Probl
emsfacedbypast oral nomadi sm
1. Poorweat herl eadi ngt odr ought.
2. Wal kingl ongdi stances
3. Lackofpast uref ortheani mals
4. Poorbr eedsofani mal skept .
5. Cat tl
er ustlingwhi chl eadst odeath
6. Lackofwat erf orani mal s
7. Par asiteswhi chat t
ackani mal l
eadi
ngt opoorbreeds.
8. Past oralistsmaybeat tackedbyt r
opicaldi
seaseswhichl
eadt
odeat
h.
9. Conser vati
sm.
10. Poorv eterinar yser vices
11. Poorhousi ngofani mal
12. Shortageofl and

INTERCROPPI NG
Thisisthegrowi
ngofamajorcr
optoget
herwit
hami norcr
opont
hesamepieceof
l
andatt hesametime.E.
g.mai
zeandbeans,
cassav
aandbeans,mai
zeandgroundnut
s,
coffeeandbanana.

Adv
ant
agesofi
nter
croppi
ng
1. Af ar
mermaygetabal anceddi etwhenherpr oducti
onlegumesandcer eal
satthe
same t i
me.
2. Af ar
merget sdoubl eincomeaf tersel
li
ngthe2cr ops.
3. Theweakpl ant scanbesuppor t edbythestrongonese. g.maizecansuppor tt
he
cl
imbingbeans.
4. Gr owinglegumest ogetherwit
hot hercropsmai nt
ainssoilfer
ti
li
tysincenit
rogen
i
sfixed byt helegumes.
5. I tguardsagainsttotallosstothef ar
mersincef ai
lur
efrom onecr opcanbe
coveredbythe other.
6. Pr oducti
onperav ai
lablelandi
shi ghsincelandisutil
i
zedmaxi mal l
y.
7. Weedsar eeasi l
ycont r
olledsi
ncet heyaredeniedspace.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
nter
croppi
ng.

1. I
tisdi ff
iculttoweedagar denthathasmor ethanonet ypeofcropgr owntogether
.
2. Thenumberofpest sanddi seasesincreaseduetoav ariet
yoffoodsour ce.
3. Therei shi ghcompet iti
onofnut ri
ent sbetweencropswhi chmayr esul
tt ol
ow
yiel
ds.
4. Spray i
ngofcr opsagainstpest sanddiseasesisdif
fi
cult.
5. Muchmor elabourisrequiredincarr
yingoutagronomicpr acti
ces.
6. I
tcaneasi l
yleadt osoilexhausti
onduet othehi
ghintakeofnut r
ientsfrom soi
lby
thedifferentcrops.
7. Dif
ficulttousemachi neswhencar ryi
ngoutoperati
onsl i
keweedi ng.
8. I
tisdi ff
iculttoapplyf
er t
il
izersandmanur estothecropsi nthegarden.

Moder
nf ar
ming/syst
ems
1. Mi xedfarming
2. Plantati
onfarming
3. Intensiv
efarming

1. Af armerget sdoubl eincomei .e.fr

om cropsanimal ssol d.
2. Af armerget sabal anceddi etbyeatingcropsandani mal sproduct
s.
3. Animal scanpr ovi
demanur e(from yardmanure)t hatcanbeusedt oimpr ov
esoil
ferti
l
ityforpr opercropgr owth.
4. Cropr esiduesandpr oductscanbef edtoani
mal st hereforereduci
ngfeedcosts.
5. Thepr act i
ceguar dsagai nsttotall
osst othefarmersi ncefail
ureincropscanbe
compensat edbyani mals.
6. Animal s can pr ovide l
abourused i n Pl
oughing and t ranspor
tat
ion ofplant
produce.
7. Itensuresi ncomet ot hefarmert hr
oughoutthey ear.
8. Labouri sef f
icient
lyutil
i
zedt hroughouttheyear.
Di
sadv
antagesofmixedfarming
 I
trequi
resahighini
ti
alcapit
al
 I
tisexpensi
vetomaintain
 I
trequi
resalargepi
eceoflandtobecarr
ied
 I
trequi
resmoreskil
lstobecarri
edout
.
 I
trequi
resmuchmor elabour
 I
trequi
resalargepi
eceoflandtobecarr
iedout
.
 I
trequi
resmuchskill
stobecarri
edout

Plant
ati
onfar
ming
Thisisthegrowi
ngofonet
ypeofcr
oponal
argescal
eusi
ngsci
ent
if
icmet
hodsof
farmi
ng.

Thepl
ant
ationscanalsoberef
erredtoasest
ates.
I
nUganda,sugarcaneandteaarethemaincropsgrowonpl
ant
ati
ons.

Char
acter i
sti
csofpl antations
1. Thef orm concent ratesonpr oducti
onofasi ngl
ecr ope.g.sugar
canepl
ant
ati
ons
i
nKakira, Lugazi andKi nyara.
2. Thef arm covershundr edsofhect ar
es
3. Cr opsar egrownf orcommer ci
alpurposes
4. Ther e’suseofmachi neswhencar ry
ingoutfarm operat
ions
5. Al otofcapi t
al i
sr equiredt osetupapl antat
ion.
6. I templ oysal argel abourf orce
7. Sci enti
fi
cmet hodsoff armi ngareused

Adv
ant
agesofpl antationf arming
1. Itprovi
desempl oymentt obothskil
ledandunski l
ledlabour
2. Iti
sasour ceofgov ernmentrevenuet hroughtaxati
on.
3. Theyear nforeignexchanget othegov ernmentbyexpor ti
ngproduct
s
4. Theyengagei nAgr icult
ureresearchwhi chencouragesdev el
opment
5. Theypr ovi
dehi ghqual i
tyagri
cult
urepr oducts.
6. Theencour agedev elopmentofout grower s.
7. Plantat
ionprov idesoci alser
vicese.g.healthandeducationtotheworker
s

Di
sadvant agesofplantationfarming
1. I tmayl eadtodisplacementofpeopl eduringestabli
shment.
2. Pr oduct i
onofasi nglecropont hesamepi eceoflandforalongti
memayleadt o
soil exhausti
on
3. Pl ant ati
onsmaycauseenv ir
onment aldegradati
onsbyencr oachi
ngonforests
andwet l
ands
4. I trequi r
esalotofcapi t
al t
oestabli
shapl antati
on.
5. For eignerswho own t hese plant
ationst ake mostoft he prof
it
sout
side the
count r
y.
I
ntensivefar
ming
Thisistheuseofsci entif
icmet hodsofpr oduct
ioninagri
cul
tur
eonasmallar
eat
o
producehighyi
elds.
Thescienti
fi
cmet hodsofpr oductionar e;
(i
) Useoff ert
il
izerandmanur es
(i
i
) Useofpest ici
desi .
e.Herbsites,i
nsect ici
des,acasi
des,
wormici
deset
c
(i
i
i) Useofdr ugsandmachi nest otreatl i
vestock
(i
v) I r
ri
gati
onofcr ops
(v
) Useofi mprov edcropseedsandani mal seeds.
(v
i) Useofmachi nesincar r
yingoutf armwor k
(v
ii) Useofhighqual i
tylabour/skil
ledl abour
(v
iii
)Useofgr eenhousesi ngrowingcr ops

SOIL
Thisi
samixtur
eofweather
edrockmater
ial
sandor gani
cmat
terwhi
char
efor
med
thr
oughphy
sical
,chemi
calandBi
ologi
cal
processes.

Or
I
tist
heout
ermostl
ayeroft
heear
th’
scr
ustwher
epl
ant
sgr
owandder
ivenut
ri
ent
s.

Or
Iti
sanatur
albodyofl
ooseunconsol
idatedmat
eri
alwhi
chconst
it
utesat
hinl
ayerof
sever
almeter
sdeepontheeart
h’ssurf
ace.

SOI
LFORMATI
ON

Soi
lisf
ormedt
hrought
hepr
ocessofweat
her
ing.

WEATHERI
NG
Thi
sist
heprocessofbr
eaki
ngdownort
hedi
sint
egr
ati
onofr
ockst
ofor
m soi
l
.
Therocksthatform soi
lar
eoft
hreet
ypesi
.e.i
gneousr
ocks,
sedi
ment
aryr
ocks,
and
metamorphicrocks.

IGENEOUSROCKS
Thesearer
ocksformedbythecool
ingandsoli
dif
icati
onofmol
tenmagma( Larva)
extr
act
edathightemper
atur
efrom t
heint
eri
orregionsoft
heeart
h’scr
ustnearonthe
surf
aceofear
th.

Themai
ntypesofi
gneousr
ocksar
e:-
Grani
te,
dior
it
e,andbasal
tandgabbr
o.Themi
ner
alspr
esenti
ntheser
ocksar
emi
ca,
fel
dspar
,quart
s,i
ronoxi
desandbiot
it
e.
SEDIMENTARYROCKS
Theseareformedbyt hedeposit
ionofweathermi ner
alswhichareder
ivedf
rom i
gneous
rocks.E.
g.shales,sandst
one,andl i
mestone.Themi neral
sintheser
ocksarecl
ay
mineral
s,quar
tz,calci
um,phosphate,dol
omite,
ironoxides.

METAMORPHI CROCKS
Thesear
eformedbytheacti
onofheat,pr
essureandchemi
cal
changesoni
gneousand
sedi
mentar
yrockse.
g.gnei
ss,schi
st,
slat
e,andquart
zit
e

TYPESOFWEATHERI NG
Ther
earethr
eemaintypesofweat
her
ingi
.e.phy
sical
weat
her
ing,
chemi
cal
weat
her
ing
andBiol
ogi
calweat
her
ing.

PHYSICALWEATHERING
Thi
sisthemechani
cal
disi
ntegr
ati
onofr
ockswhi
chi
scausedbyheat
,root
soft
rees,
i
ce,wi
ndandrain.

HEAT
Whenrocksar
eheated,
theyexpandunev
enlybetweent
heirlay
ers.Achangei
n
t
emperatur
ewil
lsetupstr
esseswhichwi
llr
esulti
ntobr
eakingofrocks.

ICE
Whenwat ercool
stofor
mi ce,
itex
pands.Ther
efor
et hepresenceofwat
eri
nrocks
crackscanleadt
othebreaki
ngofrockswheni
tcoolstoformi ce

RAIN
Rai
nfal
lpar
ticul
arl
ythatwit
hhail
stonesfal
lsonrockssurf
acescrashi
ngandr
emov
ing
someparti
clesfr
om them whi
charecarr
iedbytherunni
ngwater.

WIND
Asstrongwind,
blowsi
tcar
ri
esawayt
innyr
ockpar
ti
clest
odi
ff
erentpl
acesf
rom t
he
motherrock.

PLANTROOTS
Asrootspenet
ratethr
oughther
ockcr
acks,
theywi
l
lcausef
urt
hercr
acki
ngast
hey
i
ncreasei
nsizethroughgr
owth.

CHEMI CALWEATHERI NG
Thisi
saidedbyphy si
calweather
ingwhichincr
easesagr eat
ersurf
aceareaofrock
exposedtochemicalweatheri
ng.Chemicalweather
ingi
st hechemical
transf
ormat
ion
ordecomposit
ionofparentrockmineralmater
ialsi
ntonewmi ner
alcomplexes.

TYPESOFCHEMI CALWEATHERI NG
Thi
sincl
udeshy
drol
ysi
s,hy
drat
ion,oxi
dat
ion,
car
bonat
ion,
reduct
ion,
andsol
uti
on.
HYDRATION
Thi
soccurswhenwatercombi
neswit
hminer
als,
sil
i
cat
esandoxi
desofi
ronor
al
uminum t
oform hy
drat
edcompoundse.
g.
Thehy
drat
edcompoundar
esof
tert
hant
heor
igi
nal
rockandt
her
efor
eeasi
l
ywor
naway
.

OXIDATI ON
Thisi
swher eatmospheri
coxygenandf
reeoxy
gencontai
nedinrai
nwaterconver
trock
mineralstooxi
des.Theseoxi
desusual
l
ytakemorespaceandthushel
ptobreakupt he
rocke.g.

HYDROLYSI
S
Thi
sist
heuseofwat
ert
obr
eakupchemi
cal
bondsofapar
ti
cul
arcompounde.
g

REDUCTION
Thi
soccursi
nwet,badl
ydrai
nedandpoorl
yaerat
edsightssuchasdeepzonesoft
he
ear
th’
scrust
.Iti
nvol
vesther
emovalofoxygenfr
om mineral
s

SOLUTION
Wateri
st hemostimpor tantchemical
weatheri
ngagentinmostki
ndsofrocksthr
ough
i
tssolventact
ionwheni tdissol
veswatersol
ventminer
alsofr
ocks,i
tpar
ti
cipat
es
act
ivel
yinweat her
ing.

CARBONATION
Waterandcarbondi
oxi
decombinet
ofor
m aweakcarboni
cacidwhichreact
swi
th
oxi
desofcalci
um andmagnesi
um t
ofor
m car
bonat
eandbi -
carbonat
es.

BIOLOGICALWEATHERI NG
Thisi
stheweat heri
ngwhichi
sinfl
uencedbyli
vingorgani
smsli
kebacteri
a,fungi
,
nematodes,li
chensandmosses.Apar tf
rom decomposingdeadanimalsandplant
sto
for
m soil
,theyproduceaci
dswhichactonrockmi ner
alsandweakenit
.
FACTORSAFFECTI
NGSOI
LFORMATI
ON

CLI
MATE
o Thedev el
opmentofsoilpr
ofi
l
eislar
gelycontr
oll
edbyt emper
atur
eand
preci
pit
ati
on(r
ainf
all
).Enoughmoist
ureinthesoilencour
agesmicroor
gani
sms
tocarr
youtdecompositi
onwhilei
nthesoil.
o I
tinf
luencesv
eget
ati
onandt
her
efor
ety
peofsoi
l
sfor
med.
o Hi
ght
emper
atur
esdi
scour
agemi
crobi
alact
ivi
ti
esofor
gani
sm i
nthesoi
l
.
o Var
yingenv
ironment
alt
emper
atur
ecancausebr
eaki
ngupofr
ockst
ofor
m soi
l
.

LI
VINGORGANI SMS
o Livingorgani
smsli
kebacter
iaandf
ungicarryoutdecomposi
ti
onofdeadpl
ant
s
andanimalsremai
nleadi
ngtosoi
lfor
mation.
 o Theter
mit
esareabl
etoconver
twoodintosoi
lbecauset
heyhav
ethecel
l
ulose
enzy
mesinthei
rgut
swhichactoncel
l
uloseinwood.
o Thevegetat
ivecoverpr
otect
sthesoi
lsur
facef
rom soi
ler
osi
onhence
mini
mizingsoil
loss.
o Li
vi
ngor
gani
smsdi
eanddecomposet
ofor
m soi
l

o Leavesf
rom t
reesf
all
andprovi
deorganicmatt
er
o Eart
hwormsgr i
ndupminer
alpart
icl
esimpor
tanti
nsoi
lfor
mat
ion

PARENTMATERI AL
Themainfeat
uresofthepar
entmat
eri
alsher
ear
etext
ure,
chemi
cal
andmi
ner
al
composi
ti
onoft hesoi
l.
Soil
sdev el
opi
ngf
rom l
i
mestoneareusual
l
yfinetext
uredandhi
gheri
ninor
gani
cmat
ter
thanthosefor
medfr
om coar
setextur
edmateri
al.

TOPOGRAPHY(RELIEF)
o Thisi
nfl
uencestheamountofr
ainf
all
recei
vedi
nanar
ea,
o Sur
faceer
osi
onwhi
chdet
ermi
nessoi
ldept
hbyr
emov
alanddeposi
ti
onofsoi
l
o Wat
eri
nfi
l
trat
ioni
ntot
hesoi
l
.
o I
tal
soinfl
uencesv
eget
ati
ont
hroughi
tsi
nfl
uenceonr
ainf
all
henceaf
fect
ingsoi
l
f
ormat
ion.
TIME
Itrequi
resalotofti
mef orasoilt
odev el
opupt oful
lmaturi
ty.Amat ur
esoilwi
ll
containall
therequir
ednutr
ientsneededbyplants.Condi
ti
onswhi chspeedupsoi l
formationare;
warm humidclimate,f
latt
opographyandforestvegetati
on.Thefact
or
slowingdownsoi l
formati
oniscoldorhotdaycl i
mate,
grassv eget
ation,sl
oppi
ng
topography.

HUMANI NFLUENCE.
Humanstendt odi
sruptsoilf
ormati
onthroughdist
urbi
ngsoilpr
ofi
lesduri
ngthe
constr
uct
ionofbuil
dings,r
oadsanddams.Thei rpract
iceofbushburni
ngdestr
oys
organi
cmatterandraisessoi
ltemperat
ure,sl
owingdowntheprocessofsoil
format
ion.
Mancant
ransf
orm soi
li
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s;
o Nat
ural
veget
ati
oni
sdest
roy
edi
nget
ti
ngl
andf
oragr
icul
tur
e
o Fer
ti
li
zerappl
i
cat
ioni
nter
fer
eswi
tht
hechemi
cal
nat
ureofsoi
l
o Topogr
aphyi
sal
ter
edt
hroughconst
ruct
ionsofr
oadsandbui
l
dings
o Appl
i
cat
ionofpest
ici
deschangeschemi
cal
soi
lpr
oper
ti
es
o Soi
lcul
ti
vat
iondest
roy
ssoi
lst
ruct
ure
o I
rr
igat
ionmayi
nter
fer
ewi
thsoi
lnut
ri
entcomposi
ti
onandst
ruct
ures
Soi
lfor
mat
ioni
nvol
ves3st
agesofdi
sint
egr
ati
on,
decomposi
ti
onandt
ransl
ocat
ion.
Di
sint
egr
ati
on;
breaki
ngupofpar
entmat
eri
al
Decomposi
ti
on;
processofdecomposi
ngor
gani
cmat
eri
als
Tr
anslocat
ion;r
emovalofsoi
lorver
ti
cal
mov
ementofpar
ti
clesanddi
ssol
vedsol
i
ds
wi
thinaprofil
eandoft
enintothegr
ound
Soi
lpr
ofi
le
Thi
sist
hever
tical
sect
ionoft
hesoi
lthr
oughal
li
tshor
izons/
lay
ersanddownt
othe
par
entmat
eri
al
Topsoi
l/
AHORI
ZON
I
t’
sdar
keri
ncol
ourbecauseofhi
ghor
gani
cmat
teraccumul
ati
on
I
t’
sanar
eaofel
uvi
ati
onsaspl
antnut
ri
ent
sar
eremov
edbyl
eachi
ng
I
tsmor
esubj
ectt
oweat
her
ingandcul
ti
vat
ionoper
ati
ons
I
tswel
laer
atedandhasact
ivemi
croor
gani
sms
Thedar
kcol
ouri
sai
nlyduet
oor
gani
cmat
teri
nsoi
l

Subsoi
l/hor
izonB
I
t’
sazoneofi
l
luv
iat
ionasmat
eri
alsf
rom t
opsoi
lar
edeposi
tedher
e
I
t’
smor
ecompactt
hant
opsoi
l
I
t’
slessaer
ated
Har
dpansar
emai
nlyf
oundi
nthi
sregi
on
I
nyoungsoi
l
,theBhor
izoni
sabsent
Thebr
owncol
ouri
sduet
othei
ronoxi
desi
nthi
shor
izon
Par
entmat
eri
al/
Hor
izonC
Cont
ainsbr
okendownr
ocks
I
thascl
aymat
eri
al
Zonal
soi
l
sisonewher
ecl
i
mat
eandv
eget
ati
onhav
epl
ayedpar
tinf
ormat
ion
Azonal
ispr
oducedbydeposi
ti
onofmat
eri
alandwi
thoutasoi
lpr
ofi
l
e
I
ntr
azonal
soi
l
sar
efor
medbasi
ngonpar
entmat
eri
al
a.Podzol prof
il
e
b.Ferralsolpr
ofi
le.
Apodzol
pr ofi
ledi
spl
ay sshar
pcont
rastbet
weent
hehor
izonsandi
tswi
del
ydi
str
ibut
ed
i
nhumidtemper at
ear eas.
Ferr
alsol
:Iti
sanexampleofsoi
lthathasdev
elopedunderhumi
dtr
opi
cal
condi
ti
ons
thr
oughprogressi
veweat
her
ingofrock.
N.B. Soil
catenai
sthesequenceofsoi
ldevel
opedfrom asi
mil
arparentr
ockmateri
al
undersi
milarcl
i
mati
ccondit
ionsbutwhosex-t
icsdi
ff
ersduetodi
ff
erenceinr
eli
efand
drai
nage

PROPERTIESOFSOI L
Thesei
ncludesoi
ldrainage,waterhol
dingcapaci
ty,pl
ast
icit
y,aer
ati
on,f
erti
li
ty,
st
ruct
ure,
densit
ytexture,porosi
ty,
col
our,soi
lfauna,PH,andproduct
ivi
ty.

SOILTEXTURE
Thi
sisthepr
opor
ti
onofsand,
sil
t,andcl
ayi
napar
ti
cul
arsoi
l
.Soi
ltext
ureaf
fect
sthe
fol
l
owing:
-
a. Theci rcul
ati
onofai
rinthesoi
l(soil
aerat
ion)
Inf
inet
ext
uredsoil
s,t
her
eisli
mitedmov ementofairduet
othesmal
lspaces.
b. Wat erhol
dingcapaci
ty,
Thi
sishi
gherinfi
netextur
edsoil
sli
kecl
ayt
hancoar
set
ext
uredsoi
ll
ikesand.
c. Rootpenet rat
ion
Thi
sishigheri
ncoarsetexturedsoi
l
sandl
oweri
nfi
net
ext
uredsoi
l
ssi
ncet
hef
ine
par
ti
clesresi
str
ootpenetrati
on.
d. Responseofpl ant
stofert
il
izer
s
Poorrootpenet
rat
ionmeansli
mit
edresponsetofer
ti
li
zer
shencef
inet
ext
uredsoi
l
sar
e
notgoodwhenitcomestomov ementofnutr
ient
s.
e. Rat eofchemi
cal
react
ioninthesoi
l
Poortext
uredsoi
lswoul
dli
mitsoil
reacti
onli
kecar
bonat
ion,
hydr
ati
onandhy
drol
ysi
s.

SOILTEXTURALCLASSES
Thisisdoneaccordi
ngtotheUni
tedSt
atesDepar
tmentofAgr
icul
tur
eandt
he
i
nternat
ional
soilsci
encesyst
em.
USDAcl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Soi
lsepar at
e Par
ti
cledi
ameter(
mm)
Verycoursesand 2.
00–1.00
Coursesand 1.
00–0.50
Medium sand 0.
50–0.25
Fi
nesand 0.
25–0.10
Veryfi
nesand 0.
10–0.05
Si
lt 0.
05–0.002
Cl
aybelow 0.
002

SOILTEXTURALCLASSES(SOILTYPES)
Therear
ethr
eemaintext
ualcl
asses(
types)i
.e.cl
aysoi
l
,Sandysoi
landl
oam soi
l
.
Thesethreegi
veri
setootherclassesdependingont
hepercentageofsandsi
ltandcl
ay
presenti
naparti
cul
arsoi
le.g.sandyclay,
clayloam,
sil
tycl
ayloam,sandycl
ayloam,
l
oamycl
aysandandsi
l
tycl
ay.

PROPERTI
ESOFTEXTUALCLASSES

Cl
aysoi
l
 I
thasahighwaterholdi
ngcapacit
y
 I
thasahighnutr
ienthol
dingcapaci
ty.
 I
thassmallai
rspaces
 I
tisnotgr
it
ty
 I
tisnotsmooth
 I
tformsext
remelycohesi
v ebal
l
sandlongt
hreadswhi
chbendi
ntor
ingseasi
l
ywhen
wett
ed.

Sandysoi
l
 I
tisext
remelygr i
tt
y
 I
tisnotsmoot h
 I
tsnotplast
ic
 I
tfor
msnoncohesi veballswhi
chcollapseeasi
l
y
 I
thasalowwat ernutri
enthol
dingcapacit
y
 I
thasbigairspaces
 I
thasbigsoilparti
cles.

LOAM SOI
L
 Iti
smoder atelygr i
tt
y
 Iti
sslightl
ysmoot h
 Iti
sslightl
ysticky
 Iti
sslightl
yplast i
c
 Itfor
msmoder atel
ycohesi veball
s
 Itfor
msl ongthr eadswhi chbendi nt
oringswit
hdi
ff
icul
ty.
 Ithasamoder atewat erholdingcapaci
ty
 Itcontai
ns5–10%or ganicmat t
er
 Loam soilisanopt imum mi xtureofsand,si
l
tandcl
ay.

Exper
imentt
odet
ermi
net
hedi
ff
erentsi
zesofpar
ti
clespr
esenti
nthesoi
l:
-
 Place40gofsoili
n100cm3measur ingcy
li
nder
 Fi
llthecyl
i
nderwithwaterupto¾ofi t
 Cov ert
heopenendf i
rmlywi
thlandandshaket
hecont
entoft
hecy l
indervi
gorousl
y
 Standthecyl
inderonalandfl
atsurf
aceandobser
vehowthesuspensionsett
les
down.

Resul
ts
 Somebubbleescapef r
om thecont
aineri
ndicat
ingthepresenceofai
r.
 Aft
ershaki
ng,t
helargestpart
icl
esfal
ltothebottom (
sand)foll
owedbyfi
nesand,
si
lt
,cl
ayandfi
nall
yor gani
cmat t
er.

BULKDENSITY
Thi
sist
hemassperunitvol
umeofundistur
bedsoildr
iedtoconsi
st ghtat1050C.
entwei
Bul
kdensi
ty= wei
ghtofovendr
ysoil(
g)
Thev ol
umeoftheovendrysoi
l(cm3).

Thispr oper
tyaff
ect
s
Waterhol di
ngcapaci
ty
Soilaerati
on
Cropr ootdevel
opment
Seedger minati
on

PARTICLEDENSI TY
I
t’
st herati
oofwei ghtofsol
idstov olumeofsoli
dsinsoi
lg/cm3.t
hesol
i
dsinsoilar
e
organi
cmat t
er,
inorganicmatt
er,andl i
vi
ngorgani
sm.Inthecal
cul
ati
onofpar
ti
cle
densit
y,volumeofai rshoul
dbeex cluded.

SOI
LPLASTICI
TY
Thi
sist
hecapaci
tyoft
hesoi
ltobemol
dedwi
thoutbr
eaki
ngorr
upt
uri
ng.
Thet
ermsusedi
ndescri
bingt
hedegr
eeofpl
ast
ici
tyar
enonpl
ast
ic,
sli
ght
lypl
ast
ic,
pl
ast
icandv
erypl
ast
ic.

SOILCONSISTENCY
Thisi
sthedegr
eeofcohesionofsoilortheresist
anceoft
hesoi
ltodefor
mati
onis
measuredbyfi
l
li
ngandmani pul
ati
ngt hesoi
l byhandorpul
li
ngt
il
lageequi
pment
thr
oughit
.Theclassesofconsi
stenceincl
ude:-

SOILPOSOSI TY
Thi
sisthemeasur eoft
hesizeofporespacei
nsoi
ls.Insoil
swherethepart
icl
esar
e
cl
osel
yt oget
her,t
herei
sli
mitedpor
espaceandtheref
orelessai
rinsuchsoi
lsandpoor
pl
antrootdevel
opment.

SOILSTRUCTURE
Thi
sisthear
rangementorgroupi
ngofsoi
lparti
clei
napart
icul
arsoi
l
.Soilst
ruct
ure
aff
ect
swatermov ement
,heattr
ansf
er,
aerat
ion,bul
kdensi
tyandpor
osi
ty.
TYPESOFSOI
LSTRUCTURE

i
. Pl
atyst
ruct
ure.
Her
ethesoi
laggr
egatesar
earr
angedi
narel
ati
velyt
hinhor
izont
alplat
esorl
eaf
let
s.
Thi
sty
peofstr
uctur
eismorecommonint
hesurfacelay
erofvir
ginsoi
ls.

i
i
. Pr
ismat
icst
ruct
ure.
Thi
sincl
udescol
umnart
ypeandpri
smat
ict
ype.Bot
hty
pesar
eusual
l
yfoundi
nsub
soi
l
sinaridandsemi
ari
dregi
ons.

i
i
i. Bl
ockyst
ruct
ure.
Thi
sstr
uctur
ehastwosub-st
ruct
uresl
i
kecubel
i
keandsubangul
ari
nheav
ysubsoi
l
s
par
ti
cul
arl
ythoseofhumi
dsoils.

i
v. Spher
oidalst
ruct
ure
Thi
sconsi
stsofsub-
str
uctur
esli
kegranularwher
etheaggr
egat
esar
epor
ousand
cr
umbwheretheaggregat
esarever
ypor ous.
v. Cr
umbst
ruct
ure
Thi
siscommonl
yfoundi
ntopsoi
landpar
ti
cl
esar
egr
anul
ated

SOILFERTILITY.
Thisistheabil
i
tyofthesoi
ltosuppl
ypl
antnut
ri
ent
sinadequat
eamountandr
ight
proport
ionforbet
terpl
antgrowt
h.

FACTORSAFFECTI NGSOI LFERTI LITY.

Soildepth,soilst
ructur
e,soil
drainage,soil
PH, soilaerat
ion,waterholdi
ngcapacit
y,
avail
abil
ityofplantnutri
ents,
presenceofpest sanddi seases,soilcompacti
on,l
ivi
ng
organisms, accumulati
onofsalts,soilcapi
ll
ari
ty,hardpans,soilcappingandpresence
ofpolyethenemat eri
alsinsoil
.

SOILDEPTH
Soi
ldepthisassoci
atedwit
hthemat ur
it
yoft
hesoi
landi
tal
soi
nfl
uencest
heamount
ofwaterr
etai
nedinitforpl
antuse.

SOILSTRUCTURE
Thisaff
ectstheamountandmovementofai
randwaterwit
hinthesoi
landalsot
he
tr
ansferofheat.Ther
efor
eagoodsoi
lstr
uct
uregi
vesidealcondi
ti
onsforpl
antgr
owt
h.

SOILDRAINAGE
Thi
sr ef
erstotheeasewi t
hwhichexcesswaterdr
ainsoutofthewat
erl
oggedsoil
s.
Thereispooraerat
ion,
lowt emper
ature,
poorsoi
lstr
uctur
e,andlowPHi
nwat erl
ogged
soi
ls.Allt
heabov ewil
lint
erfer
ewithnormalcr
opgrowth.
SOILAERATION
Adequateai
rinthesoi
lpart
icul
arl
yoxygeni
mpr ovedwaterandnut
ri
ent
suptakeand
al
soencouragesbett
errootdevel
opment.Theairisal
soneededbythesoi
lorgani
sms
dur
ingthedecomposit
ionofplantorani
malremains.

POLYETHENEMATERI
ALSI
NSOI
L
Af
fect
ssoi
laer
ati
on,
rootdev
elopmentandwat
eri
nfi
l
trat
ionwhi
chal
laf
fectsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty
SOI
LCAPPI
NG
Thi
saff
ectssoi
ldrai
nagewhichdet
ermi
nespestat
tack,
soi
lPhandr
ootdev
elopment
i
ncropsandhencesoilf
ert
il
it
y.
HARDPANS
Thi
simpedeswat
eri
nfi
l
trat
ionhenceaf
fect
ingsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

AVAI LABI
LITYOFPLANTNUTRI ENTS
Plantnutr
ient
sareneededbyplant
sandther
efor
easoi l
whi
chcont
ainsmostoft
he
nutri
entsandcaneasil
ysuppl
ythem i
ssaidt
obef er
ti
le.

SOILPH( SOILREACTI
ON)
Thi
si st
heacidit
yoral
kal
i
nit
yoft hesoi
l.Itinf
luencesthe(abi
li
ty)avai
l
abil
i
tyofplant
nutr
ient
se.g.atl
owerPH(aci
dic)phosphorousandmol ybdenum arenotavai
labl
ebut
i
ron,Mg,Zn,KandBoronareavail
abl
ey etunavail
ableagai
nathighPH( al
kali
ne)

I
MPORTANCEOFSOI
LPH.
 Itaf
fectsthepresenceofcer tainplantpathogensli
kebacteri
aandfungi ar
enot
commonatl owPHbutf ungi arecommon
 AtverylowPHt heconcent rationofcertai
nnut r
ient
ssuchasi r
onandAl uminium i
n
thesoilbecomest oxictoplants.
 SoilPHhasast rongi nf
luenceont heav ai
labi
li
tyofvar
iousplantnut
rient
s.
 Veryloworv er
yhighPHi nhibitst
heact i
vi
tyofthesoilmicro-
organi
smsmor e
especial
lythenit
ri
fyingbacter i
a.

 Sugarfact
oryl
ime
 Calci
um hydr
oxi
de
 Calci
um magnesi
um car
bonat
e

LOSSOFSOILFERTILI
TY
Soi
lcanl
oosef
ert
il
it
ythrough:
-
Soilcapping
Changeofsoi lPH
Buildupofpest sanddiseasesint
hesoi
l
Burning
Format i
onofhar dpans
Soilerosion
Overcul t
ivat
ion
Cropr emovaldur ingharvest
ing
Largenumberofweeds.

Soi
lCappi
ng
Thi
sistheformat
ionofani
mper
viousl
ayeronthesur
faceofsoi
lwhichpr
event
swater
i
nfi
l
trat
ion.Thi
sstopst
hedi
ssol
uti
onofplantnut
ri
ent
sandproperr
ootdevel
opment

For
mat
ionofHar
dPans
Thisisanimpervi
ousl
ayerfor
medjustbeneaththesoi
lsur
faceandcanbecausedby
conti
nuousploughi
ngatthesamedepth.I
tpreventswat
erpercol
ati
onandpr
opercrop
rootdevel
opment.

Overcul
ti
vat
ion
Thiscausesr
api
doxi
dat
ionofor
gani
cmat
terbymi
croor
gani
smsl
eadi
ngt
olossof
fer
til
i
ty.

Ef
fect
sofovercul
ti
vat
ionofar
abl
eland
 Destr
oysSoilstr
ucturemakingt
hel andmor epronetoerosion
 I
ncreasesproducti
oncostsbyengagi ngmor el
abourinculti
vat
ion
 Candest r
oycroproots
 Canincreaseevaporat
ionofmoisturefrom soi
lbyi
ncreasingsurf
acear
eaf
or
waterl
oss.
 I
ncreasesoxidati
onofcropnutr
ienthencelossoffert
ili
ty

Cr
opr
emovaldur
inghar
vest
ing
Theremovalofcropsfr
om t
hegardenorthei
rpr
oductsf
rom t
hegar
dencar
ri
esawayal
l
thenut
ri
entsconcentr
atedi
nthei
rti
ssueandseeds.

Weedsovergr
owt
h
Theseuseal
otofnut
ri
ent
sandt
her
efor
ecausel
ossofnut
ri
ent
sfr
om t
hesoi
l

Leachi
ng
Thi
sist
hewashingoutofsoi
lnut
ri
entsi
nbothsol
uti
onandsuspensi
ont
othedeeper
l
ayer
softhesoi
lwherepl
antscannotut
il
izei
t.
 Soi
ler
osi
on
Thi
scar
ri
esawayt
hemor
epr
oduct
ivet
opl
ayerofsoi
ll
eadi
ngt
olossoff
ert
il
it
y

Changeofsoi
lPH
Someplant
snutr
ient
sar
eavail
abl
eatlowPHe. g.i
ron,
Mg,
A1,Zn,KandBor
onwhi
l
e
other
saref
avour
edbyahighPHe.g.phosphor
ousandmoly
bdenum

Bui
l
dupofpest
sanddi
seases
Thi
smaybecausedbymono-
croppi
ngandt
her
efor
elesspr
oduct
sexpect
edf
rom such
asoi
l.

MAINTAINANCEOFSOI LFERTI
LITY
Thefer
ti
li
tyoft
hesoi
lcanbemaintai
nedt
hrought
hef
oll
owi
ngway
s:-
1.Cr
oprotati
on: I
sthegrowi
ngofdi f
fer
entcr
opsonthesamepi eceoflandi
n
apar
ti
cularsequenceseasonaf
terseasonforpr
operut
il
izat
ionofnutr
ient
s

Fol
l
owt
hegui
del
i
nes.
 Legumesshoul dal
ternatewithot hercr opssincetheyi ncreasesoilf
erti
lit
ybyf ixing
nit
rogen
 Cropswi thhi ghnutr
ientrequirementshoul dcomef ir
stonanewl ycult
ivatedpieceofl and
touti
lizeahi ghcontentofnut rientspresentatt hisstage.
 Deepr ootedcr opsshoul dalt
ernat ewitht heshall
owr oot edcropssincedeepr oot er
sbri
ng
nutri
entst otheupperl ayersofsoi lforshallowroot er
st ouse
 Covercr opsshoul dbei ncl
udedi nt herotati
ont ocont rol erosi
on.
 Afall
owper iodshouldbei ncludedi nther otati
ont opr eserv esoi
lstr
uctureandr estoret
he
l
ostnut ri
ents.
 Cropst hatareeasyt oweedshoul dal ternatewiththoset hatarediff
icul
ttoweed.
 Cropsat tackedbysi milarpestsanddi seasesshoul dnotsucceedoneanot herint he
rot
ationt oreducespr ead

I
mpor
tanceofcr
opr
otat
ion
o Therei smaxi mum useofsoi l
nut rientssincedi fferentcropswi t
hdiff
erentnutri
ents
requirement sarei nvolv
ei nther otat i
on.
o Pestsanddi seasesar eeasi l
ycont r ol
ledbybr eakingtheircy cl
eandst arvat
ion.
o Parasiticweedsl ikest r
ingsppi nsor ghum ar eeasi l
ycont roll
edundercr oprotati
on.
o Theni trogencont entoft hesoilcanbei mpr ovedmor eespeci all
yifl
egumesar e
i
ncludedi ntherot at
ion.
o Goodr otati
onev ensoutLabourr equi r
ementt hroughoutt hey ear.
o I
tspr eadsf inancialri
sksov ersev eral crops
o Somedeepr oot
edcr opsi nther otat i
onwi ll
r ecycl
enut ri
ent s.
o Soilerosioncanbecont rol
leddur ingt hef al
lowper i
odwhengr assesareall
owedt o
growont helandorbyt hebindingact i
onoft heplantroot s.

Anexampl
eofaf
oury
earcr
opr
otat
ion
Year Plot1 Plot2 Plot3 Plot4
1 Sweetpotat
oes Beans Cassava Mill
et
2 Mill
et Sweetpotat
oes Beans Cassava
3 Cassava Mill
et Sweetpotat
oes Beans
4 Beans Cassava Mill
et Sweetpotat
oes
Fall
ow Fall
ow Fall
ow Fall
ow

NBAf
tert
hef
our
thy
eart
hef
armercandeci
det
ohav
eaf
all
owper
iod
Li
mit
ati
onsofcr
opr
otat
ion
Shor
tageofl
andduet
oani
ncr
easi
nghumanpopul
ati
on
Pr
esenceofper
manentbui
l
dingt
hatcannotber
otat
ed
I
ntr
oduct
ionofper
enni
alcr
opswi
thal
onggest
ati
onper
iod
Meri
tsoft
hepract
icecannotbeeasi
l
yrecogni
zedbyf
armer
shencedi
ff
icul
tto
conv
incet
hem
2.Properweedcont rol: weedscompet ewi thcr opsf orsoi lnutrients.Ahi gh
popul at i
onofweedswi ll extractal otofnut ri
ent sfrom t hesoi lmaki ngi tinferti
lein
thel ongr un.
3.Mul chi ng: I
st hecov eringoft opsoi l wi thdr ypl antmat erialsorar t
ifi
cialsubst ances
l
ikepol ythenepaper s.Apar tfrom conser vingt hesoi lmoi stureandsuppr essing
weeds, mulchesal sor otandaddf er til
itytot hesoi l.
4.Mi nimum t i
llage:Mi nimum di sturbanceoft hesoi lwi l
l conser v eitsorgani cmat t
er
cont entandmoi st ur ehencemai ntai ningf er t
ili
ty.
5.Soi lpHcont rol:Atdi fferentpHsomemacr oandmi croel ement sar epr esentwhi le
other sar eabsent .Thesoi lpHcanbemai ntainedt hroughl imi ngandaddi t
ionof
fertilizers.
6.Addi tionofmanur e: Theaddi ti
onofbot hor ganicandi norgani cmanur ewi l
l
i
ncr easet heamountofsoi lnutri
ent st her eforemai ntainingt hef ert
il
ity.Howev er
,
overuseofar ti
ficial manur ecancauseaci diccondi tionsi nthesoi lt
hatmayl ower
soil fer ti
li
ty.
7.Soi ler osioncont rol:Thewashi ngawayofhemostf erti
let opsoi l l
eadst ol ossof
soil fer ti
li
tyaswel l.Met hodsofcont roll
ingsoi ler
osi onl iket erracing,mul ching,
cont ourpl oughi nget cshoul dbeused.
8.Impr ov ingonsoi ldr ainage: Thi swi lleli
mi nat ewat erl oggi ngwi t
hal li
ts
disadv ant agesl i
kei ncr easedl eachi ng
9.Impr ov ingont hewat erhol dingcapaci tyoft hesoi l:Wat eri sneededbypl ant sin
theabsor ptionofsoi lnut ri
ent sandi nphot osy nthesist her eforewat erhol di
ng
capaci tyoft hesoi l shoul dbei mpr ov edt omai ntaint hesoi lferti
lit
ythrought he
addi tionofor gani cmanur es.
COMPONENTSOFSOI L
Soi
li
scomposedofl
i
vingor
gani
sms(
micr
oandMacr
o),
air
,mi
ner
alel
ement
s,or
gani
c
matt
erandwat
er.

Li
vi
ngor
gani
sms
Thesei
ncl
udemicr
oor
ganismsli
kebact
eri
a,f
ungi
,protozoa,et
c.I
tal
soi
ncl
udes
macrol
ivi
ngor
gani
smsli
keeart
hwormsandsomei nsects.

I
mpor
tance:
 Theycar ryoutdecomposi tionofdeadpl ant
sandani mal
sr emai
nstopr oduce
humuswhi chisusedbypl ants.
 Somebact eri
alikeRhizobiaf i
xnitrogenintothesoil
 Aftertheirdeathmor eespeci al
lythemacr oor gani
smsdecomposeandaddf er
ti
li
ty
tothesoi l
.
 Otherlivi
ngor ganismslikeear t
hwor ms,excreteureawhichaddsfer
til
i
tyt othesoil
bypr ovi
dingnitrogen.
 Theyaer atethesoi l
bymaki ngtunnels.Themor et
unnel
s,themoretheaer ati
on.

ANEXPERI MENTTOSHOW THATSOI LCONTAINSLIVINGORGANISMS.

Appar
atus
 2conicalfl
asks
 Limewat er
 2musl i
nbags
 2sampl esofsoi
li
.e.sampl
eAst
eri
l
izedsoi
landsampl
eBfresht
opsoi
l.

Pr
ocedur
e
Labeltheconi
cal f
lasksi.
e.AandB
Pourabout10cm3ofl i
mewat eri
neachoft
heflasks.
Putfreshtopsoili
nt hemusli
nbagandhungiti
nt heconi
cal
flaskAandst
eri
l
izedt
op
soili
nanothermusl i
nbaginBasshownbelow.

Obser
vat
ion:
Aft
er8hourst
helimewat
eri
nfl
askAwi
l
ltur
nmi
l
kywhi
l
einf
laskBt
her
ewi
l
lbeno
obser
vabl
echange.

Concl
usi
on
Theli
mewaterinfl
askAtur
nedmilkyduet
othepresenceofl
i
vingor
gani
sm i
nthesoi
l
thatr
espi
rer
eleasi
ngcar
bondi
oxi
dewhichtur
nsl
imewat ermi
lky.

SOI
LAI R
Soi
lcontai
nsai
r,t
hebi
ggestpor
ti
onbei
ngCO2andO2.Soi
lai
risusedbyl
i
ving
or
gani
smsi
nrespi
rat
ionandal
sot
hepl
antr
oot
s.
N.B. Wat erandai
roccupyt
hesameposit
ionandt her
efor
ehi
ghl
evel
ofwat
eri
nthe
soil
wil
lreducetheamountofai
rint
hatpar
ticul
arsoil
.

Appar
atus:
Soilsampl
e
Disti
ll
edwater
Abeaker
Stir
ri
ngrod

Pr
ocedur
e
Putthedr
ysoil
sampl
einthebeakertocover¼ofit.
Pourtwi
cethevol
umeofsoi
lwater,andst
ircont
inuousl
y

Obser
vat
ion
Ai
rbubbl
esar
eseencomi
ngoutoft
hewat
eri
nthebeaker
Dr
ysoi
lcont
ainsai
r.

EXPERI
MENTTODETERMI
NETHEAMOUNTOFAI
RINSOI
L

Appar
atus:
Drysoilsampl
e
Atleasttwomeasur
ingcy
li
nder
s
Di
st i
l
ledwater
Abeaker .

Pr
ocedur
e:
Measur f50cm3ofdr
eof ysoi
landt
ransf
ert
oanot
herdr
ymeasur
ingcy
li
nder
.
Measur f50cm3ofwat
eof erandaddi
ttot
hesoi
li
nthemeasur
ingcy
li
nder
.

Obser
vat
ion
Bubbl
esofai
rareseenescapi
ngwhent
het
woar
eaddedandt
hev
olumeoft
hemi
xtur
e
i
slessthant ed100cm3.
heexpect

Concl
usi
on:
Thedi
ff
erencebet
weentheexpect
edvol
umeofthemi
xtur 100cm3)andt
e( heact
ual
-
vol
umewillbet
hatofai
re.
g.(50+50)cm3=100cm3expect
ed.
Act =70cm3
ual
100–70=30cm3Ai
r=30cm3

EXPERI
MENTTODETERMI
NEWHETHERSOI
LCONTAI
NSWATER

Appar
atus
Drysoil
sampl e
Boil
i
ngt estt
ube
Heatsource
Sti
rr
ingrod.

Pr
ocedur
e
Pourdrysoil
upto1/
3ofthetestt
ube.
Putthetestt
ubeonaheatsour
ceforabout5mi
nut
es.

Obser
vat
ion:
Ast
heheat
inggoeson,
vapourcondensesatt
hecool
erpar
toft
het
estt
ube.

Concl
usi
on
Soi
lcont
ainswat
er.

SOILPERMEABILI
TY.
Thi
sisext
entt
owhi chasoi
lal
lowswat
ertopassandspreadt
hroughit
.However
someti
messoi
lpermeabi
li
tyandsoi
ldr
ainagear
econsi
deredt
obet hesame.

Soi
ldr
ainage
Ref
erst
other
elat
iveeasebywhi
chwat
erpassest
hrought
hesoi
l
.

EXPERI
MENTTOSHOW WATERRETENTI
ON(
DRAI
NAGE)I
NSOI
L

Appar
atus
Atleast3f il
terfunnels
Fil
terpaper/cot tonwool
Thr eesoi lsampl esi.e.cl
ay,sand,andloam
Cleanwat er
Stopcl ock
Atleastt hreemeasur ingcyl
i
nder s
Arranget hepr acti
cal asbel
ow:-
Wat ershoul dbeaddedt oeachoft hefunnelsi
nthesamequant
iti
es.Astopclock
shoul dbeusedt omeasur ethetimet akenforapar
ti
cul
arquant
it
yofwatertopass
througheachsampl e.

Obser
vat
ion:
Aft
eraspecif
icper
iodofti
meitsobser
vedthatcl
aysoi
lret
ainsal
otofwat
erthanloam
andsandysoil
s.Theref
orecl
aysoi
lispoor
lydrai
nedwhi
lesandysoi
li
swelldr
ained.
EXPERI
MENTTOFI
NDOUTTHEAMOUNTOFORGANI
CMATTERI
NTHESOI
L

Appar
atusneeded
Heatsour
ce ev
apor
atingdi
sh Ti
ppledst
and
Weighi
ngbalance St
opClock St
ir
ri
ngrod
Soi
lsample

Pr
ocedur
e

Weightheev aporati
ngdi shandi tsweightrecordedasXg
Weighadr ysampl eofsoi landcalli
tW g.
Addthetwowei ghtsandt het ot
alshouldbecalled“y”i
.e.(
CX+W)g=Yg.
Pl
acethedi shwi ththesoi lonheatsour ceforabout30mi nut
es.
Remov et
hedi shafterthatt i
meandcool it
.
Weighthedi shandt hesoi landcallitZg
Theweightofor ganicmat terinsoil=Yg-Zg=Pg
Pgisthelossi nwei ghtasar esul
toflossduet oorgani
cmat t
er.

SOI
LPRODUCTIVITY.
Thi
sref
erst
otheabil
i
tyoft
hesoi
ltopr
oduceandsust
ainhi
ghcr
opy
iel
ds.

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFPRODUCTI
VESOI
L
 I
tshoul
dbewell
drai
ned.
 I
tshoul
dbeofasuffi
cientdepthforgoodr ootpenet
rat
ionandgrowt
h.
 I
tshoul
dbewell
aerated.
 I
tshoul
dhav
eagoodwat erholdi
ngcapaci ty
.
 I
tshoul
dhav
eenoughnut ri
entswhichmustbet heri
ghtpropor
ti
ons.
 I
tshoul
dbefeef
rom croppest sanddiseases.
 I
tshoul
dhav
ear i
ghtPHf ortheparti
cularcroptobegrownoni t
.
 I
tshoul
dhav
eagoodst r
uctureandtexture.

SOILSAMPLI NG
i
tisthecoll
ecti
onofvari
oussampl
esofsoi
lfr
om di
ff
erentl
ocat
ionsofapi
eceofl
and
f
orlabor
atoryanal
ysi
s

Reasonsf
orsoi
lsampli
ng
 Todet
erminesoi
lfer
ti
li
ty
  t
odeter
mi nesoilstructure
 t
odeter
mi nesoiltexture
 t
oknowt hebestty peofcr optogrow
 t
odeter
mi nethewat erholdingcapacit
yofsoi
l
 t
odeter
mi newaterhol dingcapacit
y
 t
odeter
mi neorganiccont entofsoil
 t
odeter
mi nesoilaerati
on
 t
oknowt hebestcr optogr owonsoi l
 t
oknowt hetypeoff erti
li
zertouse

Equipmentneededi nsoi
lsampl
ing
1.gardent r
owel
2.soilauger
3.handhoe
4.labels
5.polyethenepaper

Methodsofsampl i
ng
1.t ransv ersesampl i
ng
2.Zi gzagsampl ing
3.spotsampl i
ng
pr
ocedur eofsampl ing
 obt aincleanandcompl eteequipmentt ouse
 det er minet hear eatobesampl edt oknowt henumberofsampl esneeded
 chooset hebestmet hodofsampl ingt ouse
 chooset hesi test ocollectsamplesandav oidol dhousesites,r
ubbishpit
s,wet
areas, anthill
s, boundar i
esandundershades
 cl earal lveget ationatselectedsitest oexcludepl antmateri
als
 col lectsoi lupt oadept hof15cm f rom dif
ferentsites
 addt hedifferentsampl estomakeacomposi tesampl e
 t hor oughlymi xt hesampl esbybreaki ngthebi gclodes
 maket wor epr esentati
vesampl esofoneki l
ogr am each
 l abel therepr esent ati
vesampl esandsendi ttot helabor
atory
 car r youtt her equiredanal y
sis

PLANTNUTRIENTS
Pl
antnut
ri
ent
scanbedi
vi
dedi
ntot
womaj
orgr
oupsi
.e.Macr
oandMi
cronut
ri
ent
s.

Macr
onut
ri
ent
s(maj
orel
ement
s)
Thesearenutr
ient
sneededbypl
ant
sinlargequant
it
iese.g.car
bon,oxy
gen,
hydr
ogen,
ni
trogen,
phosphorous,
pot
assi
um,cal
cium,magnesium andSulphur
.
Mi
croel
ement
s(t
raceel
ement
s)
Thesearenut
ri
ent
sneededbypl
antsinsmallquant
it
iesthoughtheyarever
yimport
ant
forpl
antgr
owth.E.
g.i
ron,
manganese,copper,
molybdenum, zi
nc,chl
ori
desandcobal
t.

Macr
onut
ri
ent
s
Ni
tr
ogen:
Thisisoneofthemosti
mpor
tantel
ement
sneededbypl
ant
syeti
tsdef
ici
enti
nmost
areasofEastAfr
ica.

Usesofni
tr
ogent
opl
ant
s
 I
tsnecessaryfort
hef or
mationofchlorophy
ll
 I
timprovesthequalit
yandquant i
tyofl
eafcropssuchascabbages,
dodo,
etc.
 I
tisaconstit
uentofplantpr
ot ei
ns.
 I
thel
psi ncell
divi
sionandtherefor
eresponsibl
eforgr
owth
 Cont
rolstheuseofphosphor usandpotassi
um inthepl
ant
s.

Def
ici
encysympt
omsofNi
tr
ogeni
npl
ant
s.
 Ther
eisrest
ri
ctedr ootdevel
opment
 Pl
antsbecomest unted.
 Ther
eisevenyellowingandlossofleav
es
 Ther
eispre-
mat ureripeni
ngoffr
uit
s.

Si
gnsofexcessni
tr
ogeni
npl
ant
s.
 Excessiv
eleafproduct
ion
 Delayedmaturi
ty
 Leafandstem loggi
ng
 Scotchi
ngofleaves
 Poorcropyiel
ds

Fat
e/l
ossofni
tr
ogenf
rom t
hesoi
l
 Cropr emov alduri
nghar v
esti
ng
 Soilerosion.
 Throughl eaching
 Burningofcr opresidues
 Volati
lizati
on(denit
rif
icat
ion;
oxi
dat
ionofni
tr
atest
oat
mospher
icni
tr
ogen)
 l
eachi ng
 monocr oppi
ng

Sour
cesofni
tr
ogen
Commer cialf
ert
il
izer
se.
g.NPK,
Urea,
CAN,
Sul
phat
eofammoni
a,Di
ammoni
um
phosphate(DAP)
Or
gani
cfer
ti
li
zer
sli
kef
army
ardmanur
e,compostmanur
eandgr
eenmanur
e.
Li
ght
eni
ng.

PHOSPHOROUS

I
mpor
tance
 Encouragest heformat i
on,developmentandest abl
ishmentofroot
s.
 I
tisnecessar yinthef ormati
onoff r
uitsandseeds.
 I
tisneededf orcel l
divisi
on
 Producti
onoff atsandpr ot
eins.
 I
thelpsinni t
rogenbr eak-downdur i
ngrespir
ati
on
 I
tisaconst it
uentofnucl eicacid(DNA, RNA)
 I
tisimpor t
antint hesy nt
hesisofnucleoprot
ein
 I
tisaconst it
uentofphosphol i
pids.
 I
tgivesresistancetocer tai
ndiseasesincrops.
 I
tsessent i
alpartofall t
hesugarphosphat einphotosynthesi
sandothermet
abol
i
c
processes.
 I
mpr ovesthequal it
yofcr opsmor eespecial
lyvegetabl
es.

DEFFI
CIENCYSYMPTOMS
 Purplecolourati
onoft heleafespeci al
lyatthemar gin.
 Lowy ieldofgrai
ns,fruitandr ootcrops
 Slowgr owthrateresulti
ngi ntolat
emat ur
it
yoft hecrops.
 Rednecr oti
careasont heleaves,petiol
eset c.
 Dist
ortionoftheleafshape
 Olderleavesbecomedar kbr own.
 Thereisagener aloverallstuntednessandl eaff al
l
.

POTASSI
UM

I
mpor
tance
 I
tincr
easesr esistancetocer tai
ndi seases
 I
tencouragesr ootdev elopmentandgr owth
 I
tisnecessaryf orformat ionofstarchandt r
anspor tofsugarwit
hint
hepl
ant
.
 I
tisessenti
al f
orchl orophy l
lformation.
 I
tisneededinni trogenmet aboli
sm andpr ot
einsy nthesi
s.
 I
treduceslodgingi nplant sbystrengtheni
ngcellulosecellwal
l.
 I
tcontrol
sstomat almov ementhencel ossofwat er.
 I
tsimportanttof oli
cmet aboli
sm
 I
thasbeenl i
nkedwi thcar bohydrat
esmet aboli
sm.
 I
tregul
ateswat eri nplantcells.

Def
ici
encysympt
om
 Ret
ardedrootdevel
opment
 Pl
antsareeasi
lyatt
ackedbydi
seases
  Leavesdryoutattheedges
 Prematurel
ossofleaves
 Chlor
osiscanalsobeexperi
enced
 Incereal
scel
lattheleaft
ipandmargi
ndi
efi
rst
.


Fact
orsaf
fect
ingt
heavai
labi
li
tyofpot
assi
um i
nthesoi
l
Soi
lmoi
stur
e:Toomuchmoi
stur
eint
erf
ereswi
thexchangeabl
emoi
stur
e.
Soi
lpH:Hi
ghsoi
lpHf
avour
spot
assi
um f
ixat
ion
Temper
atur
e:Hi
ght
emper
atur
efav
our
sthel
evel
ofexchangeabl
epot
assi
um
Ty
pesofcol
loi
ds:Pot
assi
um f
ixat
ioni
susual
l
ydonei
nsoi
lcont
aini
ngmont
imol
i
roni
te.

CALCI
UM

I
mpor
tance
 Raisessoi l pHwhi chfavoursnitrogenf ixi
ngbacteri
a
 I
mpr ovesrootdev elopmentandgr owt h
 I
timpr ovesv igorandst i
ffnessoft hest em,
 I
tgov ernstheav ai
labil
i
tyofcer t
ai nessent i
alminer
alslikephosphor
usand
potassi um.
 I
tisanact i
v atorofenzy mesi npl ants
 I
tisassoci at edwi thcellwallstr
uct ure
 I
nincr easescar bohy dr
atescont entincr opsli
kecotton.
 I
tincr easest henumberofmi tochondr i
ai nwheatplants.
 I
tpr otectspl antsfrom injur
iesduet otheef f
ectofhydrogenions.

Def
ici
encysympt
oms
 Theroot sbecomest unt
ed
 Deathoft heleavesoccurs
 Formationofweakst em
 Leavesbecomechl oroti
candchlorosi
soccur
sal
ongt
hemar
ginofy
ounger
l
eaves.
 Terminal budsandt i
psofrootsdonotgrowwell
 Thereisdi st
ort
ionoft hegrowi
ngshootti
p
 Cellwall
sbecomer igidandbri
tt
le

Sour
ces:
 Cropresi
dues
 Manurei.e.or
gani
candinor
gani
c
 Weatheri
ngofsolminer
als
 Agri
cult
uralli
me
MAGNESI
UM

I
mpor
tance
 I
tisaconst i
tuentofchl orophyl
lhencer esponsi
bleforthegreencolour.
 I
tisi
mpor tantint heformat i
onofoilsinplants.
 I
tencouragest hepr oductionandtransportat
ionofcarbohydratesandprotei
nsi
n
gr
owingplant s.
 I
tmaintai
nst hei ntegr
ityofchromat i
cfiberandribosomes.
 I
tisnecessaryf orfullact
ivit
yoftwopr i
nciplecarbondioxi
def i
xingenzymes.

Si
gnsofmagnesi
um def
ici
ency.
 Lossofgreencolourinleaves
 Dev el
opmentofpurpl
e, orange,andr
edpat
chesinhor
ticul
tur
ecr
opssuchas
cabbages.
 Itcausesext
ensi
v echlorenchymadevel
opmentandscantypi
thf
ormat
ion.

SULPHUR

I
mpor
tance
 Iti
sneededi nprot ei
nsy nthesisasit’sacomponentofsomeami noaci
ds.
 Iti
susedi nthepr oductionandact ivati
onofsomeenzy mes.
 Iti
ncreasestheoi lcontentofcr ops(plants)
 Iti
sessent i
alinthepr oduction(formation)ofsomev i
taminsl
ikebi
oti
ne.
 Sulphurtogetherwi t
hi r
onf orm enzymesi mportanti
nphotosynt
hesi
s,r
espi
rat
ion,
andnitrogenmet abolism.

Def
ici
encysympt
om
 Lackofrootnodulesinlegumes.
 Stemsaret hi
nandplantsar eext
remelysmallandshor
t.
 Thereiscompletechlor
osis
 Thereisrapidl
eaffal
l
 Leafti
psandmar ginsarerolledi
nwards.
 Terminalbudgrowthisinhibi
tedandlater
albudsdevel
oppr
e-mat
urel
y.

NI
TROGENCYCLE

CARBONCYCLE
 Car
bondi
oxidei
n
at
mosphere Car
boni
nAni
mal
s
CO2

Carboni
nfossi
l Car
bonin
fuel
s Pl
ants

Car
boninsoi
l
(
organi
cmatt
er)

MANURES ANDFERTI LI
ZERS
Thesearesubst
anceswhi
char
eei
theror
gani
cori
nor
gani
cthataddf
ert
il
it
ytot
hesoi
l
onceappli
ed.
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofmanur
es/
fer
ti
li
zer
si.
e.or
gani
cmanur
esandi
nor
gani
cmanur
es.
I
norganicmanures/f
ert
il
izer
sarechemicalsubst
anceswhi
charemanufact
ured
ar
ti
fici
all
ytosupplyt
hechemi cal
elementsrequi
redf
orgr
owthandrepr
oducti
onoft
he
pl
ant.

ORGANICMANURES
Thesearesubst
ancesder
ivedf
rom pl
ant
sorani
mal
spr
oduct
sthatwi
l
laddf
ert
il
it
yto
thesoi
lonceappli
ed.
Exampl
esofor
gani
cmanur
es:
-
Farmyar
dmanure,
li
vest
ockmanur
eormuck
Greenmanur
e
Compostmanur
e

I
mpor
tanceofor
gani
cmanur
es:
 Theyi ncreasenitr
ogencont entinsoilsaft
erdecompositi
on
 Theyi ncreasetheav ail
abilityofplantnutri
entsli
kepotassi
um, calci
um,magnesium,
andphosphor us.
 Theyi ncreasethehumuscont entinthesoilaf
terthei
rdecomposi ti
on.
 Theyi mpr ovethesoilstruct uremor eespecial
lyi
nsandysoils.
 Itincreasesthepopul ati
onofmi crobesinthesoilbyact
ingasf oodforsuchl
i
ving
organi sms.
 Organi cmanur esli
kemuckcanr isethesoilPH
 Theydonothav eresidual effectont hesoil
.
 Deact ivat
esorganicpest icides
 Increasescat i
onexchangecapaci tyofthesoil

Char
act
eri
sti
csofor
gani
cmanur
es

i
. Theyarederi
vedf r
om plantandani malmat eri
als
i
i
. Contai
nmuchl oweramount sofpl antnutr
ients
i
i
i. Theyimprovesoilstr
uctur
e
i
v. Theysti
mulatetherateofmi crobialacti
vit
ies
v
. Theyaremor ecostl
ytoapplyperuni tofperunitofplantfood
v
i. Theyarenotleachedeasil
yduet heirlowsolubil
ityi
nwat er
v
ii
. Havenoresidualeff
ectsoncr opsandsoi lorgani
sms

COMPOSTMANURE:
Thisi
sami
xtur
eofdecomposedcr
opr
emai
ns,
veget
abl
emat
ter
,weedsandki
tchen
ref
use.

Advant
agesofcompostmanur
e:
 I
treal
l
yrel
easesnut
ri
ent
sforpl
antgr
owt
h.
 Itpr
omotest
heconser
vat
ionofsoilmoi
stur
ebyl
ower
ingt
her
ateof
evapor
ati
onofwat
erfr
om thesoi
l.
 Ful
lymatur
ecompostmanur
eisbl
ackt
her
efor
ehel
psi
nabsor
bingt
he
sun’
sheat.
 I
timpr
ovesonsoi
lst
ruct
uremor
eespeci
all
yinsandysoi
l
s.
 I
tpr
omot
est
heact
ivi
tyofmi
crobesi
nthesoi
lbypr
ovi
dingf
oodf
ort
hem.
  I
tenhancest
hecr
eat
ionofneut
ral
react
ioni
nthesoi
l
.

Li
mit
ati
onsofcompost(
disadvant
ages)
 I
fusedi
mmedi
atel
yaf
termaki
ng,
itcanheatupandbur
ncr
opr
oot
s.
 I
trequi
resal
otofLabourt
opr
epar
eit
.
 Bigvolumesofcompostar
eneededt
obeappl
i
edi
nor
dert
oobt
aint
he
requi
rednutr
ient
s.
 Ther
eshoul
dbeagoodsourceofcompost
ingmater
ial
sinor
derf
ora
fr
amert
omakeenoughwhichisnotal
wayseasy
.
 I
trequi
resl
argevol
umesofwat
erdur
ingpr
ocessi
ngt
okeept
he
t
emperatur
esatopti
mum.

METHODSOFCOMPOSTING
Ther
ear
etwomai
nmethodsi
.e.Heapmet
hodandpi
tmet
hod.

PITMETHOD
Thisi
swhencompost
ingi
sdonei
npi
tsdugi
nthegr
ound.I
tismai
nlyappl
i
edi
nar
eas
wit
hlowrai
nfal
l
.
Pr
ocedur
eofmaki
ngcompost
i
. Pit
smeasur i
ngupto180cm i
nlengt
h,120cm wi
dthand60cm i
ndept
h
var
yingaccordi
ngt
othetypeofmateri
alsbei
ngused.
i
i
. Stones/mai
zestal
ksar
eplacedatthebot
tom oft
hepi
ttof
orm af
oundat
ion
andpromotepr
operai
rcir
culat
ion
i
i
i. Mat
eri
alsf
orcompost
ingshoul
dbechoppedi
ntosmal
lpi
eces
i
v. Compost i
ngmat er
ial
sshouldbearrangedinthepitasfol
lows;
maizestal
ks/
elephantgr
assatthebot t
om 10cm height,gr
ass/leav
es/weeds/ki
tchen
refuse10cm hei
ght,manure(far
my ard)10cm hei
ght,woodash10cm hei
ght
andt opsoi
l10cm heighti
norder.
v
. Repeatt
hear
rangementunt
ilt
hepi
tisf
ull
v
i. Putpl
antl
eav
esatt
het
opoft
hepi
ttof
aci
l
itat
epr
operai
rci
rcul
ati
on
v
ii
. Addabout0.
5kgofammonium Sul
phateatany0.
3m hei
ghtt
oincr
ease
ni
tr
ogencontentoft
hecompostmanur
e.
v
ii
i. Placeasti
cklongenought
oreacht
oreacht
hebot
tom t
omoni
tort
he
temperat
ures
i
x. Spr
inkl
ewat
ert
othepi
twhent
het
emper
atur
esar
ehi
ght
omai
ntai
nitat
opt
imum
x. Turni
ngofthemater
iali
npi
tsshoul
dbedoneev
eryaf
ter2t
o3weekst
o
enhancecompl
etedecomposi
ti
onasfol
l
ows;
 xi
. Mater
ial
sinpi
tAar eputi
npi tBandpitAfi
ll
edwithfr
eshmat eri
als
xi
i
. Aft
er2to3weeksmat eri
alsinBi st
urnedt
opitCandreplacedwi t
hthati
npi
t
A
xi
i
i. Mater
ial
sarechangedeveryafter2to3weeksintheorderunti
lther
eis
compl
etedecompositi
on
xi
v. Thi
stypeofsequenceensuresconti
nuoussuppl
yofmanur etothegarden

Heap/stackmet hod
Thisisdonei nareaswi t
hhighrai
nfal
l
Procedureofmaki ngcompost
i. Selectaflatareawit
hagooddr ai
nage
ii
. Makest acks/heapsofabout1.5to2m squar
edand1m awayfr
om each
other.
ii
i. Mat er
ial
sf orcomposti
ngshoul
dbechoppedintosmal
lpi
eces
i
v. Compost i
ngmat er
ial
sshouldbearrangedinthepitasfol
lows;
maizestal
ks/
elephantgr
assatthebot t
om 10cm height,gr
ass/leav
es/weeds/ki
tchen
refuse10cm hei
ght,manure(far
my ard)10cm hei
ght,woodash10cm hei
ght
andt opsoi
l10cm heighti
norder.
v
. Repeatt
hear
rangementunt
ilt
heheap/st
acki
sful
l
v
i. Putpl
antleav
esatt
het
opoft
heheap/st
ackt
ofaci
l
itat
epr
operai
r
ci
rcul
ati
on
v
ii
. Addabout0.
5kgofammonium Sul
phateatany0.
3m hei
ghtt
oincr
ease
ni
tr
ogencontentoft
hecompostmanur
e.
v
ii
i. Placeasti
cklongenought
oreacht
oreacht
hebot
tom t
omoni
tort
he
temperat
ures
i
x. Spr
inkl
ewat
ert
otheheap/st
ackwhent
het
emper
atur
esar
ehi
ght
omai
ntai
n
i
tatopti
mum
x. Turni
ngofthemater
iali
nheapsshoul
dbedoneev
eryaf
ter2t
o3weekst
o
enhancecompl
etedecomposit
ionasf
oll
ows;
 Tot
hegar
den

xi
. Turncompostmat eri
ali
nstack1toanempt yst
ackAandthatinstack2on
topof1inAaf t
er3weeks.
xi
i
. Tur ncompostmat eri
ali
nstack3toanempt yst
ackCandthatinstack4on
topof3inCaf t
er3weeks.
xi
i
i. Emptystacksshouldberef
il
ledwit
hf reshcomposti
ngmateri
altoensure
conti
nuoussupplyofcompostonthef arm.
xi
v. Turnmateri
ali
nst ackAint
ostackBt henfoll
owedbythatf
rom Cafterabout
7days
xv
. Leav ethemateri
alsinst
ackBuntildecompositi
oniscomplet
e

Pr
ecaut
ionst
otakewhenpr
epar
ingcompostmanur
e

i
. Makest acks/heapsthatarenei
thertoosmallnortoobigtoav oi
dincomplet
e
decomposi t
ion
i
i
. Ensurefreeairsuppl
ytothecompostcontainerforproperdecompositi
on
i
i
i. Avoidputti
ngst i
cksandplast
icsincompostmat eri
alssi
ncetheyreduce
quali
ty
 i
v. Sprinkl
eenoughwat ertomai ntai
nt emperat
uregoodforproper
decomposi ti
on
v
. Occasionall
yturnthemat eri
alstoensureproperdecompositi
on
v
i. Addt hi
nl ay
ersoffarmy ardmanur etoimprovethequali
tyofcompost
manur e
v
ii
. Donott rapfli
esincompostmat eri
aldur
ingcompost i
ngsinceitmayl
ower
qualit
y
v
ii
i. Placecompostpi torheapsinar easshelt
eredfr
om sun’sheatandwind.

GREENMANURE
Thi
sist
hemanur
emadebyi
ncor
por
ati
nggr
eenandv
igor
ousl
ygr
owi
ngpl
ant
sint
othe
soi
l
.
X-
ter
ist
icsofagoodgr
eenmanur
epl
ant
:-
 I
tshoul
dbeabletogrowv er
yfastsoast omeetther
equi
redpur
posei
nti
me.
 I
tshoul
dhav
ehi ghnit
rogencontent.
 I
tshoul
dbel
eaf yorhi
ghlyvegetat
ive.
 I
tshoul
dbeabletorotrapi
dlyandpr ov
idemanur
e.
 I
tshoul
dbediseaseandpestfree.
 I
tshoul
dbeeasytoploughintothesoil.

Advant
agesofgr
eenmanur
e:
 I
tsuppliesOrgani cmattertothesoilwhichcanimprovesoil
str
uct
ure.
 I
taddsni tr
ogent othesoilespecial
lywhenlegumesareused.
 I
tstimulatesbio-chemicalact
ivit
iesinthesoil
 I
tassistsinconser vi
ngandmaki ngav ail
abl
eplantnut
ri
ents.
 I
tincreasesyieldsmor eespecial
lyinmaize,by20%-70%.

Li
mit
ati
onsofusi
nggr
eenmanur
e:
 Pot enti
alcropsforgreenmanur earefoodcropsthereforei
tsdif
fi
cul
ttoconv
ince
farmer stopracti
ceitthatway.
 Machi neryisneededt oincor
poratetheplanti
ntothesoilwhichmaynotbe
readilyavail
able.
 Oldpl antswithhighfi
bercontentareverydiff
icul
ttoploughint
othesoi
l.
 I
ft hecr opsareleftt
ogr owunti
ltheyarehardandf i
brous,t
heymaynot
decomposeeasi ly.
FARM YARDMANURE(MUCK, LI
VESTOCKMANURE)
Thisi
smanur
econsi
sti
ngoff
ermenteddungandur
ineofani
mal
smi
xedwi
thr
ott
en
veget
abl
ematt
er.

I
mpor
tanceoff
arm yar
dmanur
e:
 I
taddslargequant
iti
esoforgani
cmat tertothesoil
.
 I
tprov
idesthesoilwit
hessenti
alnutr
ientsli
keNPK( Ni
tr
ogen,Phosphor
us&
Pot
assium).
 I
tcanbeusedt oimprovet
hequalityofotherorgani
cmanuressuchascompost
.

Pr
epar
ati
onoff
army
ardmanur
e

 Placedryli
tterintheanimal s’pentoactasbeddi ng
 Turntheli
tterasani malsdef ecateandur i
nateonit
 Selectafl
atpl acewi t
haconcr etef
looroutsidethepen
 Remov ethedi rt
ylit
terfr
om t hepenandpl aceitont heconcret
efloor
 Raiseashadeov ertheli
ttercol l
ect
edfrom thepent oprotecti
tfrom r
ainand
sunshine
 All
owt hecont entstodecomposecompl etel
ywhileintheshade
 Coatthecont entwithat hi
nl ayeroftopsoiltoreducelossofnitr
ogen
 Aftersi
xweekst hemanur ei sreadyforuse

N.B Far
my ar
dmanureshouldbepr
epar
edundercov
ert
opr
eventl
ossesof
ni
tr
ogenandsol
ubl
eminer
alnutr
ient
s.

Factor
saffectingt hequal it
yoff army ardmanur e:-
1.Thet y
peofani malst hatpr ovidesdung; Nonr uminant sandf att
eninganimals
producedungr ichinnut ri
ent sthant hatofl actati
ngani malswhi chextractalot
ofphosphor ousf rom t hefeeds.
2.Typeoff oodt heani mal eat s;Feedst hatareri
chpr oteinsandmi ner
alstendto
producebet terqualit
ydungf ormanur e.
3.Thet y
peofbeddi ngs( lit
ter)usedbyt heanimal s;
Cereal str
awhasahi gher
capacityofabsor bingmoi sturet hereforecanmakeabet terraw-mat er
ialfor
manur e.
4.Methodofst orage:Manur eheapsshoul dbeshel t
eredf rom dir
ectsunshineand
rai
nsincer ainleachesawaynut rients.
5.Lengthoft i
megi venf orcompl etedecomposi ti
on;Themor et i
megi venfor
compl etedecomposi ti
on, thehi ghert hequalit
yoft hemanur e.

I
NORGANI CFERTILI
ZERS
Thesear
echemicalsubst
anceswhi
char
emanuf
act
uredar
ti
fi
cial
l
ytosuppl
ythe
chemi
cal
element
srequi
redf
orgr
owt
handr
epr
oduct
ivenessofpl
ant
s.

TYPESOFINORGANI
CFERTI
LIZERS
Ther
earet
womainty
pesofi
norgani
cfer
ti
li
zer
s
i
. St
rai
ghtf
ert
il
izer
s
i
i
.Mi
xed/
Compoundf
ert
il
izer
s.

STRAI GHTFERTI LIZERS

Thesesuppl yonlyoneoftheprimarymacronutr
ients(ni
tr
ogen,phosphor
usand
potassium)e.gurea,singl
esuperphosphat
e,doublesuperphosphate,
Sul
phat
eof
ammoni a,
calci
um-ammoni um nit
rat
eandammoni um nit
rate.

MIXED/COMPOUNDFERTI LI
ZERS
Thesecontai
natl
easttwoofthepri
mar ymacr
o-nutr
ient
s(el
ements)ofNit
rogen,
Phosphor
ousandPot assi
um (NPK)
.Examplesofsuchfert
il
izer
sareN.P.
K.,Di
-
ammonium phosphat
e, ammonium hy
drogenphosphateet
c.

Advant
agesofCompoundFer
ti
li
zer
s
Themixt
ureisusual
l
ydr i
edintofi
neandwel
l
-mi
xedgr
anul
eswhi
chcanbeappl
i
edby
handandthr
oughfert
il
izerdr
il
l.
Themi
xtur
eisst
abl
eanddoesnotcakeupt
ofor
mlamps
Theycont
ainal
lthemaj
orpl
antnut
ri
ent
sinr
ightpr
opor
ti
ons.
Theysav
ethef
armer
’sLabourofmi
xi
ngf
ert
il
izer
sdur
ingappl
i
cat
ion.

Di
sadvant
ages(
Limi
tat
ions)
Theyar
esl
i
ght
lymor
eexpensi
vet
hanst
rai
ghtmanur
es.
Theymaybeunsui
tabl
eformostoft
hesoi
l
swhi
chl
ackonl
yonenut
ri
ent
.

FACTORSI
NFLUENCI
NG(
DETERMI
NING)THEUSEOFMANURESBYFARMERS:
 Soilanalysis:Thi sisi mpor t antbecausei texpr essest heneedandt ypeofferti
li
zer
s
 Thet ypesoff ertil
izersav ailable; Differentcropsr equirespecifi
cnutri
entsand
therefor
et hefer ti
li
zer sav ailableinshopsshoul dmeett heabove.
 Priceofaf erti
lizer,increasesuseoff ert
il
izersbyf armer sisdet
er mi
nedbyt he
pri
cesandt heexpect edpr of i
tsaf teruse.
 Management ;
Thef armer ’sf ollow- upoft her i
ghtappl icati
onmet hodandper i
odof
applicat
ionaf fectst her esul tsachi evedaf teruse.
 Knowl edgeandski l
lsoft hef armer ;Far mersmor einformedaboutf er
ti
li
zerscanuse
mor eofi t
 Cropv alue;growi ngl owv al uecr opsmaynotencour aget heuseoffert
il
izer
ssince
thecostmaybehi ghert hant hey ieldexpect ed
FACTORSAFFECTI
NGCROPRESPONSETOFERTI
LIZERS

. Nat ureoff erti

li
zers;Hi ghlysol ublef ert
il
izerscanbeeasi l
yabsorbedandusedby
crops
i
i. Soil factors; Somesoi lshav eahi gherabi l
ityofsuppl yingnutr
ientsthanot her
s
andi tv ariesf r
om placet oplaceandt imet ot ime
ii
i. Climat e; Placeswi thl owr ai
nf allhav ereducedl eachi nghencemostoft he
fert
ilizersappl iedwi l
l beusedbycr ops
iv. Ther ateofappl i
cation; Somef ertil
izersonceappl iedinexcesswi llbecomet oxi
c
andhencenotusedbyt hecr opsorcausedeat ht othecr ops
v. Cropf actor ;
Somecr opwi llf
ai ltorespondt oapar ti
cularfer
ti
li
zerhencemaki ng
i
tusel esscr opswi llneedahi gherquant ityoft hef ertil
izerst
or espond.
vi. Cropage; Mat ur
ecr opsmayhav el owf ertil
izerr equirementthant hey oung
vigor ouslygr owingcr ops
. Presenceofpest sanddi seases; Cropsat tackedbysuchshoeal owr esponseto,
fert
ilizersduet oacompr omi sedcr opphy siology
v
ii
i. Weedpopul ati
on; Ahi ghpopul ati
onofweedi nt hegar denwi l
luseal otof
nutrient sleav i
nglitt
lef orthecr ophencel owcr opr esponse
. Soil structure;Poorst ructur
epr event sproperr ootdev elopmenthencear educed
nutrientabsor pti
vepowerf orcr opr oots.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFFERTI
LIZERSTOTHESOI
L:

Themet
hodsf
orsuppl
yi
ngf
ert
il
izer
sef
fi
cient
lyar
e:-
1.Broadcast i
ngbef or eplanting:Her ethef erti
lizeri sspr eaduni for
ml yov ert he
fi
eldandi tgivesposi tiveresultsf orseedswhi char ebr oadcast ed.
2.Roworbandpl acement ;Inthismet hod, thef ert
ilizersar epl acedi nlocal i
zed
areasal ongt her owsatcal culateddi stancef ormaxi mum absor ptionbypl ants.
3.Topdr essi ng;Thef erti
li
zersmor eespeci allyni t
rogenousi sappl iedasasecond
dosebybr oadcast i
ngont hesoi lsur f
acecl oset ot hepl antswhent hecr opi s3-4
weeksol d.
4.Dril
l placement ;Thef ert
il
izersisappl i
edbyadr illalongwi tht heseeddur ing
planting.Themet hodgi vesgoodr esultswi thwheat ,mai zeandot hercer eal s.
5.Bandpl acement ; Thef ert
ili
zerispl acedononesi deorbot hsi desoft her ow
about5cm bel owt heseedand4cm f rom t hepl ant .Themet hodi susef ul f
or
cropswhi char esensi ti
vet odirectcont actwi thfer ti
li
zer slikecot tonand
tomat oes,
6.Appl icationbypl ough:Thef ert
ili
zer sarepl acedi nacont i
nuousbandatt he
bottom oft heploughf urr
ows.Eachbandi scov eredast hesucceedi ngf urrows
aret urnedov er.
7.Appl yingl iquidfer t
ili
zersbyi rri
gat ionorspr aying:Theappl icati
onoff ertil
izers
i
nsol utioncanbeusedonhi ghv aluecr opsandt hef ertil
izerhast obesol ublein
wat er.
SOILANDWATERCONSERVATI ON
Thi
sisthesci
enceandartofl
ooki
ngaft
erthelandinsuchawayt
hatsoi
li
sret
ainedi
n
onepl
aceandnotcarr
iedawaybyerosi
veagents.

Ai
msofsoi
landwat
erconser
vat
ion:
 Tor
educesoillossesbyt aki
ngmeasur esagainstagentsthatcausesoiler
osi
on.
 Tomaintai
nsoilfer
til
i
tythatcanbelostthrougherosion.
 Tor
etainwateressential
forcropgrowth.
 Tomaintai
nthephy si
calpropert
iesofsoil
thatisidealforcropproduct
ion.

SOI
LEROSI
ON
Thi
sist
her
emov
al/
washi
ngawayoft
opsoi
lbywi
ndandr
unni
ngwat
er.

Fact
orspr
edi
sposi
ngsoi
ltoer
osi
on:
-
1. Ov ergrazing:Keepi ngahi ghnumberofgr azingani malsonal i
mitedamount
ofpast urer emov esveget ati
oncov erexposi ngl andtoer osion.
2. Bur ningofv egetati
on:t hisremov est hev egetat i
onfrom thesoilexposi
ngit
toer osiveagent sli
kewat erandwi nd.
3. Ov erculti
v ation:Thi sreducest heor ganicmat terinthesoilandalsodestr
oys
soil str
uctur emaki ngthesoi lmor epr onet oer osionbyr unningwaterand
wind.
4. Impr operf armi ngmet hods:Li keploughi ngal ongt heslope, pl
ant
ingannual
cropsonst eepsl opesencour agessoi ler
osion.
5. Man’ sactiviti
es:Themaj oracti
vi
tiesher ear et hoseinvolvedinconstr
ucti
on
whi chcanl eadt othecl eari
ngofv eget ati
on.

Ef
fect
sofSoi
lEr
osi
oni
nAgr
icul
tur
e:
1. Itreducest hequal ityofsoilbywashi ngawaysoi lnut r
ientsandi ncreasing
acidity
.
2. Ther eisar educt i
onofl andar eaav ai
lableforproduct i
onmor eespeci all
y
wher egullyer osionoccur s.
3. Er osionincr easest hecost sofpr oducti
onsi ncethef armerwi ll
spendmoney
tryi
ngt ocont rolit.
4. I tdestabil
izessoi lprofil
esbyt r
ansferri
ngsoi lf
rom onepl acet oanot her.
5. Er osionleav est hesoi l
sur f
acebar eandhar dwhichmakest hesoilmor e
diffi
culttowor k.
6. Soi lproduct ivi
tyisreducedmor eespeciall
ywhenl esspr oduct i
vesoi lis
deposi t
edov erthepr oductivesoil.
7. Gul l
yerosioni npar ti
cularmakesmechani zati
onont heaf fectedf i
eldv ery
diffi
cult.
8. Er osioncanl eadt owat erpolluti
onmor eespeci al
lywher ef ert
il
izersfrom land
arewashedi ntowat erbodiest ocausepol luti
onoft hewat er.
9. Er osionleadst othesedi ment ati
onofdams, r
iver
s,andl akes.
10. Leadst ospr eadofweedseeds.
 11. I
tmayleadtot
hespreadofpestsanddi
seasesi
ngardens
12. I
tal
ter
ssoil
str
uct
ureandtextur
ethataf
fect
scropgr
owt h

TYPESOFEROSI ON:
GeologicalEr
osi
on:Thi
stakesplaceundernat
ural
condi
ti
onsbef
oreman’
s
di
sturbanceofsoil
andv
egetati
on.
Accel
erat
edErosi
on:Thi
sisthedet
eri
orat
ionandl ossofsoi
lasar
esul
tofhumanor
ani
malacti
vi
ti
eswhichl
ossessoi
ldi
rect
lyorindi
rectl
y.
Spl
ash/r ai
ndroper osi
on;t
hisasaresul
toft
heimpactofr
aindropsonthesoi
l
sur
face.Theseri
ousnessofthiser
osi
ondependsonrai
ndropsize,v
eget
ati
vecover
,
soi
lstr
uctur
eandl andgradi
ent.
Sheeter osi on;t hisisauniformremov aloflayersofsoi lfrom slopingl
andasar esult
ofsheetf low.I ti sthemostser i
ouserosionsincei tremov esthemostpr oducti
velayer
ofsoi l
.Itgi v eswayt oril
lerosi
on.
Ril
ler osion; soil i
sremov edleadi
ngtot heformationofsmal landcl ear
lycutchannels.
Ril
lsar esmal landcanber emovedbynor mal pl
oughi ngorhar rowing
Gul l
yer osion; t
hi siswher eUandVshapedl argechannel sar eformedt hatcancar r
ya
l
otofwat erandsoi l.Gul
li
escannotber emov edbynor mal cul
ti
v at
ionmet hodsduet o
theirsize.
Wi nder osi on; thisiswher ewindcarr
iessoilasitbl owsov erthebar esoilsurf
acewi t
h
nov eget ation.I tismor eser i
ousinpl
aceswi thli
mi tedv egetati
onandl oosesoil
structure

Fact
orsi
nfl
uenci
ngsoi
ler
osi
on:
1. Rainfalli
nt ensity:Rai nreceivedi nsmal lamount sov eral ongper iodoft i
me
causedl esser osiont hanthatr eceivedi nlar geamount sforashor tt i
me.
2. Topogr aphy :t hest eeperthesl ope, t
hef ast ert hespeedofwat erf l
owi ngover
i
tandt hegr eat erthesoi l
eroded.Al ongersl opehasmor ewat erf lowi ngover
i
tandt heref or
eagr eat
erchanceofer osiont akingpl ace.
3. Veget ati
on:
 Thedensi t
yofv egetati
oncov eraffect sther ateofer osion.Dense
veget ationr educessoi lerosionbysl owi ngdownt hespeedofr ainwat er
andt hei mpactofr ai
ndr opsont hesoi l sur f
ace.
 Thepl antroot scanbi ndsoi lpar t
iclesr educi ngt hechancesofer osion
 Decomposedpl antsaddor ganicmat tert ot hesoi l whi chimpr ov est he
wat erhol dingcapaci tyandsoi lstructuret hatcanr esisterosion
 Tr eescanactaswi ndbr akeshencer educi ngt heef f
ectofwi nder osion.
 Veget at i
oni ncreaseswat erinfi
ltr
at i
onwhi chr educessur facer unof f

4. Farmingpr
act
ices:Cont
inuouscul
ti
vat
ionoflandleadst
othebr
eakdoneof
thesoil
str
uct
uremakingthesoi
lmoresuspti
bletoerosi
on.
 5. Ploughingdownt heslopewil
li
ncreasesoiler
osi
onsi
ncethespeedupthe
speedofwat er.
6. Man’sact i
vit
ies.Di
stur
banceofsoilst
ruct
ureandot
herpr
oper
tiesbyman
mayi ncreaserateoferosi
on

CULTURALMETHODSOFSOI LANDWATERCONSERVATI ON
I.Mi ni
mum t il
lage:t hissafeguardagai
nstdistur
banceofsoi lphysical
pr
oper ti
esthusr educingthechancesoferosionandmoi stur
el oss.
Importanceofmi nimum t i
ll
ageonsoilconservation
Preser
v erssoilst
ruct urehencemakingsoilr
esistanttoerosi
onandwat erl
oss.
Reducesl ossofwat erbyev apor
ati
on.
Conserv esorgani
cmat terinthesoi
lbyreducingoxidati
on.

I
I.Mulching:Thisr educestheimpactofr ai
ndropsonthesoilsur
facet
ocause
spl
asher osionandal socontrol
slossofsoilmoist
ureMulchisanymateri
al
usedtocov erthesoil sur
facetopreventexcessl
ossofwaterbyevapor
ati
on,
contr
ol ofsoiler
osionandsuppr essi
ngweeds.

Mat
eri
alsusedasmul chi
nclude:-
Str
aws, dr
yleav
es,tr
ash,stal
ks,
cof
feehusks,
drygr
ass,
sisal
wast
eandpol
ythene.

Adv
ant
agesofMul
chi
ng:
 Reducessoi lerosionbychecki ngt hespeedofwat erandbat t
eringeffectofrain
dropsont hesoi lsur f
ace.
 Itconser vessoi lmoi sturebyr educi ngev aporati
onofwat erfr
om t hesoilsurface.
 Iti
ncr easeswat erinfil
trat i
on(downwar dentryofwat erintothesoi l
)byr educing
surfacer unof f
.
 Organi cmul chesdecomposeandaddor ganicmattertot hesoilhenceimpr ov i
ng
soilferti
li
tyandwat erhol dingcapaci ty
.
 Mul chesmoder atesoi ltemper at ur
eshenceal l
owingsoil microbestost ayinthe
soilandcar ryoutdecomposi tionsoast oimprovesoilferti
li
ty
 Cont rolsweedsbycut tingof flightsuppl ytothem atseedl i
ngst age.
 Iti
mpr ovesonsoi lstruct urewhent heor gani
cmul chesdecomposet opr ovi
de
organi cmat ter.
 Iti
ncr easesy iel
dsi ncer taincr opsbypr ovidi
ngmanur eandaweedf r
ee
environment .
 Mul chescancont r
ol cert ai
npest sli
ket hebananaweev i
ls(Cosmopol i
tes
sordidus)whi charet rappedi nt hemul ch.

Di
sadvant
ages:
 Mul
chesmoreespecial
l
ytheor
gani
conescanbei
twhendr
yanddest
roy
t
hecropsi
nthegarden.
  Theycanactasbr eedi
nggroundsforpest
sl i
ketermi
tes.
 Somemul chescausedefici
encyint
othesoil.
 Mulchi
ngmat eri
alsarequit
eexpensi
veforthefarmer
st opur
chase,
tr
ansport
,andlayinthegarden.
 Thevegetabl
emat eri
almaybeasour ceofweedsmor eespeci
all
ywheni
t
i
snotcompl et
elydry.

I
II
.Cr opr otation:Thi sisthesy stem ofgr owi ngdi fferentcropsont he
samepi eceofl andinasequenceordef initeordersoast opr eserve
andmai ntainsoilfert
il
ity.
IV.Manur i
ng:Manur esimpr ov ethesoi l
st ruct ur
et her ebyallowi ngwat er
i
nfiltrationandbi ndingoft hesoi lparticlest oget her.
V.Af orest ation:Tr eespl antedreducesoi l erosionbywi ndandwat er
si
ncet heyincreasewat erinfi
l
trati
oni ntot hesoi landbundsoi l
particlest ogether.
VI.Wi ndbr eaks:Thesear el i
nesoft reespl ant edper pendiculart othe
dir
ect ionoft heprevail
ingwi nds.Theyr educet hespeedoft hewi nd
hencecont roll
ingerosionbywi nd.
VII
.Pl ant ingcov ercrops:Thi sar ecropspl ant edtor educet her ateof
wat err unof ffr
om thesoi lsurfaceandhol dst hesoi lpart
icles.

X-
ter
ist
icsofagoodcov
ercr
op:
 I
tshouldbeeasyt oest abli
shandmul ti
ply
 I
tshouldgrowr api dl
yandv i
gor ouslytosuppressweeds
 I
tshouldnotactasacompet i
tortot hemai ncrop.
 I
tshouldnotdemandt oomuchLabourt ocontrolit
sgr owt h.
 I
tshouldbetoler anttopr uningandsl ashi
ng
 I
tshouldstri
vewel lonaf erti
lesoi l
 I
tshouldberesi stanttopest sanddi seases.
 I
tshouldhavegoodf oragewhi chspr eadsoverthesoi l
 I
tshouldbeabl et owithstandsunl i
ghtdur i
ngtheearlyst agesofgrowth.
 I
tshouldbeabl et otolerateshadi ngbyt hemaincr op.
 I
tshouldbedr oughtr esistantsoast obeabl etosurvi
v el ongdrought
.
 I
tshouldnotpr oduceanysubst ancet hathastoxiceffectt othemaincrop.
 I
tshouldbeeasyt ober emov edwhennecessar yandi ncor porat
edint
othesoi
l
.
VII
I.Stripcr opping:Her ecropsandpast ur
esar epl antedal
ongthe
cont our si
nal ternatestripstoreducesoiler osionbyslowi
ngdown
thespeedofr unningwat er.
I
X.Int
ercr
opping:Whencereal
sarei
ntercr
oppedwit
hl egumeshav
ing
broadl
eaves,soi
ler
osi
on,canbereducedbythebroadleav
edplant
.

MECHANI
CAL/
PHYSI
CALMETHODSOFEROSI
ONCONTROL
Terraci
ng:Thisisdoneinplaceswithsteepslopeswhereter
raceareconstr
uctedto
reducetheslope.Theter
racescanbeofv ari
ousf or
msli
kebroadbasedt er
races,
narrowter
racesandbencht er
races.Thesereducethespeedofrunningwaterdownthe
slopeandencour agewat
erinfi
lt
rat
ion.
Cont
ourploughi
ng:Thi
sinv
olvesploughingacrosst
hehi
llal
ongthecont
ourst
oreduce
t
heextentofwat
errunof
foverthesurfaceofthesoi
lbyt
hehelpoffur
rows.
Bunds Thesear eheapsofsoi lmadeacr osst hesl opetot rapanywat ert hatf l
ows
downt hehi lltoconser vesoil
Ridges.Thesear etheheapsofsoi lthataremadeacr ossasl opeonwhi chcr opsar e
grown.Theyt rapsoi landwat errunni ngdownt heslope
Gabions/ barrages.Thesear eobst ruct i
ons/structuresofst onesmai nl
yputi ntrenches
toreducet hespeedofwat erdownt hetrenchandt r
apanysoi li
nt hewat erflowing
Diversionchannel s.Theyar ewat erchannel sconst ructedatther aisedpar toft hef i
eld
todiver twat erflowingdowni ntothegar den
Deeppl oughi ng.Pl oughingdownt ot hesubsoi lincreaseswat eri nfi
lt
rati
onandhence
reducingsur facer unoff.Thiscont rolssoilerosion
Gradedbanks.Wat errunoffint hegar deni sr educedbyconst ructi
onofbanksand
reducingoft hesl ope.Wat erfrom eachbanki sconduct edaway
Absor pt i
onbanks.Thesear echannel sconstructedacr osst heslopeoft hef ieldt otr
ap
rai
nwat erf orfutureuse.
Grassedwat erway s.Thesedr ainagechannel swhi chleadawayexcesswat erand
havinggr asspl antedinthem t ot r
apsoi landreducewat erspeed

LANDRECLAI MATION
Thisisthepr
acti
ceofregai
ningorbri
ngingbackwast
elandtousesoforcropping,
rear
inganimalsorset
tl
ement.Suchlandcouldbeunderswamps,r
iver
s,f
orests,
desertsofi
nfest
edwithpest
sliket
setsefli
es.

Met
hodsofRecl
aimi
ngl
and:
Thesei
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
-
Defor
estat
ion,
irr
igat
ion,
terr
acing,
draini
ngswampyareas,af
for
est
rat
ion,
appl
i
cat
ionof
fer
ti
li
zer
s,l
andcleari
ng,pestcontr
ol,l
evel
ingandst
umping.
Defor
estati
on:Hereforestsareclear
edusi
ngbull
dozer
s,motor
izedsaws,axesor
pangatorel
easel
andf oragri
cult
ure.Howevert
hispr
acti
cehasothernegat
ive
eff
ectsontheenv
ironment.

Drai
ningswampyar eas:Landdrainagei
samethodofrehabi
l
itat
ingl
andby
removingexcesswaterf
rom anareawhichi
swaterl
ogged.

Advant
agesofdr
aini
ngl
and:
 Drai
nagespr ovi
deagoodenv ironmentwhi chencour agesopt i
mum r ootgrowthby
i
mpr ovingaerat
ion.
 Drai
nager ai
sessoiltemper aturessi nceawetsoi l i
susual lycol
d.Thi simprovest
he
gr
owt hofplantssincet heyneedwar mthar oundt her oots.
 Drai
nageal l
owst r
actorsandot hermachi nestomov eeasi l
yoverthesoi l
.
 I
tisimpor t
antincontrolli
ngpar asitesli
ket heliverflukes
 Drai
nagei mprovesont hesoi lstructureofapar ticularpl ace.
 I
tcreatesawat ertablewhi chdoesnotf luctuatemuchgoodf orci
trusf r
uit
s.
 I
timpr ovesrootpenetrati
onint othesoi lhencepr opergr owthofthepl ant.
 Cr
opl ossesduringharv estwhichar eduet owetcondi t
ionsareminimi zedby
dr
ainingland.

METHODSOFDRAININGLAND
Themet
hodst
hatcanbeusedi
ncl
ude:
Sur
facedr
ainage:Thi
sist
her
emov
alofwat
erf
rom t
hesur
faceoft
hesoi
lbymeansof
openditches.Opendi
tchesar
eusedt
oremov
eexcess(
sur
face)wat
erf
rom l
owl
ayi
ng
areas:
-
Adv
ant
agesofsur
facedr
ainage
 I
tiseasytonoti
cethebl
ockagesandt her
efor
ecorrect
edeasi
l
y.
 Opendit
chesarecheaptoconst ruct
 Ther
earelesschancesofleachinginthi
smet hod
 Doesnotdryoutthesoi
lcompl etel
yhencepreser
vingsoi
lmoi
stur
e

Di
sadvant
ages
 Theyar emorepronetogull
yerosi
onwhi chmaybedest ructi
ve.
 Theditchesoccupygoodlandwhichcoul dhavebeenusedf orcr
opgrowi
ng.
 Theyinterf
erewit
hmechanicalti
ll
ageoper ati
onandli
vestockimprov
ement.
 Theyar eexpensi
vetomaintai
n
 Level
ingshouldbedonebeforewat ercanflowint
othedrainswhichmaybedif
fi
cul
t
toachieve

SUB-
SURFACE(
UNDERGROUND)DRAI
NAGE/TI
LEMETHOD
Thi
siswherewateri
sdr
ainedawayf
rom wat
erl
oggedar
east
hrought
il
esordr
ainpi
pes
l
aidundergr
ound:
-
Adv
ant
agesoftil
emethod( sub-
surf
acedrainage)
 I
tleavesthef
iel
dfreeofsurfaceobstruct
ion
 I
tdoesnotencouragegullyerosi
onasobser vedinsur
facedr
ainage.
 Thereisnoneedtolevell
andt of
acil
i
t at
edrainage.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
het
il
emet
hod:
 Mayl
eadt
oexcessi
vel
eachi
ngi
nar
easwi
thheav
yrai
nfal
l
  Theydryoutthel
andexcessi
velyatti
mesandy etbeinadequat
edur
ingwet
weather
.
 Theyareexpensi
veandrequi
reskil
ledLabourtoi
nstal
l.
 Theyareeasi
lybl
ockedbyrootsofmanyper enni
alcr
ops

Sub-
soi
li
ngdr
ainage.
Thisi
sther
emov alofsurfacewaterl
oggi
ngcausedbythebuil
dupofani mpervi
ous
l
ayerusi
ngaheav ycul
ti
vat i
onwit
honeormor et
imesthatcanpenet
rateupto90cm
deep.Theoper
ationcracksandloosenssubsoi
lespeci
all
yunderf
air
lydrycondi
tions.

Useofdeepr
oot
edpl
ant
s
Plant
sli
keeucal
ypt
useswhichhav
edeepr
oot
edt
hatcanpenet
rat
eimper
vioussubsoi
l
canbeusedindrai
ningl
and.

Terr
acing:
Thi
sconserveswaterandsoi
lmaki
ngt
hef
iel
deasyt
owor
kwi
thmachi
ner
y.I
tismai
nly
doneinhil
l
yplaces.

Aff
orestration:
Thi
si spracticeofplanti
ngtreesinpl
aceswheret
heydiedoutorwheret
heyhavenever
exi
stedbef ore.Treesareplantedinar
eassuchashi
ll
topsoronslopesofmountai
ns
andhill
s,wher enocr opscangrow.

Level
ing:
Thisi
sdoneinplaceswi
thant
i-
hil
l
swhi chhi
ndermechani
zat
ion.Thepl
acei
slev
eledt
o
al
lowmachiner
yuseandcropproduct
ion.

Landclear
ing:
Thisi
scarri
edouti
nor
dert
omeett
hef
oll
owi
ngobj
ect
ives:
 Toi
ncreaselandf
orcropandani
mal
product
ion
 Tomakemechanizati
onpossi
ble
 Todi
scouragepest
s.

I
tcanbedoneusinghandmet
hod,
mechani
cal
met
hod,
chemi
cal
met
hod,
bushbur
ning
oruseofexpl
osi
ves.

Fer
til
izer
sapplicat
ion:
Thi
sisdonei nordertorecl
aim poorsoi
lmoreespeci
all
yforcropspr
oducti
on.
I
norganicfer
ti
li
zerscanbeaddedt oimprov
et hefer
ti
li
tyofsuchanarea.

Pestcont
rol
:
Si
ncepestsareaprobl
em si
ncetheyar
evectorsofimportantdiseasesl
ikesl
eepi
ng
si
cknessinhumansandnaganaincatt
lef
ortsetsefl
ies.Placeswi t
hsuchpestsshoul
d
bespray
edtoall
owhumanset t
lementandagri
cultur
alproducti
on.

Stumping:
Thisisther
emovaloftr
eestumpsfrom anar
ea.I
teasesmechani
zat
ionandpr
ovi
des
mor ear
eaforagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ion.

I
rri
gat
ion:
Thi
sisthepract
iceofapply
ingwat
erar
ti
fi
cial
l
ytot
hesoi
li
nar
easwher
ether
eisnor
ain
orwhererai
nisi
nadequate.

TYPESOFIRRI
GATI ON
1. Sur f
aceirr
igati
on
Thi
sistheappl
i
cat
ionofwat
erov
ert
hesur
faceofl
and.I
tmayi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng
methods:
Fl
oodir
ri
gati
on fur
rowi
rri
gat
ion
Bor
deri
rri
gat
ion basi
nir
ri
gati
on

a. Fl oodirr
igat
ion:
I
nthismethod,
waterisappl
i
edbyfl
oodi
ngf
latar
eas.I
tist
hemostsui
tabl
ear
easi
n
pl
aceswit
habundantandcheapwat
er.
Advant
ages
Fl
oodi
ngcanki
l
lcr
oppest
sanddi
seases
I
tdoesnotneedt
hel
evel
i
ngofl
and.
Goodf
orar
easwi
thabundantwat
ersuppl
y

Di
sadvant
ages:
I
fthewat erflowsfast,i
tmaynotinfi
lt
rat
ethesoi
l.
Waterloggingandl eachi
ngofnutri
ent
smayoccur
Surf
acer unoffmaycausesoi l
erosi
on.
Li
ttl
econt r
olofwat ersuppl
i
edleadstowastage.
Excesswat ercausesleachi
ng

b. Fur rowirr
igati
on
Herewaterissuppli
edtori
gidlandf
rom amainsour
cet
hroughsuppl
ycanal
s.The
excesswatercol
lectedf
rom thebot
tom oft
hefi
eldi
ndr
ainswhichl
eadtoawaterway
.
N.
B.Cr
opsar
enor
mal
l
ygr
ownonr
idgeswhi
chmustbecar
eful
l
ypanned.
Advant
ages
Wat
eri
nfi
l
trat
esuni
for
mly
Thi
smet hodi
ssui
tabl
eforr
owcr
opssuchascer
eal
ssi
ncef
urr
owscanbemadei
na
rowfor
m
Canusepoorqual
i
tywat
ersi
ncet
her
ear
enopi
pest
obebl
ocked
Di
sadvant
ages
Ther
ei sadangerofsal
taccumul
ati
oni
nthef
urr
owmor
eespeci
all
yift
hewat
er
cont
ainssal
ts.
I
tmayencour
agesoi
ler
osi
on
Excesswat
ermaycausel
eachi
ng
Mov
ementi
nthegar
denbymachi
nesi
simpeded
Mayr
equi
regr
adi
ngofl
andwhi
chi
ncr
easescost
sofpr
oduct
ion
Somet
imesenoughwat
erdoesnotr
eacht
heendoft
hef
urr
ows.
c. Bor
deri
rr
igat
ion
I
nthi
smethodwat erfr
om thesuppl
ycanal
isappli
edtothetopendofst r
ipsofland
whi
charedi
videdbylowear t
hbunds.Duetoevengradi
ngoftheland,thewaterflows
i
naregul
arunifor
m sheetdowneachstr
ipwett
ingthesoil
asitadvances.

d.Basini
rri
gati
on
Thisisasyst
em usedonl
eveledl
andtoir
ri
gateor
chardsmainl
y.Abasi
nismadeeit
her
foreachtr
eeorgroupoft
reesdependi
ngonthesoi
lcondi
ti
onsandsurf
acesl
ope.
Theadv
ant
agesoft
hissy
stem ar
ethatt
heLabourcosti
slowandi
tusesl
esswat
er.

2.Overhead/spri
nkleri
rr
igat
ion:
Thi
sinvol
vessupply
ingwaterjustl
ikenatur
alr
ain.Thesyst
em consist
sofapumpi
ng
uni
twhichsuppl
ieswaterunderpressur
eanditisspr
inkl
edtot
hecr opsandsoi
l
.

Advant
ages
 Wat erdeli
verycanbemat chedwi t
hcroprequir
ements.
 Mov ementi nthegardenbymachi neisnotaff
ected.
 Itdoesnotr equi
rethelev
el i
ngoflandhencereducethecostsinvol
vedi
nthat
.
 Itdoesnotencour agesoi
l erosi
onasobservedinthesurf
acemet hodsof
i
r r
igati
on
 Agr i
cult
uralchemical
ssuchasf erti
li
zer
spesti
cidesandherbici
descanbe
appliedunif
ormlywi t
htheirri
gati
onwater.
  Adaptst odrytopography.
 Thesy stem doesnotr equi
respecialskil
l
stooper ateitasseenindripi
rr
igati
on.
 Canbei ntegrat
edwi thseveralagronomicpracti
cesi nthegarden.
 Iti
sani deamet hodinsandysoi lsandhill
yareas
 Lowmai nt
enancecost s.
 Thereisadequat einf
ilt
rati
onofwat erint
othesoil whichisi
mpor t
antincrop
nutr
ientsabsorption.
 Somet i
mest hehighpr essuresofwat erf
rom theirr
igati
onsystem canki
llpests.

Di
sadvant
ages:
1.Thewat erdr opletsmayhav eahar deningef f
ectont hesoilwhichhinder sf
urt
her
waterinfil
trati
on.
2.Thesy stem requi r
esahi ghini
ti
alcapitaltoinstal
lwhichmaynotaf fordedbythe
peasants.
3.Wat erdoesnott endtoinfi
lt
rateveryfarintothesoilmor eespeciall
ywhen
pumpedi nsmal lamount s.
4.Thereisar iskofsal taccumulati
onar oundt herootzonear eas.
5.I
ftheweat heriswi ndy,t
heappl i
cati
onofwat erbecomesunev en.
6.Thesy stem hasbeenknownasonewayi nwhichpat hogensar espreadin
gardens( pathogensar ediseasescausi ngorganisms)

3.Dr i
p/Tr i
ckleIrri
gation
Thisisrel
ativelynewmet hodofir
ri
gat
ingcr opsandismainl
yusedintheUSA,
Austral
iaandI srael.Waterissuppl
i
edthroughplasti
cpipestoeachr
owofcr op
plantsandasmal lnozzleal
lowswatert
ot r
ickleoutandprovi
desmoi
sturear
ound
theplantroots.

Adv
ant
ages
 Wateri sdel i
veredneart herootareasot hatthecropsthecr opscangetagood
supplyofwat er.
 Thereisl esschancesofwat erevaporati
onandaccumul ati
onofsal t
sasin
overheadandsur faceirrigati
on.
 Thear eabet weent her owsi nnotinvadedbyweedssi ncether ei
snowat er
suppli
edt here.
 Iti
sav eryeconomi cal wayofusingwat ersinceiti
nvolveslesswastage.
 Fert
ili
zer scanbemi xedi nthewat erandsuppli
edt ot
hecr ops.
 Lowpr essur eisrequiredt opumpt hewaterthr
oughthesy stem hencesavi
ng
energyi ntake.

Di
sadvant
ages
  I
trequi
resahighini
ti
alcapi
tal
topurchaseandinst
all
therequi
rementi
nthst
ype
ofi
rri
gati
on.
 Thesystem r
equi
resgoodquali
tywaterwhichcannotbl
ockthepipes.
 I
tisunsuit
ablef
orsteepandunevenareas

FACTORSTHATDETERMI
NETHETYPEOFI
RRI
GATI
ONTOBEUSEDI
NANAREA:
1. Thesour
ceofpower
Abundantpowersupplyi
nanareacanencour
agesomebodyt
ouseov
erheadi
rr
igat
ion
si
ncetherei
spowert opumpthewater
.
2. Ty
peofsoi
l
Loosesandysoi
l
sarenotgoodforthesurfacemet
hodsofi
rr
igat
ionsi
ncetheyar
e
morepronetoer
osi
on.Butoverheadirr
igati
oncanbegoodi
nsuchplaces.
3. Topogr
aphy
Anareawit
hhi
l
lsandv
all
eyscanonl
yal
l
owov
erheadi
rr
igat
ionwhi
chdoesn’
tinv
olv
e
thel
evel
i
ngofl
and.
4. Ty
peofcr
opsgr
own.
Thegrowingofhighval
uecr
opscanal
l
owt heuseofcost
lyi
rr
igat
ionmethodsl
ikedr
ip
andspri
nkleri
rr
igat
ionmet
hodssi
nceafar
merwillbeabl
etocoverthecost
s.
5. Met
hodsofpl
ant
ingcr
ops
Cr
opsplant
edinr
owcanallowtheuseofdr i
pir
ri
gati
onmet
hodandmostoft
hesur
face
methodswhi
chcan’
tbeusedinbroadcast
edcrops.
6. Av
ail
abi
li
tyofwat
er.
Pl
aceswithl
imitedwatersuppl
ycaneff
ici
ent
lyappl
ydr
ipi
rr
igat
ionmet
hodsi
ncei
tis
moreeconomicalint
heuseofwat er
.
7. Capi
tal
Theavai
labil
it
yofenoughcapi
talwi
l
lall
owaf ar
mersel
ectanyt
ypeofi
rr
igat
ion
methodssincehecanaffor
dallt
hecostsi
nvolv
ed.
8. Knowl
edgeandski
ll
s
Somemethodsofi
rr
igat
ionli
kedri
prequi
respecial
ski
l
lsandknowl
edgewhi
chmustbe
readi
l
yav
ail
abl
eduri
nginstal
l
ati
onandmai nt
aini
ng
9. Cl
imat
icalr
ecor
ds:
Thesewill
showt henat
ural
wateravai
labl
etot
hecr
opi
nor
dert
odet
ermi
near
ti
fi
cial
appl
icat
ionneededinapart
icul
arper
iod.

CROPPRODUCTI
ON
FACTORSTHATDETERMI
NE/AFFECTCROPSGROWNI
NANAREA.

Thef
act
orsarediv
idedint
otwobr
oadgr
oup’
si.
e.
- Abi
oti
cfactor
s - Biot
icf
act
ors.

ABIOTI
CFACTORS
Thesear
efact
orst
hatar
ear
esul
tofnonl
i
vingpar
toft
heenv
ironmente.
g
Soi
lfert
il
it
y Soildensi
ty
Soi
ltext
ure Qualit
yandquant
it
yofl
i
ght
Humidit
y temperatur
e
Rai
nfall wind
Dayl
engt
h
1. Soi
lPH
Dif
fer
entcropsrequi
redi
ff
erentspeci
fi
cpHf orthei
rpr
opergr
owt
he.
g.t
ear
equi
re
aci
dicsoi
l,
tobaccomayrequiresl
ight
lyaci
dicsoil
.
2. Soi
lfer
ti
li
ty
Cr
opsar
enut
ri
ent
swhi
chmustber
eadi
l
yav
ail
abl
efort
hei
rpr
opergr
owt
h.
3. Soi
ldr
ainage.
Somecropsl
iker
iceareabl
etot
hri
vei
npoor
lydr
ainsoi
lwhi
l
eot
her
sli
kemai
zecannot
wit
hst
andpoordr
ainage.
4. Soi
lst
ruct
ure
Thi
saf
fect
sthemov
ementofai
r,t
ransf
erofheatandr
ootdev
elopment
.
5. Soi
ltext
ure
Thi
scanal
soaf
fectt
henumberofphy
sical
proper
ti
esofsoi
lwhi
char
ever
ycr
uci
alt
o
cr
opgrowt
h.
6. Temper
atur
e
Someplant
sli
kethecer
ealsandgr
asescanl
i
veinareawit
hhight
emper
atur
e.Si
nce
theyar
ethemechani
sm ofcl
osi
ngthei
rst
omatadur
igtheday
.
7. Avai
labil
it
yofwater.
Waterisusedasarawmat eri
alforphot
osynt
hesi
s.Absenceofwat
erina
part
icul
arareacanl
imitthegrowthofaparti
cul
arcr
opsmoreespeci
all
ytheset
hat
arenotdroughtr
esi
stantinbananas.
8. Topography
Thi
sdeterminest
henumberoff
act
orsl
i
ket
emp,
humi
dit
yrai
nfal
lwhi
chal
laf
fect
s
cr
opgrowth.
9. Pestanddi
seases.
Cropsi
nsomear eashav
ebeenel
i
minat
edduet
othepr
esencepestanddi
seases.
 e.
g.Tomat
ogr
owi
ngi
nmostar
easofUgandai
sli
mit
edbybact
eri
alwi
l
t.
10. Wind.
Athi
ghatt
it
udesst
rongwi
ndsar
eexper
iencedwhi
chwi
l
laf
fectt
hegr
owt
hof
cr
ops.
11. Socialf
actor
s
Somecommuni t
iesar
egrowingcer
tai
ncropssincehi
stor
ical
l
ytheyhav
eact
edas
foodcr
ope.g.mil
letamongtheIt
esotofUganda.
12. Economicr
easons
Somecr
opsarecashcropsther
efor
etheymustbegr
ownt
opr
ovi
def
armswi
th
incomee.
gcof
fee,t
ea,cocoa.
13. Gov ernmentpoli
cy.
Thegovernmenthasbeenr
est
rict
ingthegr
owt
hofcer
tai
ncr
opsf
orheal
th
reasonsandsecuri
tye.
g.Opi
um /Marij
uana.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFCROPS;
Cr
opsar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
womai
ngr
oups
a)Annual
crops
b)Per
enni
alcr
ops

ANNUALCROPS
Thesear
ecr
opswhi
chcompl
etet
hei
rli
fecy
clewi
thi
noney
eare.
g.
i
. Cereal(mil
let,Sorghum, Ri
ce,Wheat ,Barl
ey,Maize,Oats,andRy e)
i
i
. Legumes( Beans, Soy beans,Cowpeas, Pigeonpeg, G-
nuts)
i
i
i. RootCrops( Cassav a,Sweetpot at
oes,Ir
ishpotatoes,Yams, )
i
v. Vegetables(cabbages, t
omat oes,onions,eggplants,
amar anthusspp,
car
rot
s,
dodo,spinach, pumpki ns,cucumber ,
wat er,
melon,garli
c,pepper.)
v
. Oilcr
ops(Si msi m, sunflower,cott
on)
v
i. Fi
bercrops( (cotton)
v
ii
. Drugcrops(Py rethrum)

PERRENI
ALCROPS
i
. Bev
erages;
cof
fee,
tea,
andcocoa
i
i
. Fr
uit
s;pawpaw,
guav
a,av
ocado,
jackf
rui
t,passi
onf
rui
t,pi
neappl
es,
bananas,
e.
t.
c
 i
i
i. Ci
tr
us;
oranges,
lemons,
tanger
ines,
e.t
.c.
i
v. Sugarcr
ops;
sugarcaneandsugarbeet
v
. Spi
ces;
vani
l
la,
ginger
,cl
over
,e.
t.
c.

CEREALS
Thesearecommonlyknownasgr
aincr
opsandtheyhav
eahighcont
entof
car
bohydrat
es.Theyaret
hemostcommonfoodcropsusedal
lov
ertheworl
d.

REASONSWHYCEREALSARETHEMOSTFOODUSEDI NTHEWORLD.
1. Theyar eeasytopr epareasf oodf orexampl er i
ceandposho.
2. Theyar eadaptedtoav erywider angeofsoi l andt heenv i
ronmental condit
ion.
3. Theyhav efewerpestanddi seaseascompar edt oothercrops.
4. Cer eal
scontai
nahi ghamountofcar bohydratesandv it
ami nwhichar ehighly
neededinourdiet.
5. Becauset heycontainlowmoi sturecontentt heyar eeasyt ostoreandused
whenneeded.
6. Cer eal
shaveashor tl
if
ecy cleascompar edt ot hecropsandot herperennials.
7. Cer eal
scanbeusedasf oodf orbot hmanandani mal s.
8. Becauset heyarelessbul kyhencei ti
seasiert ot r
ansportcerealsfrom one
placet
oanother.
9. Managementpr acti
cesl i
kepl ant,weeding,canbeeasi l
ydonebymachi nes
reduci
ngLabourrequirement sdur ingproduct ion.
10. Theydonotr equirespeci alseedbedbef orebei ngplanted.

MAI
ZE- ZEAMAYS
Pl
antchar
act
eri
sti
cs
1. Maizeisanannual cer eal cropwhi chcangr owupt oahei ghtof4-6met res
2. Amat ureandagr owi ngmai zehasapr opr
ootradiati
ngf rom themai nstem
outwardintothesoi lpr ov idingsuppor t.Thedepthoft herootdependson
numberoff actorse. g.soi l
, rai
nfalletc.
3. Thetasseli.
e.mal emai zei nf l
orescenceemer gesatthet opoft heplantand
sheditspoll
enov eraper iodofaboutoneweek.
4. Thesilki.
e.femal ei nflor escenceemer gesfrom t
heearout wardstowar dsthe
endofpol l
ensheddi ngandr emainsconcept i
veforaper i
odofaboutt hree
weeks.
5. Ingoodcondi ti
onmai zel eav esar egr eenwithparall
elveinandl ongi.emor e
than0.5m.
6. Atanear l
ystageofgr owt hi tcanbepl oughdownasgr eenmanur eto
provi
denut r
ientintot hesoi l
.
7. Youngmai zecanbeusedf ormaki nghayf orfeedi
ngl i
vest ockhowev eritcan
bri
ngdigestiveprobl em i ft hemai zei samat ur
eoneduet of ibr
ouscont ent.
8. Maizeflourcontainal otofcar bohy drateswheneat enitcanbemet abolized
toprovideenergyt osuppor ttheor ganism.
 Gr
owt
hrequi
rement
s

9. Mai zerequiresawel ldrainedsoilwit

hagoodsuppl yatnutri
ent
10. I
tcannott olerateasl ightestdegreeatwat erl
ogging.
11. I
trequiresenoughr ainfallwhi
chisequal l
ywelldist
ribut
edbuthowev er
,
duri
nghar vesti
ngi tshoul dbeascompar edtodur i
ngsilki
ngwhereenough
waterisneeded.
12. Maizethriv
esv erywel lbetweentemper at
uresof20–250C.Hi gh
temperaturedur i
ngt hedayi saccompani edbyhi ghrateoftr
anspi
rati
onand
l
owt emper atureatni ghtisaccompani edbyahi ghrateofrespi
rat
ionthus
l
imiti
ngy i
eld.

Seedbedpr
epar
ati
on

13. Seedbedpr eparat

ioni
sdonebyhandroughlythi
sintur
nadvantageous
becauseweedsar ekil
l
ed,encour
agewaterinf
il
tr
ati
onandresi
stsoiler
osi
on
thaninfi
neseedbed.
14. Secondarycult
ivat
ionmaynotbenecessarysi
ncethecrophasbigseeds.

Pl
ant
ingandspaci
ng

15. Itshouldbepl antedatt hebegi nningoft her ainbecauseear l

yplant
edmai ze
benefitfr
om ni t
rogenf lushthatoccurwhenadr ysoil ar
ewet t
edandsuf fers
l
essf rom fungal diseases
16. Planti
ngisdonemechani call
ybypl anterorbyhand.Twoseedsar eplanted
i
nonehol emadeat5cm deepi nmoi stsoilbutindr ysoilshouldbeplaced
10cm deept opr ev entitgerminatingasar esultofonlyasl ightshower.
17. Spacingshoul densur el owpopul ati
onAt least90cm X30cm bet weeneach
plant.Thisistor educecompet i
ti
onf orbasicgr owt hrequirement.Howev er
spacingcanbedet erminedbyot herf actorslikesoilfert
il
ity,soi
lmoisture,
vari
ety,e.
t.c.
18. Inproperlyspacedmai z einareaofr eli
abler ainfal
lweedf reeconditi
onneed
onlytobemai ntainedunt il
thecropi s45cm hi gh.Af t
erthisheightthecr op
suppressesweedsbyi tself.

Weedi
ngandf
ert
il
izerappl
icat
ion

19. Maizeisweededwheni tsbetween10-15cm andbef oreitstartssilki

ng
20. sel
ecti
v eherbicidescanbeusedt ocontrol
weedsl ikeat
razineher bici
de
21. Nit
rogenf ert
il
izersshouldbeappl i
edastopdressi
ngwhenmai zeisatabout
45cm hi gh.
22. Phosphat esshoul dbeincor
poratedint
othesoilattheti
meofsowi ng.
23. Far
my ardmanur ecanbeappl i
edtothesoilt
oincreaseit
sf ert
ili
tyowi ngt
o
maizegr owthanddev el
opment.
 Pestanddi
seasecont
rol

24. Peststhataf f
ectmaizeincl
udestal
kborerandarmywarm whichi
tsl
arvae
mayeatal ltheleavesunti
lonl
yremainmidri
b.
25. Fewdiseasesl ikewhit
eleafbl
ight
,maizestr
eakcausedbyvi
rusandrust
causedbyf ungusat t
ackthecrop.
26.
Harvesti
ngandy iel
ds

27. Harvestingmaizeisdonemechani cal

lybycombineharvesterandmanuall
y
byhand.
28. Maizegr ai
nisphy si
ologi
call
ymat ureatamoisturecontentofabout35%.
whenl efti
nthefieldtodryiti
sreducedt o19–20%af terthehuskshasbeen
removed.
29. Maizei sdri
edandst oredinthecri
bi .
e.astor
ewi t
hwall ofwir
enetti
ng.

Quest
ion.
Descr
ibetheagr
onomi
cpr
act
icescar
ri
edouti
nthegr
owi
ngofr
icef
rom pl
ant
ingt
o
har
vesti
ng.
o Plantcharact er
isti
cs.
o Ecologicalrequirementoft
hecr
op(
soi
l
,rai
nfal
l
,humi
dit
y,t
emp)
o I
mpor tance
o Seedbedpr epar at
ion
o Planti
ng
o Weedi ng(thinning,pr
uni
ng)
o Ferti
li
zersappl i
cation
o Harvesting
o Yiel
d
o Storage.

VEGETABLES
1. Theyar esourcesofincomewhenaf armerdeci destosel l.
2. Theyar everygoodsour ceofv it
ami nlikev itaminAandC.
3. Theyactasappet izer
sf orfoode. g.onionsandt omatoes.
4. Theyar eagoodsour ceofmi neralse.g.Iron, magnesium.
5. Theyheapi ncontroll
i
ngdi gestiveprobl em likeconstipation
6. Theycanbeusedasani mal feedsl i
kecabbagest orabbi t
s.
7. Veget ablesgrowingpr ovi
deempl oymentf orpeoplewor kingasatt
endant
sin
veget
ablegardens.
8. Veget ablesareagoodsour ceofmanur esi ncetheyrotf ast.
9. Legumi nousvegetablesfi
xni tr
ogeni ntot hesoi le.
g.beans
10. Theycanactascov ercropshencecont roll
ingsoi l
erosion.
11. Somev eget
ableshavemedi calvaluee. gmal akwang, redamar ant
hus.
CLASSIFI
CATIONOFVEGETABLES
Veget
ablescanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
woway
s.i
.e.accor
dingt
othepar
teat
enandf
ami
l
y

ACCORDI
NGTOPARTEATEN.
1. Leafv egetabl
es
o Cabbages
o Amaranthus
o Spi
nach.

2. Frui
tveget
able
o Eggplant
o Tomatoes
o Watermelon
o Cucumber
o Pumpkin.
o Okra

3. Seedv eget
abl
es
o Cowpeas
o G-nuts
o Beans
o Gardenpea
o Fi
eldpea

4. Rootv eget
abl
es
o Onions
o Sugarbeet
o Garli
c
o Carrot
s
o I
ri
shpot ato
o Turnip
o Radish

5. Flowerv eget
abl
es
o Caul
i
flower

Famil
yclassifi
cati
on
Herevegetabl
esar egr
oupedintosi
xfami
l
ies:
-
1. Legumi nosae (
pulse)
Thisinclude
o Beans
 o Pi
geonpea
o G-nuts
o Gardenpeas
o Cowpeas

2. Sol
anaceae(
Tomat
ofami
ly
)
Thi
sincl
ude
o Ir
ishpotat
oes
o Eggplant
o Tomatoes
o Sweetpepper

3. Br
assi
caceae(
cabbagef
ami
ly
)
I
tincl
udes
o Cabbage
o Caulif
lower
o Radish
o Turnip
o Kale

4 Cucurbi
tae( gourdfami
ly
)
I
ncludes
o Pumpki ns
o Wat ermel on
o Cucumber
o Gour ds.

5. Al
li
aceae
Thi
sincl
udes
o Onions
o Leek
o Garli
c

6. Api
aceae
o Car
rot
s
o Par
sely
o Cel
ety
o Car
ri
ander
o Par
sely
.
7. Amar
ant
hanceae
o Amaranthushy
bri
dus
o A.dubius
o A.caudatus

PROCEDUREFOLLOWEDINGROWI
NGVEGETABLES
1. Choosingthesi
te.
Thesi
tet
obeconsi
der
edf
orgr
owi
ngv
eget
abl
eshoul
dmeasur
eupt
othe
f
oll
owi
ng:
-

a. Thesoi l shouldbedeepandf ert

il
e.Incaseatl owf er
til
it
yferti
li
zersshoul
d
beappl ied.
b. Availabil
ityofwat er,
thesiteshouldhav eenoughwat ersupplyhence the
sit
eshoul dbecl oset oawat ersource.
c. Distancef r
om home.Thesi teshouldn’tbef arfrom homef orsecurit
y
reasonsandeasymanagement .
d. Thear eashoul dbef reefrom fr
ostandt hefarmert oef f
ectthisshoul
d
avoidv alleybottom.
e. Thepl aceshoul dn’tbehav i
ngshadesi ncesomev egetableli
ketomat o
andeggpl antdonott hr
ivewelli
nshade.
f
. Gent l
esl opeorf l
atlandandr equir
ef orfairdrainage.

2. Pr
epar
inganur
ser
ybed.
Anur
ser
ybedi
sanar
eawher
eseedl
i
ngsar
egr
ownbef
oret
heyar
etr
ansf
err
ed
t
otheact
ual
veget
abl
efi
eld/gar
den.Theseedscanbepl
ant
edi
naseedbed,
seed
boxesorsoi
lbl
ocks.

Tr
eat
mentofpl anti
ngmat eri
als
o Seeddr essi
ng–coat i
ngseedswithpesti
cidese.g.copperSul
phate.
o Chitt
ingorencouragingsprout
inge.
g.inpotatoseeds.
o Inoculat
ion,
usuall
ydonel egumeswhereseedsar ecoatedwithri
ghtbact
eri
alf
or
noduleformation.
o Hotwat ertr
eatmentagainstvi
raldi
seasese.ginsugarcaneandcassava.

I
mportanceofanur ser
ybed.
o Whenpropagati
ngseedswhi charetoosmallt
obepl anteddir
ect
lyi
ntot
hesoi
l
.
o Thecr
opseedlingsaredel
icateandneedgreatcare
o Bul
ki
ngupofpl ant
ingmaterial
sisnecessar
yli
keinsugar cane
o Hel
psinselect
inghealt
hyandst r
ongseedli
ngs.
o Whencutti
ngstopropagat
et hecropneedspecial
treatmente.gt
ea.
 Procedur eofmaki nganur ser ybed
o Remov eallgrasses, r
oot sandt reest umpsont hear ea.
o Thepl aceshoul dbecul tivateddeepl ytoencour agepr operrootdev elopment .
o Alllargesoi lpiecesshoul dbebr okendownt oencour ageaf inebed.
o Incorpor atemanur econt ai
ni ngphosphor ousi ntot hesoi ltoimprovef ert
il
it
y
o Leav et hear eatoset tl
ef orAt least3–4weeksbef oreplantingseeds
o Measur eof ftheseedbedt oawi dthof1met r
eandanyl engththaty ouf eel.
o Erectashadeont hepr epar edpl acet ocont roll
ightandwat erdeli
veredt othe
seedlings.
o Maker idgesacr osst hebedwher et heseedsar et obepl anted.
o Placet heseedsi nther idgesandcov eritwi that hinl ayerofmul cht of acil
i
t at
e
ger minat i
on.
o Placeat hinlayerofmul chov ertheseedst oconser v
esoi lmoistureandcont r
ol
weeds.
o Assoonast heseedsger mi nat et hemul chshoul dber emov edsincei tmay
i
nt erf
er ewi thgermination.
o Theseedsshoul dbewat eredt wi ceeachdayi nt hemor ningandev eni ng.
o Afterger mi nati
onexcessseedl i
ngscanber emov edapr acti
cecalledpr i
ckingout.
o Atal at erstagebef oretranspl ant ingseedl ingsar eexposedt oenvironment al
conditionsr eferredtoashar deningof f
o Transpl antingshoul dbedonei ntheev eninghourormor ningtoreducet her ate
ofwat erlossf r
om t heseedl ingsbyt ranspirati
on.

3. Pr
epar
ati
onofaseedbed.
Aseedbedi
sawel
lpr
epar
edpi
eceofl
andr
eadyt
orecei
vepl
ant
ingmat
eri
als.
o Thelandshoul dbeclearedoflargebush, al
ltr
eesandgrasses
o All
treerootsandst umpshoul dber emovedinadvance.
o Thewhol eplaceshouldbedeepl yculti
vatedandbigpi
ecesofsoilbroken.
o Thewhol eplaceshouldbemeasur edtoestabli
shthesi
zeinaccordancetothe
numberofseedl ingstobeplanted.
o Theplaceshoul dbeleveledbeforeplanti
ngseedli
ngs.
o Thewhol evegetableshouldbeal ongthecontourofl
andtoreduceer osi
on.

Nur
ser
ybedmanagement

o Seedli
ngsmustbewat eredAtleasttwiceadayi.einthemor ni
ngandevening.
o Applyfert
il
izerst
otheseedl i
ngstoimpr ovegrowth.
o Applypesti
cidestocontrolpestsont heseedl
ings
o Sprayfungici
desontheseedl i
ngst ocontrolf
ungalinfecti
onsl
ikedumping
off
o Provi
deagoodshadeov erthenurserybedtocontrol damagetoseedl
i
ngdue
toharshenv i
ronment
al condit
ions
o Remov ediseasedandexcessseedl ingsfr
om thenur serybedi
.epri
ckoutto
 r
educediseasespreadandal
lowproperseedli
nggr
owth.
o Weedthebedt oreducecompet
it
ionfornutr
ient
sandcont
rol
diseasespr
ead

4. Tr
anspl
ant
ing

Pr ecaut i
onst obet akenwhent ransplant ing
o Seedl i
ngsi nthenur serybedshoul dbewel lwateredbeforelifti
ngt oreducer oot
breaki ng
o Seedl i
ngsshoul dbel iftedwithsoi li
nt heirr ootstocontroldistort
ingofr oot s.
o Car eshouldbet akennott odamager oot sasi tmaydet erpropercr op
establ i
shmentanddev elopment .
o Transpl anti
nghol esshoul dbebi genought oaccommodat eseedl i
ngswi t
hout
bendi ngroot ssinceitmayaf fectrootdev elopment.
o Wher ef ert
ili
zersareusedi tshoul dbet hor oughlymixedwi thsoilforef f
ici
ent
uti
lizationbyt heseedl i
ngs.
o Seedl i
ngsshoul dnotbepl anteddeepert hant heywereint henur seryforpr oper
establ i
shment .
o Transpl anti
ngshoul dbedonedur i
ngthecool hourstoreducewi l
ti
ngof
seedl i
ngst hroughexcessi velossofwat erbyt ranspi
rat
ion.
o Seedl i
ngsshoul dbewat er
edaf tertranspl anti
ngi ft
hesoi li
nt hefieldisdryt o
prov i
deadequat emoi stureforcr opest ablishmentandgr owth.

Tr
anspl
ant
ingt
heseedl
ings.
1. Onlyhealthy,strongseedl i
ngsshoul dbesel ected.
2. Water i
ngoft henur seryt osof t
ent hesoiltoeaset r
ansplantingandreduce
r
ootdamage.
3. Transpl anti
ngshoul dbedonei nt heeveni ngori ncool weather.
4. Thor oughpr epar ati
onoft heseedbedbyr emov i
ngal lt
reest ampsandroots
r
emov eanyot herv egetationAt l
easttwomont hsbef oretranspl
anti
ng.
5. Dighol esbef oret r
ansplant i
ngatt herequi r
edspaci ng
6. Filltheholeswi thami xedt opsoil anddoubl esupperphosphat eororgani
c
manur eAt l
east2- 3weeksbef oreplanting.
7. Topsoi landsubsoi lshoul dnotbemi xedbutf ill
edtohol esseparat
ely
8. Transpl antatt hebegi nningofr ai
nf oreasycr opest abli
shment .
9. Pr ovidetempor aryshadet othetransplantedpl ant(seedli
ngs)
10. Mulchar oundt heseedl ing
 11. Cont
inuewat
eri
ngunt
ilt
hepl
anthasf
ull
yest
abl
i
shedi
t’
ssel
f.

5. Appl
icat
ionoff
ert
il
izer
s.
o Veget
abler
equi
remor
eofN,
PandKwhi
chshoul
dbeappl
i
edear
lyf
orv
igor
ous
pl
antgrowt
h.

6. Weedi
ng
Ef
fect
iveweedcont
rol
isneededt
oensur
epr
opergr
owt
hoft
hev
eget
abl
esi
nce
t
heyar
emor
esensi
ti
vet
ocompet
it
ion.

7. Di
seaseandpestcont
rol
.
Veget
abl
esar
eat
tackedbyanumberoff
ungal
andbact
eri
aldi
seasesl
i
ke
dumpi
ngof
f,downymi
l
dew,
bact
eri
alwi
l
t,mosai
c,dr
yrot
,bl
ackr
ot,
stem r
ot,
and
bl
i
ght
.Thecommonpest
sar
ecutwor
ms,
ter
mit
es,
grasshopper
s,cat
erpi
l
lar
s,
mol
ecr
icket
s,aphi
ds,
thr
ips,
nemat
odesandbeet
les.

8. Har
vest
ing
Mostv
eget
abl
esar
eear
lymat
uri
ngandar
enor
mal
l
yhar
vest
edmanual
l
yaf
ter
har
vest
ingt
heyshoul
dbekepti
nacool
placet
othatt
heydon’
tgo
bad.

GROWINGOFTOMATOSEEDLI
NGSFROM NURSERYBEDPREPARTI
ONTO
TRANSPLANTI
NG.
1. Selectagoodsi tef orveget ableproduction
2. Remov eall
vegetat i
onf rom theareawher etoprepar etheseednurser
ybed.
3. Cultivatedeeplyr emov i
ngal lr
ootsf r
om t hebed.
4. Raiseanur serybedt ofacili
tategooddr ainage.
5. Incor porat
ewel lrottenF. Y.M /compostorS. S.
Pf erti
li
zer
.
6. Level t
hesoilbyr akingandr emoveanyf orei
gnmat er
iall
ikestone,
polyet
hene
orgl assesandbr eakanybi gclodsofsoi l.
7. Sowt heseedat0. 5cm deepandcov erli
ght l
ywithsoi l
8. Spaci ngshouldbe15cm bet weent herows.
9. Mul cht hebedl i
ght l
yandr emov eafterseedshav eger minated
10. Erectashadeov eranur ser ybedtopr otectseedli
ngsf rom harsh
environment alcondi ti
ons.
11. Wat erf rom t
hetopoft heshadet wiceaday ,morningandev eningusi
nga
water ingcan.
 12. Whent heseedl ingsgrowupt oabout2. 5cm high, pr
ickouttoensur eproper
spacingandgr owth.
13. Weedi ngshoul dbecar ri
edoutwi t
hagar dent rowelorsuit
abletool
14. Sprayingseedl i
ngswi thcopperf ungici
dessuchasr idomilanddiethaneM45
tocont rollat
ebl ightandot herpestsshoul dbedone.
15. Asseedl i
ngsnear15cm i nheight ,r
educet heshadet oensurehar deningoff
.
16. Aweekbef oret r
ansplanti
ngwat ertheseedlingtoensurethesoi lissoftt
o
avoidbr eakingr oots.
17. Aweekbef oret r
ansplanti
ng, r
emov eall
theshadet oensurefullhardeni
ngof f
.
18. Transplant i
ngshoul dbedonei nt heeveningorcl oudcastdayt oreduce
waterlossf r
om t heseedlings.
19. Attranspl anti
nguseat rowel t
or emov eseedl i
ngwi t
hsoilaroundt heroots.
20. Attranspl anti
nguseat rowel t
or emov eseedl i
ngwi t
hsoilaroundt heroots.
21. Wat erimmedi atelyaft
ertransplanting.

Di
seasesoft
omat
o.

TomatoBli
ght
-I
t’
saf
ungaldi
sease,i
tatt
acksl
eav
es,
stemsandf
rui
ts
causi
ngbrown–bl
acksunkenlesi
ons
 I
t’
sv er
ysev
ereinhumi
dweather
.
 I
tcanbecontr
oll
edbyspr
ayi
ngwithcopperf
ungi
cidessuchasr
idomi
land
di
ethaneM45.

Bact
eri
alWil
tIt
scausedbypseudomonassol
anacear
um,
itcauseswi
l
tingand
deathofgr
owingpointandupperl
eav
es.
 I
tsai
rborneandcont rol
l
ingitsspreadisdi
ff
icul
t.Howevert
hefol
l
owingcont
rol
measuresar er ecommended: -
 Remov eandbur nalli
nfectedplant
s.
 Cropr otation
 User esistantv ar
ieti
es
 Ster
ili
zet hesoi lbyburninggrassontoporapplyf
ormali
norboil
 Byfallowing

TomatoMosaic -Thi
sisar
ivaldi
sease,
whi
chcausescur
li
ngandmol
ti
ngof
l
eav
est husr
educi
ngthear
eaofphot
osynthesi
s.
- I
tmaybet
ransmi
tt
edf
rom t
obaccoshr
edorasmoker
’shand

I
tscont
rol
l
edby
 pl
anti
ngresistantheal
thyseeds
 bur
ningall
af f
ectedplant
sandplant
ingheal
thyseeds
 smokersshouldwasht hei
rhandsbefor
etouchi
ngtomat
opl
ant
s.
Pr
uni
ngt
omat
o
 Oneortwost emsar el
eftperplant.
 Removelateral shootweekly
 When6–8t russesofflowerspinchoutthegrowingi
tthi
spruni
ngwi
l
l
encour
aget hegr owthofgoodsi zemarketabl
et omat
o.
 Removeleav escl oset
ot hegroundtopreventtheent
ryofbl
i
ght.

I
mpor
tanceofpr
uni
ngt
omat
oes

1.I
mpr
ovest
hequal
i
tyoff
rui
tsbyexposi
ngeacht
oenoughl
i
ght
.
2.I
mpr
ovey
iel
dsbyensur
ingbi
gfr
uit
sduear
educedcompet
it
ionf
or
nut
ri
ent
sbet
weenv
ari
ousbr
anches
3.Makesspr
ayi
ngagai
nstdi
seasemor
eeasy
4.Remov
esami
crocl
i
mat
ethatcanencour
agepest
s.
5.Har
vest
ingbecomeseasi
ersi
ncef
rui
tsar
epr
oper
lyexposed
6.Makesmov
ementwi
thi
nthegar
densi
mpl
er.

St
aki
ngt
omat
oes

Ther
ear
esev
eral
met
hodsofst
aki
ngt
omat
othecommonmet
hodi
ncl
udes:
-
 Si
ngl
est
aki
ng
 Cr
ossst
aki
ngusi
ngawi
recr
osspol
es.

I
mpor
tanceofst
aki
ngt
omat
oes

1.Control
sfungal diseasesthatcanattacktomatof r
uitsespeci
all
ysoilbor
ne
di
seases.
2.I
mpr ovesthequal it
yoffruit
sbypr eventi
ngcontactbetweensoi landfr
uit
s.
3.Preventspestattackoftomat oesbycr awli
ngpests
4.Exposesfrui
tstoadequat eai randli
ghtwhichimpr ovesquali
ty.
5.Reduceswast ageofpest ici
desbyexposi ngfr
uitsforeasysprayi
ng.
6.Makemov ementwi t
hinthegar deneasy.
LEGUMES
Thesear
epl
ant
swi
thr
ootnodul
eswhi
char
eabl
etof
ixni
tr
ogeni
ntot
hesoi
l
.

IMPORTANCEOFLEGUMES.
1.Theyar egoodsour cesofpr otei
nforhumanandot herani
malse. g.soybeans,
withapr oteincont entof38–40%
2.Inpasturet heypr ovideproteinforgr azingani
mals
3.Symbol i
cbact eri
aint herootnodul esofl egumesf i
xatmosphericnitr
ogeninto
thesoil.
4.Fastgrowingl eafylegumesar egoodf ormakinggreenmanure.
5.Legumesgr owandcov erthegr oundv eryqui
ckl
yhencecanbeusedascov er
crops.
6.Theyar edeepr ootedhencehel pinr ecycli
ngnutr
ientandopeningupt hesoi l
thusincreasi ngrati
onandi nfi
ltr
ati
on.
7.Inanydr yar ealegumeshr ubpr ovi
def odderf
oranimals.
8.Legumesr egener atefasterandpr oducemor enutri
ti
ousvegetati
v epart
shence
canbecont inuall
ygr azedbyani mal s.
9.Somel egumesar eusedi nt hemanuf actur
eofmedi ci
neanddy es
10.
Industr
ialproduct smadef rom legumessuchasgr oundnutscakear efedto
li
vestock.

CHARACTERISTI
CSOFLEGUMES
o Theyhavetri
fol
i
atenetveinl
eaves.
o Mostlegumeshaverootnoduleswhichcont
ainni
tr
ogenf
ixi
ngbact
eri
a\
o Theybearpodswhichcontai
nseeds.
o Theyhaveataprootsystem.

ROOTCROPS
Theyarecr
opswhichhav
eswoll
enr
oot
sorunder(
groundst
ems)i
nwhi
chl
arge
quant
iti
esofst
archar
estor
ed.

I
MPORTANCEOFGROWI NGROOTCROPS.
1. Theygr owinav ar
ietyofsoi landcanbegoodsour ceoffoodf ormostoft he
areas.
2. Theyr equir
elit
tl
el abourandat t
entionhencecheapt oproduce
3. Thet ubercanlieint hegr oundunt i
lrequi
redandt heref
oreav ai
labl
e
throughoutthey ear.
4. Mostr ootcropsar er esistanttodr oughthencecanbepr oducedinar eaof
l
itt
lerainfal
l.
5. Rootcr opsareat t
ackedbyf ewpestanddi seasesascompar edtoother
crops.
6. Theyar eabletogi vehi ghy i
eldev eninpoorsoi lhencesolvi
ngt heproblem of
 hunger
.
7. Comparedt
ocereal
sandl
egumes,
rootcr
opsr
equi
rel
i
ttl
epr
ocessi
ngbef
ore
theyar
eeat
en.

LI
MITATIONOFROOTCROPSGROWI NG.
o Theyar ebulkyandtherefor
edi f
ficul
tandexpensiv
etotransport
o Theyhav eahi ghmoisturecontenthencedif
fi
culttost
ore.
o Theyar elowinprot
ein,fat,v
itamin,andmineral
shenceneedssupplementat
ion.
o Theyar epropagat
edv egetati
velyther
efor
etheplanti
ngmat er
iali
sdi
ff
icul
tto
t
ransport
.

PERENNIALCROPS
Thesearecr
opswhichcompletethei
rli
fecycl
einmoret
hanoney earcof
fee,
tea,
cocoa,
si
sal,
cashewnut
,sugarcane,ci
tr
usfrui
ts,pawpaw,
banana,
pineappl
e.

I
MPORTANCEOFGROWI NGPERENNI ALCROPSI NANAGRI CULTURESYSTEM.
1. Thecostofest abli
shingisspreadoveranumberofgearhencecanl ower
thanthatofannual.
2. Har vesti
ngiscontinuousaft
erestabl
ishmentwhichreducesLabour.
3. Theymaybeusedassecur i
tyi
nacquiringl
oansfrom t
hebank.
4. Theyi ncreaseval
ueofl andwheneverplant
ed.
5. Thecostofcont r
olli
ngpestanddiseaseisgener
allyl
owerthanthatofannual
.

LI
MITATI
ONOFPERENNI ALCROPPRODUCTI ON
1. Requi r
eal otofl andtobegr ownbecauseoft heirwidespacing.
2. Per ennialtakel ongtimet omat uret hereforewastelongwhichcouldhav e
beenusedf orshor tter
m pr ofi
tablecr op.
3. Someoft heper ennialrequireirri
gat ionsoaper manentwat ersourcemaybe
necessary .
4. Someper ennial donothav eseedsandt heref
oremustbev egetati
vely
propagatedwhi chisabi texpensi ve.
5. Thepr ocessi ngoft hesecr opsmayhav et obedoneont hefarmr educi
ngthe
l
andar eat hatcoul dbeusedf orcr ops.
6. Theav eragey ieldformostper ennialsi slow.
7. Per ennialsarev erydiff
iculttoimpr ov ebecausebreedingprogrammesar eat
al
ongt erm nat ureandv eryexpensi ve.

Theper
enni
alsareal
sogr
oupedi
ntofami
li
ese.
g.
1. Rubi aceae - Cof
fee
2. Theacede - Tea
3. St
ercul
i
aceae - Cocoa
4. Anacar
diaceae - Cashewnut -
- Mango
5. Agav
aceae - Si
sal
6. Gr
ami
nae - Sugarcane
7. Rut
aceae - Ci
tr
usf
rui
ts
8. Car
icaceae - Car
Papaw( icapapaya)
9. Musaceae - Banana
10. Br
omel
i
aceae. - Ananascosmosus(
pineappl
e)

GROWI
NGCOFFEEFROM NURSERYBEDTOHARVESTI
NG
1. Chooseasui tabl esi tewi thagooddeep, wel l
dr ainedf erti
lesoi l f
rom any
shade.
2. Plought hear eaadept hof0. 6m t oat il
thi.e.deeppl oughi ng
3. Remov eal lpl ant sr oots, st ones, weedsandbr eakal l bigcl odst henlev elthe
soilusi ngar ake.
4. Incor por atemanur ei .
e.compostmanur eorSSP.
5. Sow/pl antseedsatadept hof2. 5m i
nanur ser ybedataspaci ngof15cm by
15cm or20cm x20xm.
6. Mul chandwat ert hor oughl yusi ngwat eringcanmul chesar er emov ed
i
mmedi atelyaf t erger mi nat ion.
7. Erectashadet olastat leastf oronemont h.
8. wat err egul arlynur ser ylifel astf or1½y ear
9. weedi ng, thinni ng, prickingoutshoul dbedonet oav oidcompet iti
on
10. cont rol pestanddi sease
11. Har deni ngoft heseedl i
ngbef oret r
ansplant i
ngt hisisdonebyr educi ngwat er
i
nt erval ,reduci ngt heshade.
12. Onl yheal thy,st rongseedl i
ngsshoul dbesel ected.
13. Wat er i
ngoft henur seryt osof tent hesoil toeaset r
anspl antingandr educe
rootdamage.
14. Transpl ant i
ngshoul dbedonei nt heev eningori ncool weat hert oreduce
wat erf rom t heseedl i
ngs.
15. Thor oughpr epar ationoft heseedbedbyr emov ingal l treest ampsandr oots
oranyot herv eget at i
onat l
eastt womont hsbef oret r
anspl ant ing.
16. Digahol et womont hsbef or etransplantingataspaci ngof2. 7m x2. 7m and
60cm deepand60cm wi de.
17. Fil
l thehol eswi thami xt ureoft opsoil anddoubl esupperphosphat eor
organi cmanur eat l
east2- 3weeksbef orepl anting.
18. Topsoi landsubsoi lshoul dnotbemi xedbutf i
lledtohol essepar ately
19. Transpl antatt hebegi nni ngofr ainafter1½y earwhent hepl anti sreadyt o
l
eav et hegar den.
20. Prov idet empor ar yshadet othet r
ansplant edplant( seedl i
ngs)
21. Mul char oundt heseedl i
ng
22. Cont inuewat er ingunt ilthepl anthasf ull
yemer ged.
Exampl
esofcof
feedi
seases.

1. Cof f
eeberr
ydisease.
I
tscausedbyafungus,whichcausesbr
ownsunkenspotont
heber
ri
esmaki
ng
them di
ff
icultt
opulp.
2. Ant
est
iabugs
Thi
ssuckberr
iesandcausezebr
ast
ri
pheyal
sof
eedont
ermi
nal
budandcauses
panbraki
ng.
Cont
rol
isbyspr
ayi
ngwi
thpar
athi
onandopenpr
uni
ng.
Ot
herpest
sincl
ude:
-
o Mealybugs
o Coffeethri
ps
o Lacebugs
o Scaleinsect
.
Theabov
epestcanbecont r
oll
edbyspr
ayi
ngwi
thdi
eldr
inandf
ent
hion.

Adv
ant
agesofpruningcoffee.
1. I ti
ncreasesquali
tyofber r
iesbycontrol
li
ngov
erbeari
ng.
2. Makehar vest
ingeasi er
.
3. dest r
oy smicro-
cli
mat eforcert
ainpestanddi
seasebyreduci
ngov
er
crowding
4. maki ngweedi ngandspr ayingeasi
er
5. I ti
ncreasestheyields.
6. keepspl antshealthandmor evi
gorous

SEEDBED
Thisisapi
eceoflandandhasbeenpr
epar
edt
orecei
vepl
ant
ingmat
eri
alsl
i
kewi
l
ting
seeds,l
eav
es,st
ems, l
eaves,
bul
bcombs.
Seedbedprepar
ati
oni
ncl
udesact
ivi
ti
esl
i
kepl
oughi
ng,
har
rowi
ng,
diggi
ng,
slashi
ng,
burni
nget
c.
Ti
ll
agei
sthedist
urbanceoflandwit
hanai
m ofki
ll
i
ngweedsandpr
ovi
dingaconduci
ve
at
mospheref
orsuccessful
plantest
abl
i
shmentandgr
owth.

TYPESOFTILLAGE
Therear
etwomainty
pesoft
il
lagei
.e.
Pri
mary
Secondar
y

PRIMARYTI LLAGE
I
stheinit
ial
pr epar
ati
onofl
andwhi
chcani
nvol
vecut
ti
ngt
reescl
ear
ingbushesand
i
nit
ial
ploughing.

AI
MS
1. Toki l
lweedsbyei therburyi
ngordesiccati
ont horoughexposur etosun
2. Tobur rycr opr esiduesoft heprevi
ousseasonsoast oprovidemanur eand
givespacef orthenewcr ops.
3. Tol oosent hesoi lsoast oall
owwat erinf
il
trati
on
4. Toi mpr ov eairci r
culati
oninthesoilf
orproperr ootdevelopment
5. Todi sturbpestbyexposi ngthem tosunwhi cheasi l
ykil
l
st hem
6. Primaryt ill
agecanbeusedi ncontrol
li
ngsoi lerosionbyleavingthefi
eld
rough.
7. Canpr ov idegoodcondi t
ionsforpl
antingseedst hroughdeept i
ll
ageand
remov al ofobst acles.
8. Todi gsur facev egetati
onsot hati
tcandecomposemor eeasi l
yandenrich
thesoil.

SECONDARYTILLAGE
Thi
sist
hesubsequentseedbedpr
epar
ati
onaf
terpr
imar
yti
l
lage.

AI
MS
 Tocutvegetablemateri
alsandcr opresidueandmixiti
ntot hesoil
.
 Tocontrolweedsthatmayhav ecomeupaf t
erpr
imarytil
lage
 Toi
mpr ovesoilaerat
ionbyfurtherbreakingt
hesoilcl
ods
 Tomixfertil
i
zers/manurewithsoi l
.
 Tocoverthebroadcastedseedswi thsoil.
 Tol
evelandf ir
mt opsoil
surfacet oaseaseplanti
ngusinganygi venmet
hod.
 Tocontrolpestbyexposi
ngt hem toashenv i
ronmentalcondit
ions.

WAYSI
NWHI CHTI LLAGECONTROLSPEST.
1. Exposesadul tpest,
eggsorlar vat
opr edatorsthateatthem upandr educe
pestpopulation.
2. Exposeadul tpesteggorlar
v atoharshcondi ti
onsthatcancauset heirdeath.
3. Itburiespestandki l
lsthem bysuffocationthusreducingtheirpopul
ation.
4. Dest r
oysweedswhi chactasal ter
natehostf orpest.
5. Remov ecropr esi
duesthusbr eaki
nglifecycleofpest.
6. Dest r
oysbr eedingplaceofpestcausingt hem torunaway ,
FACTORSTHATDETERMI NESANUMBEROFTI LLAGEOPERATI ON
1. Thet ypeofseedorpl ant
ing,mat erial
st obeusede. g.smal lseedsrequirea
fi
neseedbedwhi chcanonl ybepr oducedaf tersecondar yti
llage.
2. Thei nit
ialconditionofl and–l andwhi chhasf ewobst ructi
onsmayonl y
requi
reonet i
llageoper at
ion.
3. Thet ypeofsoi l
–sandysoi l
sar ev erylooseandt hereforefr
equentcul ti
vat
ion
destr
oyst hei
rst ructuremaki ngi tmor epr onet oerosion.
4. Thecostofanyt i
llageoperation–t hehi gherthecostt helesst henumberof
ti
ll
ageoper at
ion.
5. Ty peofv egetation–Apl acewi t
hanumberoft reesandshr ubwi ll
alway s
requi
resecondar yt i
ll
agesincei t’
sdi f
ficultt
ogetagoodseedbedatt he
ti
ll
age.
6. Thet oolsorequi pmentused–useofheav ytil
lageequi pmentcanpr oducea
fi
neseedbedev enaf terthefirstti
llage.
7. Seasonoft hey ear–Dur ingdr yseasonweedsar efewandev enhav eless
powerofr egrowt hhenceoneoper at i
oncanbeenough.

PLANTPROPAGATI ON
Propagat
ionisawayinwhi
chpl
antpopul
ati
oni
sincr
easedbyal
l
owi
ngpl
ant
sto
repr
oducethem sel
ves.

Pl
ant
sar
epr
opagat
edi
ntot
womai
nwaysi
.e.
- Seedpropagati
on
- Veget
ablepropagat
ion

Tr
eat
mentofpl
ant
ingmat
eri
als
o Seeddressi
ng–coati
ngseedswithpesti
cidese.
g.copperSulphate.
o Chit
ti
ngorencour
agingsprout
inge.
g.inpotatoseeds.
o I
noculat
ion,
usual
lydonelegumeswhereseedsar ecoatedwi
thr i
ghtbacter
ial
for
nodulef
ormati
on.
o Hotwatertr
eat
mentagainstvi
raldi
seasese.g.i
nsugarcaneandcassav a.

SELECTIONOFPLANTI NGMATERIAL
I
nor derforafar
mert
oreducet
heexpensest
heneedt
osel
ectt
hepl
ant
ingmat
eri
al
thatheissureof.

CHARACTERISTI
CSOFAGOODPLANTI NGMATERIAL
1. Shoul dbereadi
l
yav
ail
abl
ewi
thi
nlocal
i
tyt
oreducet
ranspor
texpensesandt
ime
wast
edi
nlooki
ngf
ori
t.
2. I
tshoul
dbepestanddi
seasef
reet
oreducet
het
ransmi
ssi
onofsuchdi
seases
andpestt
otheseedl
i
ng.
3. i
tshoul
dbeeasyt
otr
anspor
ti.
e.shoul
dnotbebul
ky.
4. I
ncaseofseedsshoul
dbeofuni
for
m si
zeandshapet
oal
l
oweasy
 mechani
zat
iondur
ingpl
ant
ing.
5. I
tshoul
dbeeasyt
ost
oresot
hati
tcanusei
nfut
urewhenneeded.
6 I
ncaseofseedt
heyshoul
dhav
epassedt
hedor
mancyst
age.
7. Thepl
ant
ingmat
eri
alshoul
dbehi
ghl
yvi
abl
etor
educet
hecost
sinv
olv
edi
n
f
il
li
ngupt
hegapswher
etheydi
dnotger
minat
e.
8. Seedsshoul
dbeofuni
for
m col
ourt
oal
l
oweasysor
ti
ngandpl
ant
ing.
9. Thepl
ant
ingmat
eri
alshoul
dbeofhi
ghpr
ovenper
for
mancegi
vehi
ghr
etur
ns
oncepl
ant
ed.
10. Mat
eri
alsshoul
dbef
reef
rom cont
ami
nat
ionbyweeds.
11. Shoul
dbef
reef
rom mechani
cal
damage.
12. I
ncaseofseeds,
shoul
dbel
argeenough.

SEEDPROPAGATION
Thi
siswher
eseedsofmat
urepl
anthav
ingdesi
rabl
equal
i
tiesar
eusedf
orpl
ant
ing.

ADVANTAGES
1. Seedsar enotbulkyandthereforeareeasyt ohandl
eandconv eni
entt
o
tr
ansport.
2. Theycanbest or
edf oral
ongt i
mewhi l
er etai
ningvi
abil
it
y
3. Seedsar eeasytotreatagainstpestandseedbor ndiseases
4. Seedsar eeasytousedur ingmachinepl ant i
ng.
5. Seedpl anti
ngisaqui ckmethodofi ncreasingacroppopul at
ioninashor
t
peri
od.
6. Somecr opsaredif
fi
culttoplantvegetatively
.
7. Pl ant
sraisedfr
om seedshav ealongerl i
f espanthanthoseraised
veget
ativel
y.

DI
SADVANTAGES
1. Someseedsar edelicatehencedi ffi
cul
ttohandledur i
ngpl
anting.
2. Seedsr equirespecialfiel
dpr eparati
onbeforeplanti
ngmor eespecial
l
ythose
withsmal l
seeds.
3. Themet hodmayi nt
roduceundesi r
ablei
nt hepl
antpopulati
on.
4. Someseedmaynotbr eedtruet otypehencedisappointf
armer s
5. Thef ormat i
onofseedsr equiresspecialcondi
ti
ondur i
ngpoll
inati
onand
fer
til
izati
on.
6. Duet ointerferenceduringpol l
inati
onseedsmaybef ormedbutofahi gh
degreeofv ari
abil
it
y.
7. Cr opsr aisedfrom seedst akeal ongerti
met omat ure.

VEGETATI
VEPROPAGATI
ON
 Thisist
hereproduct
ionofpl
ant
sfr
om pl
ant
spar
tthatar
enotassoci
atedwi
th
r
eproduct
iveor
gans.

ADVANTAGES
1.Theof fspr ingissimil
artothepar entinallwayshencepr eservegoodmot her
charact ers.
2.Of fspringsgr owsfasterandmat ureearly.
3.Of fspringsar est r
ongandhar dlycompar ewi t
hseedlingobt ai
nfrom seeds.
4.Veget ativ
epr opagati
onisthebestwayf orpropagati
ngpl antswit
hnov iabl
e
seeds.
5.Daught erpl antsobtainfoodfrom theirparent
sunt i
ltheyaresuffi
cient
lystr
ong
hencei ncr easingchancesofsur vival
.
6.mul t
ipli
cat ionoftheplantpopulationisfaster
7.ov ercomest hepr obl
em ofprolongeddor mancyi nsomeseeds

DI
SADVANATGES

1. Itmaycauseov ercrowdingduet ot
heabi l
it
ytoestabli
shqui cklyandgrowf ast
.
2. Itmaycauseov ercrowdingduet ot
heabi l
it
ytoestabli
shqui cklyandgrowf ast
.
3. Thepl antingmat eri
alsarequit
ebulkyandt heref
orediff
iculttohandlestor
eand
transport.
4. Duet othei rhi
ghmoi st
urecontentvegetat
ivemateri
alsaredi f
fi
cultt
ost or
e.
5. Somev eget at
ivemet hodsofpropagationarecomplexandhenceneedal otof
skill
toexecut e.
6. Asmal lhectarecanbecov eredduringplanti
ngascompar edtoseedpr opagati
on.

METHODSOFVEGETATI
VEPROPAGATI
ON

1. Layeri
ng - Mainl
yusedinpassionfrui
ts.
2. Graft
ing - Usedinmostfr
uitsl
ikecitr
us,av
ocado,
mangoesetc.
3. Budding - Canbeusedinfrui
tsalsoli
kecit
rus.
4. Tissuecult
ure- gr
oupofcell
saredevelopedint
oanewplantorpl
ant
s

5 Useofstoragest
ruct
ures
a. Bul bs - Usedi
noni
onsandgarl
ic.
b. Bul bil
s - Usedi
nsi
sal
c. Sucker s - Usedi
nbananaandpi
neappl
e
d. Rhi zomes. - Usedi
ngi
nger
e. Runner
s - Usedi
nst
rawber
ry
f. Corms - Usedincocoyam
g. Spli
ts - Usedinpyret
hrums
h. Stem t
uber
s-Usedi
nIr
ishpot
atoes.
i Cut
ti
ng- Usedi
ncassav
asweetpot
ato,
clonal
cof
fee.

GRAFTING
Thi
siswheretwodi
ffer
entst
emsar
eunit
edinwoodypl
ants.Theupperpar
toft
he
uni
oniscal
ledasci
onwhilet
hel
owerpar
tiscal
l
edastock.

PRINCIPLESOFGRAFTI NG
Forsuccessf
ulgr
aft
ing,
ther
ear
eaboutf
ivepr
inci
pleswhi
chmustbeadher
edt
o;
1. Compat i
bi l
i
ty–Thesci onandst ockmustber el
atedorclosetof acil
i
tate
sexual hy br
idization.
2. Cambi al ali
gnment–Thecambi um oft hescionandr ootst
ockshoul dbe
ali
gnedf ortheuni onf or m.
3. Timingoft hegr aftingoper ati
on–Gr afti
ngmustbedoneatat i
mewhent he
rootstocki si napr operphy si
ologicalstate.
4. Avoidi
ngdesi ccat ion–Af t
ergraftingoper at
ionmakesur ethatallthesurf
ace
i
sseal edof fusingwaxorgr aft
ingt apearoundthejoini
ng
5. Pressur e–Appl yapr essureafteral i
gningthecambium oftherootst ockand
scionsucht hatt hexy lem staysincont act.

REASONSFORGRAFTI NGPLANTS
1. I tchangest hetreetopf r
om beingundesi r
ablet odesirable
2. I tmakesi tpossibletogrowmor ethanonef ruitorfloweri nthesamepl ant
.
3. Rootst ockswi t
hdesirablecharacterl
ikediseaser esistance,problem of
waterl
oggi ngar eusedwhi chmaybebenef icialtothesci onandf armer.
4. I thelpst opr opagateclonesthatcannotbepr opagat edbyanymeans.
5. I thelpspr opagat i
ngspecialplantsform e.
g.seedl essor anges.
6. Hel psinchangev ari
etyformor eespeciall
ywhent heaci d
7. Vi rusindexi ng–Pl antshavingv i
rali
nfecti
onwi thnosi gnswi ll
showsi gns
whengr afted.

LI
MITATI
ONOFGRAFTI NG
1. I ncompati
bil
i
ty–t hi
sfailureofgraf
tedmateri
altosur
viveduetoadi
ff
erence
i
ngeneti
cconsti
tuti
on.
2. Requi r
esalotofskill
sandexper i
enceforsuccessf
ulgraft
ingt
ooccur
.
3. Requi r
esalotoftimef ortangi
bleresul
tst
obegot .

METHODSOFGRAFTI
NG
1. TopWedge
Acutsur
faceoft
hesci
onf
ormsawedget
hati
sinser
tedi
ntoav
ert
ical
sli
tont
her
oot
st
ockt
hathasbeensl
ash.

2. Cl
eftGr
aft
ing/Topwor
king.
Thi
sinv
olv
esgr
aft
ingasci
oni
ntoacanopyofar
elat
ivel
ylar
geest
abl
i
shedt
ree.

3. Whi
pandt
onguegr
aft
ing
Thi
sisdoneift
herootstockandscionhavethesamedimensi
ons.Astant
ycutis
madeatthebaseofthesciontopoftherootst
ock.Thetwoar
ef i
tt
edt
ogetherand
waxed
4. Appr
oachgr
aft
ing
Herebot
hthesci
onandst
ockr
emai
nat
tachedt
oanot
herpl
antunt
ilasecur
euni
onhas
beenfor
med.

5. Br
idgegr
aft
ing
Thi
sisusedi
nr epai
ri
ngdamagef
reepl
antnor
mal
l
ywoodyt
runksofv
aluabl
e
est
abl
ishedt
rees.
6. Spl
icegr
aft
ing
Al
ongsl
ant
ingcuti
smadei
nbot
hsci
onandr
ootst
ockwhi
char
elat
ert
iedt
oget
her
.

7. Bar
kgr
aft
ing
Thebar
koft
her
ootst
ocki
sspi
tver
ti
cal
l
yandt
hepr
epar
ed
BUDDING
Thi
stypeofveget
ati
vepr
opagat
iont
hebudorsci
oni
suni
tedwi
thaseedl
i
ngora
matur
etree.

TYPESOFBUDDI
NG
1. T-
BUDDI
NG
At-
Shapedcuti
smadeont
hebackoft
her
ootst
ockandabudi
smadeont
hebackof
t
herootst
ockandt
hebudf
it
tedi
n
2. PATCHBUDDI
NG
Arect
angularpieceofbudi
scutofther
ootst
ock.Amatchi
ngpieceofbar
kwi
thabud
i
scutfrom thebudwoodandmat chedi
ntot
heprepar
edr
ootst
ock.
3. TOPBUDDI
NG
Budsfrom youngplant
sarei
nser
tedatdesi
redl
ocat
ionont
hest
ockandaf
terset
ti
ng
theor
iginal
branchesarecut
.

LAYERING
Thi
sinvol
vesi
nduci
ngapartofpl
antusual
l
yabr
ancht
opr
oducer
oot
swhi
l
est
il
l
at
tachedt
othemotherpl
ant.
,

TYPESOFLAYERI
NG.
1. SI
MPLELAYERI
NG
Thi
sinv
olv
esbendi
ngast
em andcov
eri
ngi
twi
thsoi
ltopr
oducer
oot
s.
2. TI
PLAYERI
NG
Thewhol
eshooti
sbentandcov
eredi
nthesoi
l
3. COMPOUNDLAYERI
NG(
SERPENTI
NE)
Thi
sisachi
evedbybendi
ngast
em sev
eral
timesandsomet
imesatapoi
ntofcov
eri
ng.
4. MOUNT/STOOLLAYERI
NG.
Ast
em i
scutj
ustabov
ethegr
oundandt
heundershootst
art
s
5. TRENCHLAYERI
NG
Her
eat r
enchisdugneart
hepl
antanabr
anchi
slay
edont
het
rencht
ofaci
l
itat
eroot
dev
elopment
.
6. AI
R/MACOTTI
NGLAYERI
NG.
Thebar
kofatreei
sopenatapoi
ntandawetmassisplacedar
oundt
her
ingbart
o
keepi
topen.Thi
ssti
mul
atesr
oottodev
elopatt
hatpoi
nt.

Assi
gnment
:
Defi
neDor
mancy
Causes
Cor
recti
on
Methodsusedf
ort
est
ingseedv
iabi
l
ity
.

CROPBREEDI NG/IMPROVEMENT
Thi
sisaprocessofchangi
ngcr
opsgenet
ical
l
ytosui
tman’
sneedsoff
ood,
easy
har
vest
ingetc.

Or
I
t’
sadirect
edadj
ust
mentofcr
oppl
ant
stof
itspeci
fi
cenv
ironmentandpr
oduct
ion
pr
act
ices.

METHODSOFCROPBREEDI
NG
1. MASSSELECTION
Herei
nbreedi
ngplant
saresel
ect
edbasi
ngont
hei
ndi
vi
dual
char
act
erandt
hesear
e
usedi
nthebreedi
ngprogr
amme.
2. BULKBREEDI
NG
Product
sofF1aregrowni
nbul
kbef
oremaki
ngasi
ngl
epl
antsel
ect
iondependi
ngon
thei
rperf
ormance.
3. PEDI
GREEBREEDI
NG
Thi
sisthemostusedmet
hodandi
tsbasedont
heper
for
manceoft
heancest
orand
cl
oserel
ati
ves.
4. SI
NGLEDESCENT
Her
eoneseedf
rom F2orF3i
susedasapar
entf
ort
henextgener
ati
on.
5. RECURENT SELECTI
ON
Thisi
swherebyt
hebestindi
vi
dualr
esult
ingf
rom af
irstsel
ect
ioncy
lear
ecr
ossedt
o
gener
atet
hemateri
alsf
orthenextsel
ecti
oncycl
es.

AI
MSOFCROPBREEDI NG/I MPROVEMENT.
1. Toincr easecr opy iel
dssoast osav et hepr oblem ofhungerandf ood
shortage.
2. Toincr easet henut ri
entcont entoft hecr oppr oducttosol venut ri
ent
defi
ci encyi nconsumer s.
3. Producebet t
ersi zeandcol ouroff ruits/seedst hatcanat tractconsumer s.
4. Tor educet hegest at
ionper i
odofacr opsoast osol vefoodshor t
age.
5. Conf erri
ngdi seaseandpestr esistancei ncr op.
6. Product ionofcr opst hatcant olerateadv er
seenv i
ronment al conditi
onsli
ke
drought ,lowsoi lfert
il
ity,hight emper ature.
7. Tochangegr owt hchar acteristicsofapl anti nordertosui thar v
esting
spray i
ngandweedi ng.
8. toimpr ov eont heshor tlifeoft hesowedcr oppr oduction
9. Toimpr ov eonseedv iabil
itychar act erinplant ssot hattherei snowast ageof
 seedsduri
ngplant
ing.
10. Improv
ingthetast
eandflavourofcer
tai
ncropproduct
s.
11. Toproducecropproduct
sthatiseasytopr
epareasfoodforconsumer
s.

CROPPROTECTI
ON
Weeds,
Pest
sandDi
seases

Weeds
Aweedisaplantgr
owingwhereit
snotwantedorapl
antoutofpl
aceorapl
ant
whoseuseful
nesshasnotbeenest
abl
ished

Char
act
eri
sti
csofweeds

i. Cangr owi npoorsoi lswher ecropscannoteasi l

ysur viv
e
i
i. Produceseedst hatcanger minateev enwhennotmat ure
i
i
i. Somear epar asiti
ct ocr opswhi chincreasest heirchancesofsur vival
i
v. Weedseedscanr emai nv i
ableforav erylongper i
odoft i
me
v. Mostweedsar el esspal atabletoanimal shencenotdest royeddur i
nggrazing
v
i. Mostcant olerateadv erseweat hercondi t
ionslikedr oughtwhi chmostcr ops
can’t
v
ii
. Someweedsar er esist anttocont r
ol measur eslikechemi cal andphy si
cal
controls
v
iii
. Mostar er esistantt ocommonpest sanddi seasest hatattackcr ops
ix. Somear ev egetativ el
ypr opagatedwhi chincreasesgr owthr ate
x. Someweedunder godor mancywhi chhel psitsur vi
vehar shcondi ti
ons
xi. Weedshav eaf astgr owt hrateascompar edt ocr opswhi chhel psin
colonizat
ionf anewpl aces
xi
i
. Someweedspr oducet oxicmat eri
alsthatexcludecr opsf r
om t heareaof
growth
xi
i
i. Weedspr oduceal otofseedsi ncreasingsur vi
val chances
xi
v. Somehav eashor tlifecy clewhichincr easesrat eofcoloni zati
on

Ef
fect
sofweedi
ncr
oppr
oduct
ion

i. I
rri
tat
emanandani malsbycausi
ngski
nit
chingandscrat
ches
i
i. Reducequalit
yoff arm pr
oductse.
glov
egrassandblackj
ackincot
ton
i
i
i. Somearepoi sonoust oli
vest
ockandcancausedeath
i
v. I
rri
tat
edigestiv
et r
actsofanimalsl
eadi
ngtodiar
rheaandreducedappet
it
e
v. Tai
ntmilkleadingtolossofquali
ty
 vi
. Makenav i
gati
ondi ff
icultandcancauseacci dentsonwat ere.
g.water
hyaci
nth
vii
. Harbourpest sanddi seaseswhi chlaterat
tackcr ops
vi
ii
. Reducehumanef fi
ciencyduri
ngf arm operationbycausingall
ergi
es
ix. Incr
easepr oductioncost sonthef arm si
ncemoneyandt i
mehav etobe
spentdur i
ngcont rol
x. Lowercr opyieldsbyoutcompet ingcropsf ornutrient
s
xi. Blockwat erpipesandi rri
gat
ionchannel si
ncr easingcost
sofwat er
managementont hef ar
m
xii
. Obstructpowerl i
nesandr ai
lroadswhi chmaycauseacci dent
s

Posi
ti
vei
mpactofweedsi
ncr
oppr
oduct
ion

i. Somecanbeeat enasf oodforbothli

vestockandman
i
i. Someareagoodsour ceofherbsusedinmaki ngmedi
cine
i
i
i. Theydecomposeandf or
m organi
cmat t
erinthesoi
l
i
v. Reduceevaporat
ionrateofwaterfrom t
hesoil
v. Prot
ectsoi
lfrom er
osion
v
i. Canbeusedi nmulchingcropgardens

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofweeds

Accor
dingt
oli
fecy
cle;

a)Annual weeds; t
hesecompl etet
hei
rli
fecycl
ewi t
hi nay eare.g.wildfinger
mi l
l
et,l
ovegr ass,blackjack,MacDonal
dweed, oxali
s,amar anthus,goatweed,
doublethorn,blacknightshadeandmi lkweed
b)Perennialweeds; thesecompl et
ethei
rli
fecycl
einmor ethanay ear.Couch
grass,speargrass, wanderingJew,Ni
lecabbage,thornapple, Sodom apple,
nutgrass,ti
ckber rye.t
.c.
Accor
dingtohabitat;

a)Ter restri
alweeds; t
heseareweedsgr owi
ngonl and.Theyfor
mt hemaj
ori
ty
b)Aquat i
cweeds;t hesearefoundgrowingi
nwat ere.g.Ni
lecabbage,
wat
er
hyacinth,waterli
l
ies,wat
erlet
tuce,andwaterweed( El
odeaspp)
Accordingt omor phology;

a)Erectweeds; thesegrowupr i
ghtlikeSodom appl e,bl
ackj ack,thornapple,
e.t
.c.
b)Creepingweeds;t hesegr owonsoi l
sur faceli
kest argrass,wander ingJew,
c)Broadl eavedweeds;t hesehav ebr oadl eaves.Theyar emai nlydicotsli
ke
Sodom appl e,thornapple,blackjack, t
ickber r
y,wander i
ngJew, milkweed,
amar anthus,goatweed, e.t
.c.
d)Narrowl eavedweeds;t hesehav enar rowl eaves.Theyar emai nlygrasses
thataremonocot sli
kecouchgr ass, stargrass,nutgrass, speargrass,love
 gr
ass

Accor
dingt
oPhy
siol
ogy
;
a)C-
3;t
heseuset
heC3pat
hwayi
ntheut
il
iz
ati
onofcar
bondi
oxi
dedur
ing
phot
osy
nthesi
s.Theyf
ormt
hemaj
ori
tyofbr
oadl
eav
edweeds
b)C-
4;t
heseuset
heC4pat
hwayi
ncar
bondi
oxi
deut
il
izat
iondur
ingphot
osy
nthesi
s.
Theyar
emai
nlygr
asseswi
thnar
rowl
eav
esl
i
kespeargr
assandcouchgr
ass.
c)Cr
assul
aceanAci
dMet
abol
ism (
CAM)
;theseweedsusesuchapat
hwaydur
ing
t
hei
rphot
osy
nthesi
s
Accor
dingt
obot
any
;
Thi
scl
assi
fi
cat
ioncanbebasedon
Cl
ass
Or
der
Fami
l
y
Genus
Speci
es
Weedcont
rolmet
hods
1.Pr
event
ive/l
egi
slat
ion
2.Cul
tur
al
3.Mechani
cal
4.Chemi
cal
5.I
ntegr
atedweedmanagement

Pr
event
ivemet
hod;
Thi
siswher
emeasur
esar
etakent
opr
eventt
hei
ntr
oduct
ion,
est
abl
i
shmentand
spr
eadofspeci
fi
cweedsi
nanoni
nfest
edar
ea.
Thef
oll
owi
ngmeasur
esar
etakeni
nthecont
rol
ofweeds;
a)Useofweedf
reeseeddur
ingpl
ant
ing
b)Useofweedf
reemanur
es
c)Gi
vi
ngani
mal
sweedf
reehay
d)Usi
ngmachi
ner
ywhi
chi
sweedf
ree
e)Keepar
easar
oundt
hegar
densandf
arm weedf
ree
f
) Notal
l
owi
ngweedst
oreachseedst
age
Mer
it
soft
hemet
hod
a)Mai
ntai
nsweedpopul
ati
onbel
owi
njur
iousl
evel
b)Ensur
esaweedf
reeenv
ironmentf
orpr
opercr
opgr
owt
h
c)Nodi
stur
banceofsoi
lhencepr
eser
vat
ionofsoi
lst
ruct
ure
d)Reducesweedspr
eadi
nanar
ea
e)Nowast
ageoft
imeandLabouri
nweedi
ng
f
) Doesnotcr
eat
eresi
stancei
nweeds.

Cul
tur
alweedcont
rol
I
t’
sthemodi
fi
cat
ionofgener
alf
armi
ngpr
act
icest
oreducet
hei
mpactofweeds
Themodi
fi
cat
ionsmayi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
act
ices;
1.Cr
opr
otat
ion;
thi
sbr
eakt
hel
i
fecy
clesofpar
asi
ti
cweedshencecont
rol
l
ingi
t.
2.Pr
operspaci
ng;
itdeni
esweedsaccesst
oenoughl
i
ghtandspacehence
cont
rol
l
ingi
t
3.Mul
chi
ng;
cut
sof
fli
ghtsuppl
ytot
heweedseedl
i
nghencecont
rol
l
ingweeds
4.Fl
oodi
ng;
itsuf
focat
est
heweedsbydeny
ingi
toxy
gensuppl
yresul
ti
ngi
ntodeat
h
5.Ti
mel
ypl
ant
ing;
thi
sgi
vest
hecr
opsanear
lyandheal
thyst
artwhi
chenabl
esi
tto
outcompet
etheweeds.

Mechani
cal
/phy
sicalweedcont
rol
I
t’
swher
ephy
sical
ener
gyi
susedi
nthecont
rol
ofweeds.I
tmayi
nvol
vet
hef
oll
owi
ng
 Hoei
ngweeds
 Mowi
ngweeds
 Pl
oughi
ngweeds
 Bur
ningweeds
 Cut
ti
ngweeds
 Sl
ashi
ngweeds
 Upr
oot
ingweeds
 Exposur
etoheatorf
lami
ng

Mer
it
sofmechani
calweedcont
rol
 Nouseofchemi
cal
shencenoenv
ironment
alpol
l
uti
on
  Bur
ial
ofweedshel
psi
npr
ovi
dingor
gani
cmat
teraf
terdecomposi
ti
on
 I
mpr
oveswat
eri
nfi
l
trat
ionbybr
eaki
ngsoi
lcr
ust
s
 Ti
l
li
ngsoi
lcani
mpr
oveaer
ati
onandt
il
th
 Depl
etesweedseedbank
 I
tsf
astatweedcont
rol
oncecar
ri
edoutpr
oper
ly

Li
mit
ati
ons
a)I
tsdi
ff
icul
ttocont
rol
weedsi
nrows
b)I
ncr
easeswat
erandor
gani
cmat
terl
ossi
nsoi
l
c)I
tcaneasi
l
yleadt
olossofsoi
lst
ruct
urewi
thr
epeat
edoper
ati
ons
d)Dustmayber
aisedi
ndr
ysoi
ll
eadi
ngt
opol
l
uti
on
e)Weedsmaybeexhumedl
eadi
ngt
ofastgr
owt
h
f
) Mayi
ncr
easeLabourcost
sont
hef
arm hencei
ncr
easedpr
oduct
ioncost
s

Bi
ologi
calcont
rol
I
t’
stheuseofnat
ural
enemi
esofcer
tai
nweedsi
ncont
rol
l
ingt
hei
rgr
owt
hand
est
abl
i
shment

Adv
ant
agesofbi
ologi
calcont
rol
a)Usual
l
yper
manenthencecont
rol
weedscont
inuousl
y
b)I
tdoesnotr
equi
readdi
ti
onal
input
s
c)Doesnothav
esi
deef
fect
sli
kepol
l
uti
on
d)Or
gani
smsar
eal
way
shostspeci
fi
c
e)Bi
ologi
cal
agent
sar
esel
fdi
spensi
ng
f
) Af
terest
abl
i
shment
,noaddi
ti
onal
input
sar
erequi
red
Li
mit
ati
ons
a)I
tssl
owatcont
rol
l
ingweeds
b)Est
abl
i
shmentmayf
ail
leadi
ngt
olosses
c)Someat
tackcr
opscausi
ngl
oss
d)Theyr
equi
reahi
ghi
nit
ial
cost
e)Cannotcompl
etel
yer
adi
cat
etheweeds
f
) Resul
tsar
enotguar
ant
eed
Chemi
calweedcont
rol
I
t’
stheuseofher
bici
desi
nthecont
rol
ofweeds.Her
bici
desar
eagr
icul
tur
alchemi
cal
s
t
hatcont
rol
plantgr
owt
h

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofher
bici
des
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionaccor
dingt
ouse
1.Sel
ect
iveher
bici
des;
theseki
l
lori
mpai
rgr
owt
hofcer
tai
npl
antspeci
eswhi
l
e
spar
ingot
her
s.Exampl
esofsel
ect
iveher
bici
des;
Atr
azi
ne,
Simazi
ne,
cot
orum,
2,
4-
D,MCPA,
andMCPP
2.Nonsel
ect
ive;
theseki
l
lindi
scr
imi
nat
elyal
lpl
ant
stheycomei
ntocont
actwi
thi
.e
ki
l
lbot
hcr
opsandweeds.Exampl
es;
Gly
phosat
e,Par
aquat(
Gramoxone)
,Di
quat
,
e.
t.
c.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionaccor
dingt
omodeofact
ion
1.Cont
acther
bici
des;
theseki
l
lanypl
antt
issuet
heycomei
ntocont
actwi
th
whet
herf
ort
hecr
oporweeds.Theyar
eappl
i
edonf
oli
ageofweeds.Exampl
es
ar
e;Par
aquat
,Bent
azone,
Propani
l
e.e.
t.
c.
2.Tr
ansl
ocat
edorsy
stemi
cher
bici
des;
thesear
eabsor
bedbyst
ems,
leav
esor
r
oot
sandmov
ethr
oughv
ascul
arsy
stem t
opl
antor
ganswher
etheyexer
tthei
r
ef
fect
s.Exampl
es;
2,4-
D,2,
4-T,
Atr
azi
ne,
Simazi
ne,
Cot
orum,
Diur
on,
Dal
apon,
Di
camba,
MCPA,
MCPP,
e.t
.c.
3.Soi
lst
eri
lant
s;t
hesepr
eventgr
owt
hofal
lpl
ant(
weedsandcr
ops)oncei
nsoi
lat
hi
ghconcent
rat
ions.Theyar
emai
nlyusedatr
ail
sroadsandpi
pel
i
nes.Exampl
es
ar
e;Di
uron,
Bromaci
l
,Si
mazi
ne,
e.t
.c.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionaccor
dingt
oti
meofappl
icat
ion
1.Pr
e-pl
ant
ingher
bici
des;
thesear
eappl
i
edbef
oret
hecr
opi
spl
ant
ed.Such
her
bici
desar
emai
nlynon-
sel
ect
ivehencemustbeappl
i
edi
nthi
swayt
oreduce
cr
opdamage.Exampl
esar
e;Gl
yphosat
e,Par
aquat(
Gramoxone)
,Di
quat
,e.
t.
c.
2.Pr
e-emer
genceher
bici
des;
thesear
eappl
i
edbef
oreemer
genceofcr
opsor
weeds.Theypr
eventseedl
i
ngsorseedsofweedsf
rom t
oest
abl
i
sh.Exampl
es
ar
ePar
aquat
,Di
quatandAt
razi
ne,
e.t
.c.
3.Post
-emer
genceher
bici
des;
thesear
eappl
i
edcr
opger
minat
ionand
est
abl
i
shment
.Theyar
emai
nlysel
ect
iveher
bici
dest
hatmaynoteasi
l
yhar
m
cr
ops.Exampl
esar
e;MCPA,
2,4-
D,At
razi
ne,
Simazi
ne,
e.t
.c.

Adv
ant
agesofusi
ngher
bici
desi
nweedcont
rol
1.I
t’
sver
yef
fect
ivei
ncont
rol
l
ingst
ubbor
nweedsl
i
kecouchgr
ass
 2.Reducest
il
lageofsoi
lhenceconser
vingsoi
lst
ruct
ureandmoi
stur
e
3.I
trequi
resl
essLabourhencecanr
educepr
oduct
ioncost
s
4.Her
bici
descanbeeasi
l
yappl
i
edi
ngar
denswher
ecr
opmor
phol
ogydoesnot
al
l
owuseofmechani
cal
means
5.Useofpr
e-emer
genceher
bici
desensur
esaweedf
reeenv
ironmenthencehi
gh
cr
opy
iel
ds
6.Reduceschancesofdest
roy
ingcr
opr
oot
ssi
ncei
tdoesnoti
nvol
vet
il
li
ngl
and
7.Weedf
reeenv
ironmentr
esul
tsi
ntohi
ghqual
i
tyandquant
it
yofcr
oppr
oduce

Li
mit
ati
onsofher
bici
deuse
1.Her
bici
desar
eexpensi
vet
obuy
2.Theyar
epoi
sonoust
omanandl
i
vest
ockhencedi
ff
icul
ttost
ore
3.Someper
sisti
nsoi
landcauseenv
ironment
alpol
l
uti
on
4.Theyr
equi
reski
l
ltoappl
y
5.Somecanbeabsor
bedbycr
opsandconcent
rat
edi
ncr
oppr
oduct
seat
enbyman
6.Somear
enotr
eadi
l
yav
ail
abl
einr
ural
placeswher
emostf
armer
sar
efound
7.canbewashedi
ntowat
erbodi
esandki
l
laquat
icor
gani
sms

Pr
ecaut
ionst
otakewhenusi
ngher
bici
des
1.Appl
yther
ecommendedr
atet
oreducedamaget
ocr
ops
2.Appl
yatt
hecor
rectst
ageofweedgr
owt
hforef
fect
iveness
3.Donotappl
ydur
ingr
ainorwheni
tist
hreat
eni
ngt
orai
nsi
ncet
heher
bici
decan
bewashedof
f
4.Av
oidspr
ayi
ngdur
ingawi
ndyweat
hersi
ncet
heher
bici
decanbebl
ownof
fthe
weedsr
educi
ngef
fect
iveness
5.Wearpr
otect
ivecl
othesdur
ingappl
i
cat
iont
opr
otecty
oursel
f
6.Donoteatorsmokewhi
l
espr
ayi
ngsi
ncey
oucaneasi
l
ytakei
ntheher
bici
de
7.Av
oidappl
yi
ngt
heher
bici
dewheny
ouhav
eanopenwoundorcut
8.Her
bici
decont
ainer
sshoul
dbepr
oper
lydi
sposedof
finpi
tlat
ri
nest
oreduce
chancesofenv
ironment
alpol
l
uti
on
9.av
oidher
bici
descomi
ngi
ntocont
actwi
thf
ood
10.donotpourl
eftov
erchemi
cal
sinwat
ersour
ces
Ensur
ingef
fect
ivenessofher
bici
des
1.Applyatthecorrectrecommendedr atei.e.correctconcentrat
ion
2.Applyatthecorrectst ageofweedgr owt hi.
e.applywhenweedsar est
il
lyoung
3.Ensurethattheweedsar ef
ull
ywetted
4.Donotspr ayduringawi ndyweathersincetheher bicidemaybebl ownaway
fr
om targetarea
5.Donotappl yduri
ngr ainofwheni tisthreateningtor ainsi
ncetheherbi
cidecan
bewashedof f
6.Applyatthecorrectst ageofcropgrowt htor educedamaget ocrops
7.Ensurethattheherbicidecannotaf f
ectcroppr oduceonceappl i
ed
8.Alwaysapplythecorr ectherbi
cideforther i
ghtweeds

PESTS
Apesti sanorgani sm thatdamagesorcauseshar mt oman,hisani
mals,cropsor
possessions.
Importantter
msi npestmanagement
Economi cpest;thiscausesr ecognizabledamageofabout5t o10%
Economi cdamage;damagedonet ocr opsbypest
st hatwarr
antsart
if
ici
alcontr
ol
Economi cinj
urylevel;itist
hel owestpestpopulat
ionthatcancauseeconomi cdamage.
I
tvariesfrom pestspeci esdependingon;
 Modeoff eeding
 St ageofcr opgrowt h
 St ageofpestgr owt h
 Seasonoft hey ear
 Par tofcropat t
acked

Economi
cthr
eshol
d;pestpopul
ati
ondensi
tyatwhi
chcont
rol
measur
esshoul
dst
artt
o
prev
entani
ncreasi
ngpestpopul
ati
onfrom r
eachi
ngeconomicinj
uryl
evel
Pestcompl
ex;
itiswher
eacr opi
sattackedbypest
sanddiseasesatt
hesamet
ime.

Pestcl
assi
fi
cat
ion

 Keypest s;pestswhosepopulati
onusual l
yr emai
nsabovetheeconomi clevele.
g
cottonbol lworms
 Occasional pest;
theseoccuri
ncertai
nr egionsatspeci
fi
cperi
odse.g, Jassi
ds,
aphids,e.t.
c.
 Migrantpest s;t
hesearenonresi
dentialandappearperi
odical
lyforashor tt
ime
e.
gar mywor ms,locust
s,e.
t.
c.
 potenti
al pests;
thesecausenosignif
icantdamageundert hecondit
ions
 currentl
yprev ail
ingintheagro- system e. gr edbandedl eafr oll
er
 monophagous; f
eedonapar ticularspeci esofcr opse. grice
 oli
phagus; thesef eedonv ariousspeci esofcr opsf rom thesamef amily
 polyphagus; thesef eedonv ariousspeci esofdi f fer
entfami l
y
 pier
cingandsucki ngpests;thesepi ercecr opt i
ssueandsuckf lui
ds.E.gThr i
ps,
aphids,scales,meal ybugs,cot tonst ainersandseedbugs, cottonleafhoppers,
 Biti
ngandchewi ngpests;t
hesehav est r
ongmout hpartsthatt heyuset obite
andchewcr oppar ts.Examplesar egr asshopper s,l
ocusts, caterpi
llar
s,rodents,
weev i
ls,beanbr uchids,e.
t.
c
 Fiel
dpest s;thesedest r
oycropswhi leint hegar den.Theyi ncludemonkey s,
rodents,bir
ds, stal
kbor er
s,cat erpi
llars,weev i
l
s, cottonstai ners,t
ermites,e.t
.c
 Storagepest s;thesedestroyordamagecr oppr oducei nst ores.Exampl esare
beanbr uchids,mai zeweev i
l
s, redf l
ourbeet le,e.t.c.

Damagecausedbypest
sto;
a)gr owingcr ops
b)st or edpr oduce
Gr
owi
ngcr ops
 Eatplant edseedsi nsoi lreducingv i
abil
ity
 Eatcropr ootscausi ngpl antst ofallorwil
t
 Eatcropl eav esr educingphot osyntheti
ccapaci
tyofcr
opshencey
iel
d
 Tunnel throughst emsweakeni ngit
 Makehol esi nroott uber sleadingtor ot
ti
ng
 Suckcr opsapl eadi ngt owi l
ti
ng
 Caneatcr opscompl etely
 Cant ransmi tcr opdi seases
 Eatcropf l
ower scausi nglowy i
eld
 Boreintof r
uitsandcausesr otting
 Scratchf ruit
sr educi ngtheirqual i
ty

St
oredpr
oduce
 Eatproducecompl etelyreducingquanti
ty
 Boreint ostoredseedsr educingquali
ty
 Destroyendosper m hencer educingseedv i
abi
l
ity
 Causebadsmel linst oredproduce
 Deposi tfeacesinpr oducer educingquali
ty
 Promot er ot
t i
ngofpr oduce
 Destroycont ainersinwhi chpr oduceisst
ored
 Discolourpr oduceleadi ngtolossinquali
ty
 Causewetheat i
ngofpr oduce
 Reducenut r
ientlevel ofstoredproduce
 Mixuppr oducel ower i
ngqual i
ty
Ef
fect
sofsuckingpestsoncr ops
 Transmitpathogenstocrops
 Inj
ecttoxi
csalivaint
ocropsaffecti
nggrowth
 Createentr
ypoint sf
orpathogensintocr
ops
 Sucksapf r
om cr opscausi
ngwi l
ti
ngandstuntedgr
owt
h

I
ndi
rectef
fectsofpest sincroppr oducti
on
 Causef amineandsuf f
eri
ngt ohumansbydest roy
ingfoodcrops
 Incr
easecost sofproducti
oni nagri
cul
turethroughbuyingpesti
cides
 Causest untedgr owthincrops
 Reducequal ityofcropproductsaffect
ingprices
 Causeannoy ancetofarmer s
 Cancausepov er
tytofarmers
 Chemi calcontrolofpestscancauseenv ir
onment alpoll
uti
on
 Somenewpestspeci escancomeupwhenchemi calsareusedtocontr
olpest
s

Pestcontr
ol
Factor
sconsi deredbef orecont rollingpest s
1.Pestpopul ati
on; hi
ghpopul at i
onr equi
resimmedi ateint
ervent i
on
2.Reproduct iverat eofpest s;hi ghrateofreproduct ionmaymeanhi ghpests
populat i
oni nashor tt i
me
3.Partofcr opaf fected; pest st hatat t
ackvital
par tsofacr oplikef l
ower smustbe
controlledimmedi ately
4.Cropr esponset oat tack;whenacr opshowsahi ghr esponse, thencont r
ol must
beimmedi ate
5.Feedinghabi t
sofpest s;bitingandchewi ngpest scauseal otofdamagehence
mustbecont roll
edi mmedi ately
6.Presenceofpestpr edat or s; onceapesthaspr edat ors,
arti
ficialcontrolmaynot
benecessar y.
7.Weat hercondi tions; harshweat hermaynotf av ourpestshencei nsuch
conditionscont rolmaynotbenecessar y
8.Pestmobi li
ty;highlymobi lepest sli
kethoset hatflycanspr eadf asthence
control i
sur gent
9.Presenceofal ternatepl ant s; duri
ngcontrol,alt
ernat ehostsmustbeel i
minated
aswel l.
10.
Cost/benef itanalysi s;cont rolmustnotbemor eexpensi vei nrelati
ontot hecost
ofproduce

Thef
oll
owi
ngpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
dbet
akent
ohav
esuccessf
ulpestcont
rol

1.Shoul
dhavegoodknowledgeofpestcl
assi
fi
cat
ionandbehav
ior
2.Makegoodpestsampl
ingtechni
ques
3.Shoul
dhavegoodknowledgeaboutpestpr
edat
ors
4.Knowthet
ypeoffoodeatenbythepest
 5.Knowthepesthabit
at
6.Knowthestagesofpestdev
elopment
7.Consi
dereconomicdamageofthepest
8.Contr
olpest
satthefavor
ableweat
hercondi
ti
ons

Chemi
calpestcont
rol
Thisist her
eductionorpr eventi
onofpestdamagebyuseofchemi
cal
stoat
tr
act
,repel
orpoisonpest s.
Merit
sofchemi calpestcont rol
I
tisqui ckatcontroll
i
ngpest s
Chemi calappl
icati
oni sstandardi
zedhenceeasytouse
Themet hoddoesnotr equireacti
onfr
om thecommunity
Broadspect r
um chemi calsareeconomicaltouse
I
tislaborsav i
ng
I
tisver yeff
ectiv
ei nkil
li
ngpest s

Demerits
Chemicalscanpol l
utetheenv ir
onment
Theyareexpensi v
etobuy
Somecanki llpestpredatorsincreasi
ngpestpopul
ations
Theyrequir
er egul
arapplicati
on
Chemicalscreateresist
ancei npestsagai
nstpesti
cides
Theymayr equirealotofski l
l
st ouse

Charact
erist
icsofagoodpest icide
1.Shouldbetoxictopest s
2.Shouldnotharm pestpr edat ors
3.Shouldbehar mlesst oli
v estock
4.Mustber easonabl ypersistentinsoil
tostopconti
nuousappl
i
cat
ion
5.Itshouldbeharml esstocr ops
6.Shouldleavenot aintsorr esiduesoncropproduct
s
7.Shouldbesuitablef orpract i
calfor
mulati
on
8.Shouldbecheapt obuy

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofpest
ici
des
Accordingtomodeofact i
on;
Stomachpoi sons-theseareeat
enthenkill
thepest.Theyaregoodforsucki
ngpests
Contactpoisons-canenterthebodysystem t
hroughtheskinorcut
icl
e
Fumigants–chemi cal
sarecarr
iedinai
randbr eat
hedbypests.Theyaregoodforsoi
l
pestsandthosei ncrevi
ces
Attr
acters–t hesearepheromonesthatatt
ractpestssothatt
heycanbekill
ed
Repell
ants-repelpestsfr
om oneareaorcrop

Accor
dingt
ogr
oupofpest
scont
rol
led
Insect i
cides-ki
lli
nsects
Acar ici
des–ki l
lticks
Fungi cides-ki
ll
fungi
Her bici
des–ki llweeds
Nemat ici
des–ki l
l nematodes
Virulants -ki l
lviruses

Accordingt oori
ginoft hechemi cal
Botanicalsarederi
v edfrom plantsl
ikepyret
hrum
Chlori
natedhydrocar bonsar eorganiccompoundswi t
hchl
orineatt
achedonthei
r
bonds.Theywer ethef irsttobedevelopedandincludeDDT(Dichl
orodi
pheny
l
Tri
chloroethyl
ene),Aldr
in, Li
ndane,methomyl,e.
t.
c.

Cul
tur
alpestcont
rol
I
tisther educt i
onofpestdamaget hrought hemani pul
ati
onofagr icultur
al practi
ces
thatar
enor mal l
yappl iedincr opgr owing.Thecommoncul tur
alpracticest hatcontrol
pestsare;
1.Usi ngpl ant i
ngmat er i
alst hatar efreef r
om pest stocontrolspr eadand
establishment
2.Remov al ofinfectedcr opsf r
om thegar dent omi nimizespreadofpest s
3.Pr acticingcr opr otationt hatbr eakst hel if
ecy cl
eofpests
4.Pl antingcr opsont imesot hattheycanescapepest sthatcomel ateint he
season
5.Ti mel yhar vestingwhi chr educespestdamaget ocr opproduct s
6.Pl antingpestr esistantv ar ieti
esofcr ops.Resi st
ancecanbepseudoorr eal.
7.Useoft rapcr opst hathel pi neliminat i
ngt hepest s
8.Pr acticingcl oseseasoni ngwher ecommuni tycanbeeasi l
ymobi l
ized
9.Mul chingt hegar denst ocont rolpestsliket hebananaweev ils
10.Quar antinemeasur et hatr educesspr eadofpest sfrom onepl acet oanot her
11.Properdr yi
ngofcr oppr oducet oreducepestdamagedur i
ngst orage
12.Practicingi ntercroppi ngt hatmayi nv ol
v ecr opsthatproducehor monest oscare
awaypest s
13.Appl i
cat i
onofor gani cmanur esmayki l
l somesoi lpest
slikenemat odes
14.Floodingcansuf focat eandki llsomepest s
15.properspaci ngofcr opst hatmaydi scour ageaphi ds

Adv
ant
agesofcul
tur
alpestcont
rol
1.I
tisconti
nuousmaki ngthemet hodeconomi c
2.I
tischeapcompar edwi t
hothermet hodsli
kechemicalandphysi
cal
3.Canbeeasilyintegratedwithothercontr
olmethods
4.Doesnotpollutetheenv i
ronment
5.Cannotdevelopresistanceinpests
6.Thepract
icescani mpr ovesoil
properti
esli
kesoilst
ructur
e,f
ert
il
it
y,e.
t.
c.

Li
mit
ati
onsofcul
tur
alpestcont
rol
 1.Themeasur escannoter adi
catepestsbutkeeppopul ati
onatoptimum
2.Themethoddoesnothav edramat i
cresultshencefarmersarenoteasi
l
y
convi
ncedt hatitworks
3.Requi
resmai ntenanceofpracticesforeffecti
veness
4.Mostpracti
cesar eaimedatonepest
5.Mayrequireal otti
meandener gyt oapply
6.Maynotaddr esst hepr
oblem ofpestout breaksincei
tisslow
7.Iti
snotstandar di
zedhencedi f
ficul
ttoappl y

Phy
sicalpestcont
rol

Iti
sthereducti
onofpestdamaget oagricul
turalproducethr
oughtheuseofspeci
al
physi
calandmechani calmeasures.Iti
stheol destandmostprimit
ivemethodofpest
contr
ol.Physi
cal meansofpestcontrolare;
1.Handpi ckingandkil
li
ng.Iti
sdonewi tht helessmobil
epeststhatarebi
genough
t
obeseenbyourey es
2.Const r
uctionofphysi
calbarr
iersli
ketrenchest ocont
rolcat
erpi
ll
ars
3.Useofext remeconditi
onstoki l
lorscareawaypest s
4.Useofel ectromagneti
cwav esthatcanki ll
pests
5.Useofi rr
itat
ingsoundtoscareawaypest s
6.Dehydrationofpestsusingsand,ashorsal t.

Adv
ant
ages
1.Pest
saredestroyedcompl etely
2.I
tall
owsthefarmert oassesst hepestsit
uat
iononcr
ops
3.Doesnotpoll
utetheenv i
ronment
4.Cannotcr
eateresistanceinpest s
5.I
tischeapwherear eatobecov eredi
ssmall
6.Contr
olmethodsar eeasyt olearnanduse

Di
sadv
ant
ages
1.Mayrequi
realotofl
aborforl
argeplant
ati
on
2.I
tisnotef
fect
iveonhighl
ymobilepests
3.I
tisti
mewasting

Bi
ologi
calpestcont
rol
I
tist
her
educt
ionofpestdamaget
ocr
opsbyusi
ngnat
ural
enemi
es
Mer
it
s
1.I
tisenvi
ronment
alpol
l
uti
onfr
ee
2.Nodevel
opmentofpestr
esi
stance
 3.Pestpopulationdoesnotbl
owoutofproport
ion
4.Doesnotaf fectpestpr
edat
ors
5.I
tisselfadjusti
nghenceafarmerdoesnotneedtot
hinkabouti
t
6.I
tisacheapmet hodofpestcont
rol

Demer
it
s
1.I
tisslowinoperat
ion
2.Bi
ological
agentsmayatt
ackcropsorspreaddi
sease
3.I
tmaynotel i
minat
ethepestscomplet
ely
4.Bi
ological
agentsmayfai
ltoest
abli
sh

Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodbi
ologi
cal
agent
1.Shoul
dhaveahighsearchingabilit
yfort
hepest
s
2.Mustbehostspeci
fi
c
3.Shoul
dhaveahighreproductionrate
4.Shoul
dbeeasytomul t
ipl
yart i
fi
cial
ly
5.Mustatt
ackpestsatt
hecor rectstage
6.Shoul
dnotatt
ackcrops

I
ntegr
atedpestmanagement(
I.
P.M.
)

Iti
sthedevelopmentofasetofpr
acti
cest
hatmai
ntai
npestpopul
ati
onsatal
evel
that
cannotcauseeconomicl
osstothefar
mer.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofI
PM
1.I
tdoesnothav esetpackagesf oreverysit
uati
on
2.I
temphasizesahol ist
icapproachtopestcontrol
3.I
tall
owsexist
enceofapestwi t
hinabal ance
4.I
temphasizesmi ni
mum i nter
venti
onwi t
hpestici
des
5.I
tisnotauniversalsolut
iontocropprotecti
onneeds
6.Chemical
controlisusedasal astsoluti
on
7.I
trequi
resunder
standi
ngofsy
stemsanddy
nami
csofpestcont
rol

Adv
ant
agesofI
.PM.
1.I
tscheapersi nceituti
li
zesnat ur alf
actor
s
2.Mor eenvir
onment alfr
iendlysincei tdi
scouragesuseofchemical
s
3.Tradit
ionalf
ar merscanusei tsinceiti
nvolv
esami xtur
eoftradi
ti
onal
and
moder nmet hodsofpestcont rol
4.Culti
vatesaspi r
itofselfrel
iancei npestcontrol
5.I
thast hepot ent
ialofofferi
ngper manentsoluti
ontopestpr
oblem

Const
rai
nts
1.Demandsadetai
l
edunder
standi
ngofthepr
esentagr
o-ecosy
stemsandt
hei
r
dynami
csi
nresponset
oint
ervent
ion
 2.I
tisdif
ficultt
odev el
opstandar
dpackagest hatwil
lsui
teveryfarmingsyst
em
3.Resul
tsar enotdramati
chencef armerscannotbeeasi
lyconvinced
4.Farmersareof t
enill
equi
ppedwi thknowledgeandmeanst oinsti
tuteI
PM
5.Aholi
sticapproachtoIPM isdi
fficul
ttoreal
izeduetol
imit
edknowl edge

Cr
opdi
seases
Adiseasei
saphy
siol
ogi
cal
disor
derorst
ruct
ural
abnor
mal
i
tywhi
chi
shar
mful
toa
cr
op.
Causesofdi
seasesi
ncr
ops
1.Pat hogens; bact eria,f
ungi andv i
ruscancausedi seasesincrops
2.Mi neral defi
ciency ;thi
scausesdi seasecondi t
ionsli
kechlorosi
s,stunt
edgrowth,
e.t.
c.
3.Wi nd; i
tcausesf l
atter
ingandbr eakingofpl antstems
4.Inadequat eli
ght ;itcauseset i
olati
oni ncrops
5.Droughtorwat erstress;causescr opst owiltanddie
6.Hai ldamage; itbruisescr oppar t
sanddest r
oy scropleav
escompl etel
y
7.Wat erl ogging; excessi nsoilcancausewi l
ti
ngi nsomecr opsduet oli
mit
edroot
dev elopmentandai r
8.Chemi cal ef
fect s;herbici
desorpest icidesusedwr onglycanscorchcrops
9.Airpol l
ut i
on;itcausesdi seasesy mpt omsincr ops

Si
gnsofdi
seasei
ncr
ops
1.Causer ottingofcr ops
2.Causeswi l
tingofcr opsduet obl ockageofxy lem
3.Causeshy per plasia;abnor mal f
astr at
eofcel ldivi
sion
4.Causeshy per tr
ophy ;abnormal enlargementofcel lsleadingt ogal l
sandwar ts
5.Chl orosi s;y el
lowi ngcommont ocropswi thr ootorv asculardi seases.Vi r
us
diseaseandnut rientdef i
ciencycancausechl orosis
6.Et iolat i
on; ext endedgr owt hduet oexcessi veordi seasesl i
keBakanaedi seaseof
rice
7.St unt ingordwar fing; v
iralandbact eri
aldiseasesl ikeGr oundnutr osetteand
tomat obushyst unt.Gener alnutri
entdeficiencyandr ootdiseasescancause
st unt ing
8.Ant hracnose; dar k,sunken, necroti
cspot sorpat cheswi thraisedbor derson
leav esorf ruits
9.Bl ight s;suddenandf ai
rlyextensiveshriveli
nganddeat hofcer tainareasoft he
plant .Canbecausedbyf ungusandbact er i
a
10.
Canker s; l
ocal izedopensunkenwoundwi thrai sedmar ginusual l
yf oundon
woodencr ops
11.
Dampi ngof f;basal rotti
ngofseedl i
ngscausi ngcol lapseanddeat h
12.
Leafspot s; li
mi tedar easofnecr oticti
ssue.Spot scanbeci rcular,l
enticular
,
angul ar ,e.t.
c.
 13.
Mildews; mol
dgrowthoverleafsurface
14.
Rots;necrosi
sofalargear
eaoft i
ssueonl eaves,stems,root
s,e.
t.c.
15.
Rusts;powderyspori
ngpustulesont heleavesofst emsusuallyyell
owbrownor
orange
16.
Leafcur l
;mal
formati
onofthel eafl
aminaduet oirr
egularfor
mationcausedby
pathogens.
17.
Smut s;bl
ack,powder
ysporemassesar epr oducedonv ari
ousplantpart
s.

Spr
eadofdi
sease
 Vectorsl
ikeleafhoppers,whi
tefl
y,ande.
t.
c.
 Erosi
onwat er
 Wind
 Pl
antingmat eri
al/seeds
 Contaminatedferti
li
zers
 Contaminatedsoil
 Gardentools
 Throughpollenorpolli
nati
ngagent
s
 Throughirr
igati
onwat er

Commonsy
mpt
omsv
iral
diseases
 Abnor malcurli
ngofl eaves
 Chlorosi
s
 Stuntedgrowt h
 Abnor mal
lyshor ti
nternodes(
roset
ti
ng)
 Poory i
eld
 Mot t
li
ngofl eaves
 Yell
owst reaks

Cont
rol
ofcr
opdi
sease
 Cropr otat i
on
 Plant
ingr esistantvari
eti
es
 Remov al di
seasescr opsfrom t
hegarden
 Properweedcont r
ol
 Properspaci ng
 Hotwat ertreat ment
 Sprayingwi t
hchemi cal
sli
kefungi
cides
 Plant
ingdi seasef r
eeseeds
 Destroy i
ngal t
ernatehosts
 Closeseasoni ng
 Quarant inemeasur es
 Ti
mel ypl antingandhar vesti
ng
PASTURES

TERMSUSED
1. Past ur e-Thisisafencedar eademar catedf orageplantusuallyimpr ovedand
onwhi chanimalsaregr azed.
2. Fodder–Thi sisagr assorl egumet hatiscutandcar ri
edt othest al
kf ori
n
doorf eeding.
3. For age–Thi sisaplantgr ownpr i
marilyforfeedingliv
est ock.
4. Hay–Thi sisfeedpr oducedbyhy drati
nggr eenf or
aget oamoi sturecontent
of15%orl ess.
5. Si lage–Thi sisforagepr eser vedinasuccul entconditi
onbypar t
ialformati
on.
6. Pal atabili
ty–Thi si
st her elativ
eat tr
activ
enessoff eedt oanani mal.
7. Her bage–Thi sreferst oleav es,stemsandot hersuccul entpartoff or
age
plantt hatanimalscanf eedon.
8. St ocki ngr ate–Thisi sthenumberofani mal grazi
nginuni tareaofpast ure
landi rrespecti
veofreliableorav ai
lableherbage.
9. Car ryingcapacity–Thi sist henumberofani malsagi venpast ur
ei sableto
suppor tforagivenper i
odoft ime.

TYPESOFPASTURES
Therearet
womai
nty
pesofpast
urei
.e.
Natural
Ley

NATURALPASTURE
Thi
sisopenar
eawi
thadensecov
erofnat
ivegr
assesandot
herpl
antspeci
es.

ADVANTAGES
 for
agepl antsfoundinnat ur
al pasturearewelladaptedt onaturalcondi
ti
onhence
cansurviveevenunderpoormanagement ,
 Naturalpasturecontai
nsav ari
etyoff or
ageplantneededi ntheani maldiet.
 Theyaref oundinareast hataredi f
ficul
ttocul
t i
vatehencehel pintheuti
lizat
ionof
suchidl
epl aces.
 Theycansuppor tal
argepopul at
ionoflocalli
vestockspeciesl i
kegoats,sheep,and
catt
le.
 Theyarecheapt omaintainsincet heydonotr equir
eal otofcare.
 Theyrequirefewerinputsdur i
ngi mpr ov
ement .
DI
SADVANTAGES
 Theyar elessproduct i
veinter
msofher bageyi
eldsandnutr
it
iveval
ue.
 Thegr assesmat urev eryf
astbecomingstemyandcoarsehencereduci
ng
palat
abili
tyandnut ri
tiveval
ue.
 Theyar eusuall
ygr azedcommunal l
yhencehighchancesofmor eli
vest
ockusingi
t
leadi
ngt oovergrazing.
 Duetopoormanagementofnat ur
alpasturel
i
vestockdi
seasesspreadver
yfast
from herdtoherd.

LEYPASTURE
Theseconsi
stofimprovedgrassesandlegumesthatpr
ovidehi
ghquali
tyf
orage.Ley
pastur
esareusedforint
ensi
vef ar
mingandpart
icul
arl
yfordai
rycat
tl
e.

LI
MITATIONS
1. Hi ghcostofest abli
shmenti.e.moneyi sneededt opr eparetheland,buyseeds
andf ertil
izers.
2. Lackofv iableseeds–seedsar enotr eadil
yav ai
lableonacommer ci
albasisfor
Leypast ures.
3. Poorqual ityanimals–Mostf armersr earpoorqual it
yanimal swhichcannotgive
profi
tabl er et
urnst ocovert
hecostofl ey s.
4. Poormanager ialskil
ls–Mostf armer slackbasi cknowl edgeandski l
lsof
managi ngLeysot hattheycanbepr oduct i
veforal ongper i
odoft i
me.
5. Poorsoi l–Mostf armersarenotwi l
lingt osurrendertheirfert
il
esoilforLey
pastur epr oduction.
6. Unr eliabler ai
nfall–Leypastur eproduct ionrequir
esr ai
nfallwhichisnotless
800mm annual lyandmustbewel ldistributed.

I
MPORTANCEOFPASTURES
1. Theypr ovi
deor gani cmat tertot hesoi laft
err ott
ing.
2. Theypr ovi
deawi der angeofnut r
ientstogr azingani mals.
3. Theyhel pinutil
izingi dl
eland.
4. Deepr ootedpast urepl ant
sr ecy cl
epl antnut r
ientsfrom deeperlayertosoil
surfaceforrooterst ouse.
5. Theycanbr eakl if
ecy cl
eofpestwhenpl antedi nar otat
ionwithcrops.
6. Theycanr educewat erevapor ati
onf rom thesoact ingasacov er.
7. Past uresarethecheapestsour ceoff eedsf orani mals
8. Ther ootofpastur epl antwillbindsoi lpart
iclest ogetherhencereducingsoi
l
erosion.
9. Past ureplant,particularl
ylegumesi mprovest hesoi lfer
til
i
tybyfixi
ngnitr
ogen
 i
ntot
hesoi
l
.

I
MPROVEMENTOFNATURALPASTURES
1. Fenci ng-Thear eashoul dbef encedt oexcl udewi l
danimal sandi ntruders.
2. Remov ebushesanddenset reecanopysot hatt hepast uregrassescan
receiveenoughl ight.
3. Weedscont rol –Poi sonousandnot ori
ousweedsshoul dber emov ed.
4. Pr ov i
sionofwat ertoani mal s–Wat eri
ngpoi ntsshoul dbewel ldistribut
edt o
avoidov ergrazi ngandt rampl i
ngonpast ur esi nsomepl aces.
5. Er osioncont rol –St ol onf erousgr asssppshoul dbepl antedonbearsur face
orinov ergr az edar eat or educesoi lerosion.
6. Ov ersow–t hisi st hei ntroduct i
onofi mpr ov edf oragesppmor eespeci ally
l
egumesi nnat ural past uret oimpr ov enutrientcont ent.
7. Cont r
ol grazing/r otat ional grazing/st r
ipgr azing–Thi sencour agesef fi
cient
forageut i
l
izedandr educesov ergrazing.
8. Est ablishingf odderbankt hatcanbef edtoani mal swhenf r
eshher bagei s
scarce.
9. Di stri
but esal tlicksev enlyi napast uretost opani malsfrom creatingsmal l
pathinapast ur east heymov et othepoi ntwi tht heli
cks.
10. Practicecont rol bur ningsot hatallpast urewi thpar asi
tesaregotr idoft ogive
wayf ort hey oungandnut r
iti
ousf orage.
11. Drainingwat erl oggedar easoast oencour agepr operforagegr owt hand
control parasites

FACTORSTOCONSI
DERBEFOREESTABLI
SHI
NGAPASTURE
1.Typeofsoi l–Af armershouldconsideragoodsoi lwit
hagoodabi li
tytor etai
n
moi sture
2.Topogr aphy–past ur
elandshoul dhaveagent leslopewhi challowseasyuseof
machi nesdur i
ngseedbedpr eparat
ionandpl anti
ng.
3.Cli
mat e–Thear eashouldhaveadequat erai
nfallwithabout800mm dur ingdry
peri
ods.
4.Plant i
ngmat eri
als–Ther eshouldbegoodqual it
yplantingmat eri
alsthatensure
goodpast ureestabli
shment.
5.Costofpr oduct i
on–Thef ar
mershoul dmakesur ethatt heexpenseinvolv edi
n
past ureestabl
ishmentcanbemetf rom theincomeoft heanimal s.
6.Availabil
it
yofpast ureseeds–Thepast ureunderconsider at
ionshouldhav e
readilyavail
ableseedswi thi
nt heenvi
ronment .

CHARACTERISTI
CSOFAGOODPASTUERSPECIES.
1. I tshoul
dbeeasyt
oest
abl
i
shhencer
educi
ngcosti
nvol
vedi
nrepl
aci
ngt
heseeds
t
hatf
ail
edt
oest
abl
i
sh.
2. I
tshoul
dbeabl
etopr
ovi
deher
bageev
eni
nti
mesofscar
cit
y
3. I
tshoul
dbedr
oughtr
esi
stant
.Inor
dert
omeett
hisdeepr
oot
edspeci
esar
e
 al
way
spr
efer
red.
4. I
tshoul
dbeeasyt
omanagei
.e.easyt
opl
ant
,weedandhar
vest
.
5. I
tshoul
dbehi
ghl
ypal
atabl
esot
hatt
heani
mal
scant
akei
t.
6. Shoul
dmat
chwi
tht
henut
ri
entr
equi
rementofani
mal
.
7. I
tshoul
dshowahi
ghr
esi
stancet
ogr
azi
ngi
.e.t
hespeci
esshoul
dbeabl
eto
r
egener
ateaf
tergr
azi
ngandper
sistf
orat
leastt
hreey
ear
s.
8. I
tshoul
dbehi
ghl
yresi
stantt
opestanddi
seasest
hatcanat
tackt
hepast
ure.
9. Shoul
dbeabl
etopr
oduceal
argequant
it
yofdr
ymat
teri
nay
earf
ort
heani
mal
s
t
ogr
azeon.
10. I
tshoul
dhav
easui
tabl
ehei
ghtf
rom t
hegr
oundt
oal
l
oweasygr
azi
ngbyt
he
ani
mal
.
11. I
tmustbeapast
uret
hatcanbeeasi
l
ymi
xedwi
thot
herpast
urespeci
eswi
thout
hav
inganyef
fectont
hem orbei
ngaf
fect
ed.
12. I
tshoul
dhav
ereadi
l
yav
ail
abl
eseedst
hatcanbeusedf
orpr
opagat
ion.

TYPESOFPASTURES

Pastur
eisdi
videdint
otwobr
oadgr
oups.i
.e.
 Past
uregrasses
 Past
urelegumes

Exampl
esofpast
uregr
asses
 Guineagr ass - Panicum maxi mum
 Rhodegr ass - Chlorsgay
i ana
 CongoSi gnal gr
ass - Brachiar
iaruzizi
ensis
 El
ephantgr ass - Pennisetum purpureum
 Ki
kuy ugr ass - Pennisetum clandesti
num
 Nandi grass - Setari
aanceps
 Thatchgr ass - Hyparrheni
ar ufa
 Stargrass -Cynodondact ylon

Examplesofcommonpast ur
elegumes
 Greenl eafDesmodi
um - Desmodi um intor
tum
 Sil
verl eafDesmodi
um - Desmodi um uncinat
um
 Styl
o - St yl
osanthesgr aci
li
s
 Glycine - Gl yci
newi ghtii
 Centro - Cent rosemapubescens
 Lucer ne - Medicagosat iva
 Clover s - Tr
if
olium spp
ADVANTAGESOFI NCLUDINGLEGUMESI NAPASTURE
1. Theyf ixnitr
ogenintot hesoil hencei mpr ov
ingsoil
f er
ti
li
tyforotherplant
species.
2. Theyshowahi ghresistancet odr oughthencecanber eli
edondur ingthedry
season.
3. Theyi ncreasethepalat abil
it
yoft hepast uresincetheyarehighlypalatabl
e.
4. Si ncet heyaredeepr oot ed,t
heyhel pinr ecycl
ingplantnutri
entsforuseby
otherpl antspeci
es.
5. Theyr educecasesofbl oatinani mal ssi ncetheyarenotv erysucculent.
6. Agoodnumberoft hem hav ebr oadl eav eshencehav etheabili
tytocont r
ol
soilerosion.
7. Thel egumessuppl ypr oteintot heani mal swhichsupplementt hegr ass.
8. Theygi v el
ongergrazingper iodsi ncet heymat ureatdiff
erentti
mes.
9. Theypr oducebett
erqual i
tyandquant ityoffoli
agef ort
heani mals.

ADAPATATI ONOFFORAGEPLANTSTOTHEENVI RONMENT

1.Theypr oducev erymanyf eedswhichincreasestheirchancesofsurvi
val
2.Thei rseedsar elighthencecanbeeasi l
ydispersedbywi nd.
3.t heycanwi t
hst anddef ol
iationandregeneratequickly
4.Theyhav eshor tli
fecy cl
ehenceabl etoutil
izetheshor t
estper
iodofgood
conditi
ons
5.somehav ethornsandhai rwhichdiscour
ageani malsf r
om eat
ingthem
6.Somespeci espr oducechemi cal
swhi chkeepof fanimals
7.Somehav eundergr oundstem (rhi
zomes)whi chwi l
lsproutwhentheleav
esand
stemsar edest roy ed.
8.Somegr assseedsposseshar dseedcoatt hatcannotbedestroyedbythe
animaldi gesti
v esy stem.

CONSERVATI
ONOFHERBAGE.

Her
bagecanbeconser
vedi
ntot
womaj
orway
si.
e.
 Hay
 Sil
age

HAY

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFAGOODHAY
1. Goodhayshoul
dbel
eaf
ysi
ncel
eav
esar
eri
cheri
nfoodv
aluecompar
edt
oot
her
par
tsoft
hepl
ant
.
2. Shoul
dbepr
epar
edoutofher
bagecutatt
hest
agenearf
lower
ingwhent
he
pl
anti
shi
ghl
ynut
ri
ti
ous.
3. I
tshoul
dbegr
eeni
ncol
oursi
ncet
hegr
eencol
oursi
gni
fi
est
hepr
esenceofVi
t.A
4. I
tshoul
dbef
reef
rom dustandmoul
dswhi
chr
educepal
atabi
l
ity
5. I
tshoul
dbesof
tandpl
i
abl
eforeasyconsumpt
ionbyt
heani
mal
s.
6. I
tshoul
dbef
reef
rom weedsandpoi
sonouspl
ant
s.
7. I
tshoul
dhav
easmel
lwhi
chi
sachar
act
eri
sti
coft
hepl
antf
rom whi
chi
tismade.
8. Themoi
stur
econt
entofhayshoul
dnotexceed15%si
ncehi
ghmoi
stur
emay
causer
ott
ing.

FACTORSAFFECTI NGTHEQUALI TYOFHAY

1. Thespeci esofgrass–somegr assspeciesproducehi ghquali
tyhaysince
theycanbeeasi lyturnedandhav enutri
entcont ent.
2. St orage–Pr operstorageofhaybypr otect i
ngitfrom r
ainandsunlight
preservethequalit
y.
3. St ageofcut ti
ngthegr ass–Gr asscutbef oref
loweringproduceshighquali
ty
hayt hanthatcutafterfl
ower i
ng.
4. Lev el ofdry
ing–Poor l
ydriedhaybecomesmol dyandov erdr
iedhaylacksVit
.
A

PROCEDUREOFMAKI NGHAY
1. Sel ectasuitabl
eplantspeci eswithhighnut r
ienttobeusedint hemakingof
hay.
2. Cul ti
vatetheplantspeciesonagoodsoi lwhereitcanobtai
nt herequir
ed
nutri
ents.
3. Har vesttheplantspeciesjustbef or
eflower i
ngwheni tcont
ainsal otof
nutri
ents.
4. Dr ythehayt oamoi sturecont entofabout15%
5. Ti ethehayinbal esandpr epareitforstorage
6. Thehayshoul dbest oredinapl acewel lprot
ectedfrom r
ainandsunl i
ghtt
o
preserv
et hequalit
y.

FACTORSAFFECTI NGTHEQUALI TYOFHAY

1. Thespeci esofthegrass–Somegr assspeciesproducehighquali
tyhay
sincet heycanbeeasi lytur
ned.
2. St orage–Pr operstorageofhaybypr ot
ecti
ngitfrorai
nandsunl i
ghtpreser
ve
thequal it
y .
3. St ageofcut ti
ngthegrass–Gr asscutbeforefl
oweringproduceshighquali
ty
hayt hant hatcutaf
terf l
oweri
ng.
4. Lev el ofdr yi
ng–Poor lydri
edhaybecomesmol dyandoverdriedhaylacksVit
.
A.

SILAGE
Thisistheher
bagecutbef
orefl
ower
ingandconver
tedint
osuccul
entf
eedthrought
he
processoffer
mentat
ion.I
tcanbemadefrom anysuccul
entgr
eenmater
ial
suchas
sweetpotat
oesv i
nes,
youngmai
ze,
sunf
lowersor
ghum,
youngGuat
emal
agr
assand
el
ephantgrass.
N.
B.Hi
ghpr
otei
nfol
i
agesmi
xedwi
thst
archyf
oli
agesi
nrat
io3:
1gi
vewel
lbal
anced
si
l
age.

THEPROCESSOFENSI
LING(
MAKI
NGSI
LAGE)
1. Cutthegr asswheni tisaboutt oflowerandi ncaseofl egumeswhent hey
havef ormedpods.
2. Chopt hegr assi ntosmal lpiecesofabout4cm l ongt hatcanbeeasi lypacked.
3. Parkthemat er ialintheai rti
ghtchamber( si
lo)andcompr essittoexcl udeair
.
4. Addf erment abl ewat ersol ubl
ecar bohydratesli
kemol asseswhi chprov ide
energyt ot hemi crobedur ingfermentati
onpr ocess.
5. Addur eaatar ateof5Kgpert onsoast oincreaseni t
rogencont entoft he
sil
age.
6. Whent hesi lagechamberi sfull
,seali
tof ffr
om t heatmospher et oexcludeair
andwat er.
7. All
owt hemat erialstof er
mentf orAt l
eastthreeweeks
8. Monitort het emper aturesinthesilotoensur epr operfermentati
on.When
temper aturesdr op,mol assesshoul dbeaddedt opr ovi
deener gytothe
microbescar ryingoutf er
ment ati
on.

FERMANTATIONPROCESS
a. Themat eri
alisunderfermentati
ont hr
ought heact i
onoflactobacil
lus
bacter
ia.
b. Or gani
cacidsar eproducedandt hemaj oronebei nglacti
cacid
c. Lact i
cacidgivessil
ageagoodf l
av our,
kil
lsoffthehar mfulmicrobesandact
s
asthepreservati
veforsil
age.
d. ThePHhast obelowbet ween3. 8-4.3andt hetemper at
uremustr iseto
0
about37.8Ct oencourageferment ati
onbyl actobacil
l
us.
e. I ft
hetemper atur
esarelow,addmor emol assesintothesilage.
f. Addwat ertolowertemperatureincasetheyar ehigh.

N.B. Lowt emper at

urecanbeav oidedby :
1.Parti
aldryingoft hemat eri
albeforeensi
li
ngtoreducemoistureinthe
sil
age.
2.Fil
li
ngthesi lagechamberr apidlybutcompressi
ngthemat eri
all
ightl
y.
3.Seali
ngt hesi l
oimmedi atel
yaf t
erthefi
nalpacki
ngtoexcludeairasmuch
aspossibl e.
N.B.Foragecropscont ainotherspeciesofbact er
iasuchasclost
ri
dium sspwhi ch
convertsugar
sandl acticacidtobutyricacid.
But
yri
caci
dgi
vessi
l
ageaf
oul
smel
landmakesi
tlesspal
atabl
e.
FACTORSAFFECTI NGTHEQUALI TYOFSI LAGE.
 Thetypeofgr assandlegumespeci esensi l
ed
 Thestageofgr owthofthespeciesensi l
ed
 Thespeedofensi l
ing
 Thetypeandamountofaddi t
iveused.
 Consoli
dat i
ontoexcl
udeairfrom ensi l
age.
 Themoi sturecont
entofthemat eri
al ensi
led
 Thedegr eetowhichthetemperaturer i
sesduringensi
l
ing.

Reasonsf
ormaki
ngsi
lage
 Forgetti
ngmoney
 I
ncreaset otalamountofher bagepr oducedperunitarea
 Getfeedsf oruseduringper i
odsoff oragescarci
ty
 Conservef orageinsucculentform
 Avoidforagewast ageinper i
odsofpl anti
ngandabundance
 I
ncreasenumberofl i
vestockt hatcanbekeptperuni tar
ea
 Enablesani malseatplantmat eri
alsthattheywouldnoteatwhenf
resh.

Advant
agesofsi
lage.
 Inincreasest heani mal ’sappeti
tesinceiti
sv er
ypal atableandsoi ncreasesan
animal ’
si nt
akeofaf eed.
 Iti
seasi ertost oret hant hesamequant it
yofhaysi ncei trequireslessspaceper
unitwei ghttost ore.
 Thel ossesi ncurreddur ingensili
ngarelesst hant hoseincur redinmaki nghay .
 Manyspeci est hatt heani malcannoteatinfreshf orm canbeeat enwhenensi led.
 Underpr operstor age,silagecanstayforsev eralyearswi thoutlosingqual i
ty.
 Becauset hemat eri
alsr etai
nsucculence,f
ireout breaksdur ingst or
agear e
avoidedunl ikeint hest orageofhay.
 Therei sincreasedef fi
ciencyoffeedusesi ncet heani mal rejectsveryli
ttl
eofthe
feed.

Pr
obl
emsofusi
ngsi
lage.
 Somenut ri
entsar elostduet oseepageinthepr ocessofsil
age.
 I
tsmor elaborious
 Thepl antmat erial
sarediff
iculttocompactef fect
ivel
yandsomer ott
ingi
s
i
nev it
able.
 I
tisexpensi vei nter
msofpr eservat
ivesused.
 I
tr equir
eslargequant iti
esofmat eri
alsforitt
obeeconomi cal
 Poor l
yferment edsilagehasabadsmel l
thatitmaybei nt
roducedint
otheani
mal
products.

Howt
oreducel
ossesdur
ingsi
lagemaki
ng.
  Carefulharvesti
ngoft hemat eri
al t
oreducel ossesofleavesand
contaminationbysoi l
.
 Propersealingoft hesi l
ostopr eventre-entryofairintothesil
o.
 Properferment ati
onoft hemat eri
altoexcl udeoxy genandaci dfermentat
ion.
 Properchoppi ngoft hemat erialtoensurepr operf er
ment at
ion.
 Wilti
ngofthemat erialbeforeensili
ngt or educethemoi stur
econt entand
reducethepossi bili
tyofr ot
ti
ng.
 Additi
onofaddi t
ivestoi ncr
easet heener gysuppl yforthebacteri
aand
preserv
atives.
 Quickuseoft hemat erialoncet hesil
ohasbeenopenedt oreducethe
chancesofspoi l
ageduet oexposur etot heenv ir
onment .

FORAGEUTI
LIZATIONMETHOD
 Conti
nuousgrazi
ng
 Rotat
ionalgr
azi
ng
 Zerograzi
ng
 Defer
redgrazi
ng.
 Str
ipgrazi
ng

a. Cont
inuousgr
azi
ng
Thi
sisanext
ensi
vesy
stem ofgr
azi
ngi
nwhi
chl
i
vest
ockr
emai
nont
hesamepast
ure
f
orpr
olongedper
iod.
Adv
ant
agesoft
hesy
stem
i
. Fenci
ngcost
sar
ereducedorav
oidedcompl
etel
y.
i
i
. I
tal
l
owsani
mal
stohav
efr
eeaccesst
oanypar
toft
hepast
ure
i
i
i. Nocost
sar
einv
olv
edi
nimpr
ovi
ngpast
ures.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
i
. I
tal
l
owssel
ect
ivegr
azi
ngwhi
chcanl
eadt
opast
urewast
age
i
i
. I
tencour
agest
hebui
l
dupoft
icksandi
nter
nal
par
asi
teswi
thi
nthegr
azi
ng
pl
ace.
i
i
i. I
tmayr
esul
tint
ounderst
ocki
ngorov
erst
ocki
ngaspl
antgr
owt
hand
seasonal
condi
ti
onschange.
i
v. I
tsdi
ff
icul
ttocont
rol
/di
seasesamongstani
mal
ssi
ncet
hesy
stem
encour
agescommunal
grazi
ng
v
. Past
urei
mpr
ovementi
sext
remel
ydi
ff
icul
tasmor
epeopl
ear
einv
olv
edi
n
usi
ngt
hepast
ure.
 v
i. Mayeasi
l
yresul
tint
oov
ergr
azi
nganddest
ruct
ionofpast
ures

b.Rot
ati
onalgr
azi
ng
Thi
siswher
epast
uresi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntopaddocksandani
mal
sar
eal
lowedt
ogr
aze
i
nonepaddockatat
imeunt
ilt
heher
bagei
suni
for
mlygr
azedt
oagi
venhei
ght
t
henmov
edt
oanot
herpaddock.Hi
ghpr
oducer
sli
kel
act
ati
ngani
mal
sar
eal
l
owed
f
ir
sti
ntopaddocksf
ori
ttogr
azet
hemor
enut
ri
ti
ousher
bage.

Adv
ant
agesofr
otat
ionalgr
azi
ng:
1. Pr
ovi
desauni
for
m dev
elopedpast
ureduet
ouni
for
m gr
azi
ng
2. I
tal
l
owsmaxi
mum ut
il
izat
ionofher
bagebyav
oidi
ngsel
ect
ive/spotgr
azi
ng.
3. For
agey
iel
dispot
ent
ial
l
yhi
ghersi
ncepast
uresar
eal
l
owedt
oregener
atet
hani
n
ot
hersy
stems.
4. I
nter
val
sbet
weengr
azi
ngal
l
owf
orr
emedi
abl
epr
act
icesl
i
kef
ert
il
izerappl
i
cat
ion,
weedi
nget
c.
5. I
t’
sagoodmet
hodusedi
nthecont
rol
ofpar
asi
tesl
i
ket
icks,
roundwor
ms,
li
ver
f
luke.
6. I
treducesi
nst
ancesofov
ergr
azi
ngandundergr
azi
nghencecont
rol
l
ing
dest
ruct
ionofpast
ures
7. I
tmakesmanagementpr
act
iceseasyasani
mal
sar
econf
inedi
nonepl
ace.
8. I
tal
l
owsf
lexi
bil
i
tyi
ntheuseofpast
urel
andsi
ncecr
opscanbepl
ant
edi
nthe
i
dlepaddocks.
9. I
tcanal
l
owhi
gherst
ocki
ngr
ateofani
mal
s.
10. Cont
rol
l
edbr
eedi
ngi
seasyt
opr
act
icesi
nceani
mal
scanbegr
oupedaccor
ding
t
osex
Di
sadv
ant
ages
1. I
trequi
resahi
ghi
nit
ial
costofest
abl
i
shi
ngf
encesonpast
urel
and.
2. Requi
resahi
ghl
evel
ofmanager
ial
ski
l
lsi
nter
msofr
epai
ri
ngt
hef
ences,
i
mpr
ovi
ngt
hepast
ureset
c.
3. Fencescaneasi
l
yinj
ureani
mal
s.
4 Ov
ert
rampl
i
ngonpast
uresbyani
mal
sleadst
owast
age
5. Mayr
equi
real
otofLabourf
orr
epai
ri
ngf
arm st
ruct
uresandmanagi
ngani
mal
s

c. Zer
ogr
azi
ng
Thi
siswher
eani
mal
sar
econf
inedi
nst
ruct
ures/st
all
swher
etheyar
efedon
 f
reshf
oragescutonadai
lybasi
s.

Adv
ant
ages:
1. Ani
mal
sar
epr
otect
edf
rom adv
erseCl
i
mat
ical
condi
ti
ons
2. Feedt
akeni
nbyeachani
mal
iseasi
l
yknownhenceeasyt
okeepf
eedi
ngr
ecor
ds.
3. I
tseasyt
oident
if
ysi
ckani
mal
ssi
ncet
heyar
eincl
oseobser
vat
ion
4. I
tseasyt
ocol
l
ectmanur
efr
om t
heani
mal
ssi
ncet
heyar
econf
inedi
nonepl
ace.
5. Di
seasespr
eadi
sreducedsi
nceani
mal
sar
enoti
ncont
actwi
thot
her
sfr
om
anot
herher
d.
6. Ther
eishi
ghpr
oduct
ionsi
nceani
mal
sdonotspendal
otofener
gyl
ooki
ngf
or
past
ureandwat
er
7. Sel
ect
ivegr
azi
ngandt
rampl
i
ngonpast
uresi
sef
fect
ivel
ycont
rol
l
edsi
nce
ani
mal
s ar
efedonpast
urescutf
rom t
hef
iel
d.
8. I
tseasyt
ocar
ryoutmanagementpr
act
icesonani
mal
sundert
hissy
stem as
ani
mal
sar
eunderconf
inement
.
9. Thesy
stem per
mit
shi
ghst
ocki
ngr
atesi
nceal
argenumberofani
mal
scanbe
keptonasmal
lpi
eceofl
and

Di
sadv
ant
ages:
1.Themet
hodi
scapi
tal
int
ensi
vei
.e.r
equi
resal
otofcapi
tal
forconst
ruct
ingani
mal
st
ruct
uresandf
eedi
ng
2. I
trequi
resal
otofLabourwhi
chcanbeusedi
ncol
l
ect
ingf
odder
,cl
eani
ngt
he
st
all
set
c.
3. I
tcannotsuppor
tal
argenumberofani
mal
s
4. Thesy
stem i
sappl
i
cabl
eeconomi
cal
l
yinpl
aceswher
emar
ketf
ormi
l
kisr
eadi
l
y
av
ail
abl
etocov
ert
hecost
sinv
olv
edeasi
l
y.
5. I
tmayl
eadt
olossofsoi
lfer
ti
li
tyi
fmanur
eisnott
akenbackt
othef
oddergar
den.
6. Theani
mal
slackexer
cisewhi
chcanaf
fectt
hei
rheal
th.

d. Def
err
edgr
azi
ng
Thi
siswher
eacer
tai
npaddocki
ssetasi
det
oal
lowt
heaccumul
ati
onofst
andi
ng
haywhi
chcanbegr
azedondur
ingper
iodsofpast
urescar
cit
y
1. Past
ureseedsar
edi
sper
sedf
orpast
urest
andi
mpr
ovement
2. I
tpr
ovi
desher
bagedur
ingper
iodsofscar
cit
y.
3. I
tal
l
owspast
urest
odev
elopgr
eat
err
ootandcr
ownwhi
chi
simpor
tantf
or
subsequentr
e-gr
owt
h.
4. Thepast
urecanbeusedi
nthecont
rol
ofsoi
ler
osi
on.
5. I
tal
l
owsf
ornat
ural
est
abl
i
shmentofpast
ures

Di
sadv
ant
ages
i
. Thepast
urei
snotasnut
ri
ti
ousast
hef
reshpast
urehenceaneedt
osuppl
ement
i
t.
i
i
. Requi
resal
argepi
eceofl
andf
orpr
act
ici
ngdef
err
edgr
azi
ng
i
i
i. Doesnotper
mithi
ghst
ocki
ngr
ates

e. St
ri
pgr
azi
ng
Thi
siswher
est
ri
psoff
reshpast
uresar
emadeav
ail
abl
eeachdayt
oani
mal
sby
mov
inganel
ect
ri
cfencef
orwar
d.
Thegr
azedar
eai
sseal
edof
fforr
egr
owt
handexcesspast
uresconser
ved.

Adv
ant
ages
i
. Theani
mal
senj
oyf
reshgr
asseseachday
i
i
. Thegr
assi
seat
enati
tshi
ghestnut
ri
ti
vev
alue
i
i
i. Al
l
owsi
ntensi
vegr
azi
nghenceut
il
izi
ngpast
uresef
fi
cient
ly
i
v. I
tishi
ghl
yfl
exi
blesi
ncei
tmayal
l
owmor
ethanoneact
ivi
tyont
hel
and

Di
sadv
ant
ages
i
. Requi
resmor
eLabour
i
i
. Requi
resmor
eski
l
lsi
nusi
nganel
ect
ri
cfence
i
i
i. Past
uresmaybedest
roy
edasar
esul
tofov
ergr
azi
ng.
i
v. Gr
oundwher
eani
mal
spassi
sdest
roy
edandl
ostsi
ncepast
uresmayf
ail
togr
ow
t
her
e

Est
abl
ishi
ngapast
ure

a)Cl
eart
hel
andt
oremov
etr
eesandbushest
hatmayi
nter
fer
ewi
thpast
ure
gr
owt
h
b)Pr
epar
eaf
ir
m(f
ormoi
stur
econser
vat
ion)
,fi
ne(
tobr
ingsmal
lseedsi
n
 cont
actwi
thsoi
l
)andweedf
ree(
reducecompet
it
ionf
ornut
ri
ent
s)
seedbedbybur
ning,
ploughi
ng,
andhar
rowi
ng
c)Appl
yfer
ti
li
zer
stot
heseedbedt
oimpr
ovesoi
lfer
ti
li
tymor
eespeci
all
y
phosphat
icf
ert
il
izer
sforpr
operpast
ureest
abl
i
shment
d)Sel
ectgoodqual
i
tyseedf
orpl
ant
ingdependi
ngont
heani
mal
’
sneedsand
env
ironment
e)Tr
eatt
heseedst
oensur
euni
for
m andpr
operger
minat
ionbyscar
if
icat
ion,
i
nocul
ati
onandpel
l
eti
ng
f
) Sowt
heseedsshor
tl
yaf
tert
her
ainssoast
otakeadv
ant
ageofsoi
l
ni
tr
ogenmadeav
ail
abl
ebymi
ner
ali
zat
ion.Met
hodsofsowi
ngar
edr
il
li
ng,
br
oadcast
ingandr
owpl
ant
ing
g)Appl
ypest
ici
desandf
ungi
cidest
ocont
rol
pest
sanddi
seasesi
npast
ures

AGROFORESTRY
Thi
sist
hei
ntegr
ati
onoft
reesi
nagr
icul
tur
epr
oduct
ion

I
mpor
tanceoft
hepr
act
ice

1.Treesi ncreaseoutputf rom landi nf or

m ofwoodf ruits,woodandf uelontopof
cropandani mal product s
2.Treescancont r
olsoi lerosi
onbyi ncreasi ngwat erinf
iltrat
ionandcoveringt
he
soilsur f
ace
3.Theycanr educehai ldamaget ocr ops
4.Legumesi mpr ovesoi lferti
l
itybyf ixi
ngni t r
ogeni nt
ot hesoi l
5.Rot t
ent reeleavesimpr oveor ganicmat tercont entint hesoil
6.Somet reesar egoodsour ceofani mal feedse. g.Lucer ne
7.Treescanactaswi ndbr eaksr educingwi nddamaget ocropsandf ar
m
structures
8.Treesi mpr ovethemi croclimat eofgar denf orpropercr opgrowth
9.Somet reespr oducechemi calst hatdiscour agepest s
10.
Deepr ootedagr oforest r
ytreescanr ecy clesoilnutri
ent sforcr
ops
11.
Themul berrytreepr ovidesfoodf orsil
kwor ms

Adv
erseef
fect
soft r
eesinagricultur
e
1.Cancompet ewit
hcropsf orsoilnutr
ientswhi
chaff
ect
scr
opyi
eld
2.Useupspacemeantf orcr ops
3.Soil
nutri
entarel
ostintreetissueast hetr
eesar
eharv
est
ed
4.Somet r
eesarepoisonoust oliv
estockandcrops
 5.Treescanprov
idehabi
tatf
orpest
st hatat
tackcrops
6.
Factor
sthati
nfl
uencethefar
mer’sdeci
siontopracti
ceagrof
orest
ry

i
. Avail
abil
it
yoflandf orgrowingcr opsandr ai
singtreesatthesametime
ii
. Goodlandt enuresy stem thatwillensurepropertreeownershi
psincetr
eestake
alongtimet omat ure
iii
. Avail
abil
it
yofmar ketfortreeproduct swithi
nt hearea
iv. Cleart
reeowner shippoli
cyf orthef armer
s
v. Lovefortreesbyt hef ar
mer sinanar ea
v i
. Numberofact iviti
esont hef armt hatmayallowi ntreepr
oducti
onatthesame
ti
me
vii
. Knowledgeoft hef armeraboutt r
eemanagement
v
iii
. Avail
abil
it
yoft reeseedsneededf orplant
ing
ix. Enabli
nggov ernmentpol icythroughsubsi di
es

Character
isti
csofani dealagr oforestrytreespeci es
i
. I tshouldbemul tipurposesoast obeeconomi caltoproduce
ii
. Shoul dbef astgrowi ngt omeett heneedsi ntime
i
ii
. Shoul dbedeepr ootedsoast or ecyclethenut rient
s
i
v. Shoul dnotcompet ewi thcropsf ornut r
ients
v. Shoul dbeabl etor egrowf astaftercut t
ing
vi
. Shoul dbehi ghlynotor i
ousandpal atabl
easl eaff odder
vii
. Shoul dbepr eferablyal egumet hatcanf i
xnitrogenintothesoilt
oimprov
esoil
f
ert
ili
ty
vi
ii
. Shoul dbeabl etopr oducemor eeconomi cpr oductsli
kef r
uit
sti
mberandfuel
i
x. Shoul dbeeasyt oest abli
shandgetr idofeasi l
y
x. Shoul dhaveal ightcanopyt hatall
owseasyl ightpenetrati
onforthecr
opsunder
i
ttouse

Commonagr
ofor
est
ryspeci
esandt
hei
ruses

Frui
ttr
ees
Pawpaw Car i
capapaya
Mango Mangi feraindica
Lemon Ci truslemon
Orange Citrussinesis
Ovacado Perseaamer icana
Guava Psi dium guajava
Jackfr tAr
ui tocarpushet er
ophyl
l
us

Shadetr
ees
Cassi
a(yel
l
owcassia) Cassi
asi
amea
Cassi
a(gol a) Cassi
dencassi aspect
abi
l
is
Fi
cus Ficus spp
Wil
dcassav
a Mani
hotglazi
ovii
Tamari
nd Tamarindusi
ndica

Poleandtimbert
rees
Neem tree
Eucaly
ptus Eucal
yptusspp
Musizi Maesopsiseminii
Markhamia(l
usamby a)Markhamialut
ea
Pine Pinusspp

Fi
r ewoodt rees
Mango
Citrust r
ees
Neem t r
ee
Calliandra
Pine
Eucal yptus

Li
vestockf eed/f
oddert
ree
Lucerne
Gli
ri
cidia
Call
iandra
Sesbania