AGARIAN ECONOMY

 Introduction/ background
The evolution of agrarian relations during the Delhi Sultanate period is marked by significant changes in the
socio-economic structure, particularly in rural areas. According to D. D. Kosambi, these changes did no
more than intensify the elements already present in India ‘feudalism’, while Muhammad Habib regards these
to be not only radical but so progressive in nature that to him these deserved the designation of ‘rural
revolution’. Before the Ghorian conquests, the ruling class resembled a feudal aristocracy, with a ruralized
elite holding substantial power. This ruling class, designated as rai, rana, and rawat, had a hierarchical
structure that continued to some extent even after the establishment of the Sultanate.
Initially, the Sultans engaged in settlements with the defeated rural aristocracy, imposing tributes like kharaj.
Over time, especially under Alauddin Khalji's reign, a shift occurred towards a more rigorously assessed tax
system on peasants, although elements of the older aristocracy still participated in revenue collection. This is
evident from incidents like Ghazi Malik's actions against Rana Mal Bhatti, where the subjugated aristocracy
was held accountable for revenue collection.
 Agricultural production
Northern India during the Sultanate period witnessed a significant agrarian economy with a focus on
agricultural production. Peasants, primarily living in villages, engaged in farming activities with varying
land holdings. Large tracts of land were available, with forests and jungles providing resources and refuge
during troubled times. Agriculture relied on individual peasant farming, with diverse crop cultivation
ranging from rain-fed crops to those requiring artificial irrigation. The relative prices of different crops reflected
their demand and the inputs required, with irrigated crops often valued higher than rain-fed ones.

Ibn Battuta and Thakkur Pheru provide insights into the agricultural practices of the time. Peasants
cultivated numerous crops during the two cropping seasons, including wheat, barley, paddy, millets (juar,
moth), pulses (mash, mung, lentils), and cash crops like sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, sesamum, and linseed.
Thakkur Pheru's records from around 1290 mention around twenty-five crops with their yields, showcasing
the agricultural diversity of the period.
The era saw advancements in irrigation techniques, including the use of wells and canals. Canals, inspired
by Central Asian practices, were notably expanded under rulers like Ghiyasuddin Tughluq and Firuz
Tughluq, enhancing agricultural productivity. Various methods of water-lift were employed, contributing to
irrigation efficiency. Pastoralism was also prominent, with abundant pasturage for cattle and the sale of dairy
products like ghee being profitable.
The period also saw developments in sericulture, although the practice reached India slowly, possibly from
China. Fruit cultivation, including prized fruits like mangoes and grapes, saw advancements with efforts to
promote grape cultivation by rulers like Firuz Tughluq.
 Rural class
The agrarian system during the Sultanate period in India was characterized by a complex interplay of
property rights, land taxation, and the emergence of a rural aristocracy. Peasants had limited property rights
over land, with a greater concern for avoiding claims on their crops and person by superior classes. The rural
population was divided into different strata, including khots and muqaddams who were semi-serfs but could
own certain assets like seed, cattle, and implements.
The khots and muqaddams were on the borderland of the rural aristocracy, with varying levels of prosperity
and influence. 'Ala'u'ddln Khalji's reforms aimed to bring them under tighter control, regulating their
taxation and preventing them from levying additional charges on peasants. This led to economic
differentiation within the peasantry and the emergence of a superior rural class.
By the middle of the fourteenth century, the rural population was divided into peasants and zamindars, the
latter representing the superior rural class. This class absorbed elements of the older aristocracy and held
rights over land revenue, forming a new pattern of land ownership and taxation. The chaudhuris were
prominent figures in this class, responsible for collecting revenue and representing the rural magnates.
In the fifteenth century, political changes led to a partial revival of the older rural aristocracy in some
regions. However, the overall trend was towards the consolidation of the superior rural class, which included
muqaddams, mafrots, maliks, and other landholders. This class appropriated a significant share of the
agricultural surplus through land revenue and other claims on peasants
 Agrarian taxation
During this period, there were significant shifts in agrarian taxation systems and their impact on society and
agriculture. Before the Ghorian conquests, the agricultural surplus appropriation methods remain unclear,
with inscriptions providing names of taxes but little insight into their nature or the share of produce they
represented. The establishment of the Sultanate post-conquests led to a mix of old and new systems of
taxation, with a tribute initially demanded from conquered areas. Rebellious territories faced expeditions for
tribute or plunder, impacting economic stability. Over time, attempts were made to standardize taxation,
likely influenced by Islamic models.
'Ala'u'ddin Khalji's reign saw the imposition of a uniform taxation system, including taxes on cultivation,
milch cattle, and houses. The kharaj tax was particularly significant, collected either in kind or cash, with
rigorous collection methods forcing peasants to sell their produce immediately for cash payments. This
taxation system extended over a large region, resembling Islamic models where kharaj represented the bulk
of agricultural surplus.
Muhammad Bin Tughluq attempted to enhance taxation further, leading to agrarian uprisings due to heavy
taxation and inflated assessment methods. His policies, including loans to peasants for agricultural
improvements, aimed to boost revenue but resulted in significant unrest and economic challenges, including
a widespread famine.
Subsequent rulers like Firuz Shah Tughluq made fiscal concessions, limiting certain taxes and shifting from
cash payments to payment in kind for revenue collection. The transition to payment in kind was likely
influenced by economic conditions, including a shortage of silver leading to falling prices and hardships for
peasants in paying cash taxes.
Agrarian taxation during the Sultanate period evolved from diverse and sometimes oppressive systems to
more standardized methods, influencing agricultural production, social structures, and economic stability
over centuries.
 Agricultural Technology:
Ploughing: Iron ploughs were introduced, replacing earlier wooden ones. This innovation
significantly improved tillage, especially in harder soils.
Sowing: The method of broadcasting seeds manually was known, although evidence of seed-
drills is debated.
Harvesting and Threshing: Sickles were used for harvesting, and oxen were employed for
threshing, with wind power used in winnowing.
Irrigation: Various methods were used, including simple rope and bucket systems, pulleys,
animal-powered contraptions like charasa, and the saqiya or Persian Wheel, which utilized
gears for water lifting.
PRICE/MARKET REGULATION
Zia Barani's detailed account of Ali'uddin Khalji's price-control measures from 1296 to 1316, though
criticized by some, provides valuable insights into the economic policies of that period. While some scholars
like Moreland questioned Barani's ability for economic analysis, others suggest that separating his facts from
his conclusions reveals a more accurate picture. Simon Digby's findings raised doubts about Barani's
accuracy, but a comparison with other contemporary sources suggests otherwise.
Barani's factual accuracy is supported by multiple independent sources such as Amir Khusrau's writings, Ibn
Battuta's accounts, 'Isami's versified history, and Nasiruddin Mahmud's conversations. These sources
confirm various aspects of Barani's narrative, including
 price details of commodities like wheat and sugar,
 the role of grain induction from Imperial storehouses in stabilizing prices,
 management of grain carriers,
 fixed prices for various goods,
 advances to merchants,
 low wages,
 market administration,
 prevention of under-weighing,
 and the Sultan's involvement in price fixation.

Despite variations in details and perspectives among these sources, they collectively corroborate Barani's
account, lending credibility to his overall narrative. Even without Barani's account, a reconstruction based
on these sources would still capture a substantial part of Ali'uddin Khalji's price regulations. Barani offers
critical insights lacking in other sources. While other accounts attribute the measures to the Sultan's
benevolence, Barani remains skeptical and delves into the practicalities behind the control.
Barani's earlier version lacks analytical depth, but between the two versions, he reflects and expands on the
mechanisms of control. He questions how the Sultan's storehouses were constantly filled, and how
merchants could profitably bring in supplies at low prices. Barani's answers lie in Khalji's land-tax policies,
where he extracted a significant portion of agricultural produce as tax, impoverishing rural intermediaries
but ensuring a steady flow of grain to state storehouses and markets.

Barani outlines two methods:

Additionally, Barani describes administrative measures to reduce the margin between the cost in the place of
origin and the retail price at Delhi, like loans to trusted merchants, suppression of engrossing, establishment
of separate markets, and restrictions on certain goods to curb speculative profits and intermediary influence
on retail prices.
Alä 'uddin Khalji's focus on price control was primarily centered around Delhi and did not extend till
Multan and there were many such markets with higher prices outside of sultan’s control. Measures aimed at
 ensuring grain supplies and stabilizing prices in the capital city included establishing control over
grain markets,
 setting low prices for agricultural and non-agricultural commodities,
 and regulating various economic activities within Delhi.
The measures implemented by Alä 'uddin Khalji had both positive and negative consequences. On one hand,
they prevented famine in Delhi by ensuring continuous grain supplies and stabilized prices for essential
goods. This led to a sense of gratitude among the citizens of Delhi, especially during times of scarcity.
However, Barani's analysis also reveals the limitations and drawbacks of these measures.
One major criticism is that while the price controls benefited certain segments of society, such as the nobility
and military, they also imposed heavy burdens on the rural population. Peasants were subjected to high
agrarian taxes, leading to significant economic hardships. Additionally, artisans, laborers, and servants faced
reduced real incomes due to fixed prices for their products and services.
Barani argues that the motive behind Alä 'uddin Khalji's price-control measures was not purely
philanthropic. Instead, they were driven by the need to manage financial strains caused by continuous
invasions and military expenditures. The measures were aimed at reducing the costs of maintaining troops
and their families by lowering prices of essential goods.
However, Barani acknowledges the limitations of this approach, particularly in terms of revenue collection.
While price controls in the central zone may have initially helped augment the treasury by reducing
expenditure, changes in military spending patterns and shifting economic dynamics eventually led to the
abandonment of price controls by Alä 'uddin Khalji's successors.
Conclusion of price regulation-
Barani's analysis provides a nuanced understanding of Alä 'uddin Khalji's price-control policies, highlighting
their multifaceted impact on different socioeconomic groups and their underlying motivations driven by
financial exigencies and military considerations.

MONETIZATION

During the Sultanate period in northern India, significant changes occurred in the currency system. Initially,
there was a revival of a gold coinage based on older models, seen in limited quantities from the tenth century
onwards. The earliest gold coins after the Muslim conquest were of a similar weight and type, featuring
Hindu symbols like the goddess Lakshmi and Nagari script. This continuity suggests collaboration between
Indian moneyers and Muslim rulers.
Silver coinage was scarce in northern India but more prevalent in Bengal, likely due to an eastern source of
supply. The Chandra dynasty's silver coins served as prototypes for later coinage in Delhi and Bengal
sultanates. The Delhi sultanate's monetary policy established a firm 1:10 ratio between gold and silver, with
gold predominating due to plundered wealth and a scarcity of silver. This led to a strain on the gold-silver
ratio and experimentation with mixed-metal coinage by later rulers like Muhammad bin Tughluq.
The currency system reflected economic shifts, including the drain of gold towards the Middle East, trade
balances with regions like Bengal and the Persian Gulf, and the use of coins for military and trade purposes.
The Delhi sultanate's control over currency issuance and its economic policies influenced trade patterns and
the circulation of wealth across Eurasia.
Overall, the Sultanate period witnessed the evolution of a complex trimetallic coinage system, impacted by
political events, trade dynamics, and the availability of precious metals.
BACKGROUNG / HISTORIOGRAPHY FOR URBAN ECONOMY
During the Ghorid conquest and preceding the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, there's a noted decline
in the urban economy, marked by fewer and smaller towns. D.D. Kosambi and R.S. Sharma highlight this
urban decay, supported by archaeological and numismatic evidence indicating sluggish trade and a lack of
foreign coins in Indian coin hoards. However, with the Delhi Sultanate's establishment, there's a significant
shift. The period witnesses a growth in towns, reflected in literary and archaeological records, with major
centers like Delhi, Multan, Anhilwara (Patan), Cambay, Kara, Lakhnauti, and Daulatabad flourishing or
being established. Ibn Battuta's descriptions of Delhi and Daulatabad in the 14th century attest to their size
and significance.
Factors contributing to this urban expansion include the concentration of the ruling class in iqta
headquarters, leading to the development of camp cities initially. Over time, a cash nexus evolved as
revenue was collected in cash from peasants, stimulating trade and town growth. The ruling class's cultural
preferences also drove immigration from Islamic cultural areas, introducing new crafts and technologies and
further enriching urban life.
In the context of urbanization during the Delhi Sultanate, new institutions like khanqahs, sarais, thanas,
madrasas, royal courts, hospitals, and bazaars played crucial roles in facilitating urban growth and
development. These factors collectively contributed to the process of urbanization and the rise of towns
during the 13th-14th centuries.

URBAN ECONOMY
 Non-agricultural activities / Technology
The Delhi Sultanate era lacked detailed documentation on its economic resources compared to later periods
like the Mughal Empire. However, some insights can be gleaned about non-agricultural production during
this time.
Mineral resources like salt from Sambhar Lake and mentions of iron mining in areas like Gwalior and the
Deccan are found. Gold and silver production was limited, necessitating imports. Diamonds were mined in
the Deccan, while pearls were harvested off Tuticorin.
The focus then shifts to crafts, particularly textiles. There's mention of advancements like the spinning
wheel, likely introduced by Muslims, and its impact on cotton production. Weavers worked on looms, and
there's speculation about improvements in weaving technology over time. The textile industry was diverse,
producing various fabrics from coarser cotton to fine muslin and silk from regions like Bengal, Gujarat, and
Kashmir.
Other crafts like metalwork, especially sword-making, were renowned. Indian metallurgy was praised
globally, and there's mention of bronze and brass industries. The construction industry flourished,
evidenced by the growth of 'Saracenic' architecture and large-scale building projects under rulers like
'Ala'u'ddln Khalji and Babur. Lime mortar was introduced, leading to the widespread use of bricks. True
arches and vaulted roofs became possible due to lime mortar, marking a departure from pre-Muslim Indian
architecture
The introduction of paper manufacturing, initially in China and gradually spreading westward. Paper
revolutionized book circulation but remained expensive for scholars needing copies made. Techniques for
binding books evolved, influenced by Muslim practices.
Some other technologies
 Horseshoes: The use of nailed horseshoes, a critical element in horse management, was
introduced.
  Stirrups: Stirrups were a significant addition to mounted warfare, enhancing the rider's
stability and combat capabilities.
 Gunpowder and Firearms: Although gunpowder was known and used for pyrotechnics,
regular use in firearms came later, influenced by European and Central Asian developments.
 Tin coating Utensils: The craft of tincoating copper and brass utensils to protect against acid
poisoning was introduced during this period.
These technological advancements reflect the exchange of ideas and innovations between different cultures
during the Delhi Sultanate, contributing to significant developments in agriculture, industry, warfare, and
everyday life.

 Commerce
During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a significant expansion of the money economy, especially in the first
half of the fourteenth century. This growth is evident from increased coinage and the shift towards cash
payments in taxes rather than in kind. Cities like Delhi flourished due to extensive commerce and large-scale
money transactions. The urban economy thrived, necessitating substantial trade to supply towns with food
and raw materials from rural areas. Peasants sold much of their produce to pay taxes, leading to a surplus in
favor of urban centers. Highways, inns, and communication systems facilitated commerce, with notable
trade routes linking various regions.
Grain was a major traded commodity, transported by merchants known as kdravams or nayaks, who moved
large quantities using bullock carts. 'Ala'u'ddln Khalji's price-control measures, involving both coercion and
incentives for grain merchants, ensured a steady supply to cities like Delhi. Long-distance trade involved
items like horses, slaves, silk, and indigo, with Multan serving as a key trading hub. Merchants from diverse
backgrounds, including Central Asians and Hindus from Multan, engaged in commerce and finance, with
some specializing in usury and long-distance trade.
The Multanis and Sahs, wealthy merchant classes, played pivotal roles in financing both the ruling class and
commercial activities. They benefited from government support and patronage, accumulating substantial
wealth despite the strict economic policies of rulers like 'Ala'u'ddln Khalji. Brokers emerged as
intermediaries in trade, although they faced criticism for price manipulation, their role remained essential in
facilitating market transactions.
 Slavery
Slavery was a significant economic factor, with vast numbers of slaves acquired through military
expeditions and punitive actions within the sultanate. Slaves were used in various capacities, from domestic
chores to skilled professions. The slave market in Delhi saw fluctuating prices for different categories of
slaves, indicating their economic value.
Over time, slavery declined, partly due to the availability of cheaper free labor and the gradual integration of
formerly enslaved individuals into skilled professions. This shift reflects changes in economic dynamics and
labor practices during the period.