S.Y.B.

SC History Open Elective – Sem IV

Course Title: Indian Reformation: Ancient to Modern
Unit 1.2. Bhakti and Sufi Movement
I. Bhakti Movement

The most important feature of the religious evolution during the medieval period was the
emergence of several devotees who are generally labelled saints or mystics. These saints
became exponents of a religious movement based on devotion and love called the Bhakti
movement.

Origin of the Bhakti Movement:

Though the bhakti movement became the dominant feature of Hinduism in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, its origin can be traced to ancient Indian religious traditions. We find
mention of bhakti in the Vedas, Upanishads, the epics and the Puranas/The origin of bhakti
has been traced to Vedic literature. It is recognized in the Mahabharata, in the Gita as well as
Vishnu Purana. It was fully developed in the Bhagavata Purana.
Nayanars and Alvars:
The bhakti cult originated in the form of a movement in the Tamil country sometime in the
sixth century. It began as a reaction against the growing influence of Buddhism and Jainism.
This movement spread in south India for about three centuries and was popularized by Saiva
saints called Nayanars and Vaishnava saints called alvars. These saints preached personal
devotion to God as a means of salvation. They disregarded the rigidities of the caste system
and carried their message of love and personal devotion to God throughout south India by
using the local languages. Although there were many points of contact between South and
North India, the spread of the ideas of bhakti from south to north took quite a long time.

Causes for the emergence of the Bhakti Movement:

1. Degeneration of the Religion and Society:

The primary cause was the degeneration of Hindu religious and social structure. Due
to the efforts of Shankaracharya the supremacy of the Brahminic faith was restored.
This implied the predominance of the priestly class among the Brahmins over
the entire religio-social organization of the Hindus. With the passage of time, once the
simple and straightforward Vedic religion became a complex religion with orthodox
beliefs, complex rituals and superstitions chiefly because of the negligence and
selfishness of the Brahmin priests. They deliberately distorted or misinterpreted the
old religious scriptures with a view to fleece the devotees.

2. Discontent Against Exploitation:

The degeneration of the socio-religious atmosphere demoralized even the most
intelligent householders. Gradually, the lower castes began to assert themselves and
began to show signs of discontent against the exploitative tendencies of the higher
castes. Several religious minded saints and critics belonging to different sections of
 the society raised their voice against the prevailing evils in religion and society and
the predominance of the priestly class. Through their own high moral character and
ideal way of living they promoted reforms in the society. They emphasized the bhakti
marga as a means of salvation and denounced caste system.

3. Establishment of the Muslim Rule:

Another major cause of the spread of the bhakti movement was the establishment of
the Muslim rule over India. Islam posed a great danger to the ancient Indian socio-
cultural traditions. Faced with the Islamic challenge, some of the religious minded
leaders belonging to all castes and sections of the society realized the need to bring
about radical reforms in the socio-religious structure of the Hindus. They were
apprehensive that the Islamic concept of one God, repudiation if idol worship,
equality of all the co-religionists would attract the oppressed and downtrodden Hindu
masses. Thus, one of the important aims of the bhakti reformers was to prevent the
conversion of Hindus, especially from the lower castes to Islam.

4. Need for a Simple Religion:

The other factors which contributed to the development of the Bhakti movement were
that the common people during the medieval period could not comprehend the highly
philosophical exposition of Hinduism as given by Shankaracharya. Thus, they were
looking forward to a simple system which could satisfy their spiritual yearning with
personal involvement.

5. Rigidity of the Caste System:

The rigidity of the caste system, the atrocities committed by the higher castes on the
lower-castes and the conversion of the low caste Hindus to Islam gave an impetus to
the bhakti movement.

6. Influence of Sufism:

Besides, the teachings of the Sufi saints also influenced the Bhakti movement.
According to certain well. known scholars like Dr. Tara Chand, Ahmad Nizami and
Dr. Qureshi, the bhakti movement was largely an outcome of the Muslim impact on
the Indian society. However, this observation is not fully correct. It is true that some
of the principles adopted by the bhakti saints, such as the belief in the unity of God,
universal brotherhood, opposition to idol worship etc. were the basic doctrines of
Islam. But the bhakti saints from Islam did not borrow them. These sublime principles
were ingrained in ancient Indian scriptures. The Ekantika Dharma, the religion
revolving around a single God is referred to in the Bhagavad-Gita. During the Vedic
period the religion was very simple, and caste distinctions did not exist. According to
R.G. Bhandarkar, the Bhakti movement drew its inspiration from the teachings
Bhagavad-Gita.

Approach of the Bhakti Saints:

Each of the bhakti saints carried on his missionary work in his own original or
individualistic style. Thus, the teachings of the Bhakti saints sometimes showed
difference in contents and the methods of their approach to eradicate the socio-
religious evils. However, all the bhakti saints on a broader plane observed a certain
common approach in their beliefs and teachings. The Bhakti saints did not observe
any ritual or ceremonies, nor followed any dogma, and most of them severely
denounced idolatry. They condemned polytheism, believed in one God and realized
the unity of God invoked by various religious sects under different names such as
Krishna, Rama, Siva, and Allah etc.

The Bhakti Cult cut across distinctions of high and low birth, the learned and
unlettered, and opened the gateway of spiritual realization to one and all. Being
revolutionary reformers, most of the Bhakti saints campaigned vigorously against the
deep-rooted socio-religious evils. They refused to accept the supremacy of the
Brahmin priests who considered themselves as the custodians of all religious
knowledge and institutions.

Some of the saints challenged the sanctity of ancient Indian scriptures and Sanskrit
language, which had become unintelligible to the masses. As a rule, the bhakti saints
preached through vernaculars and in the local dialects of the people, which could be
easily understood by them. The Bhakti reformers laid stress on the importance of a
guru or the spiritual guide who could help the devotees in the attainment of their
objectives.

Moral education was an essential part of the teaching of the Bhakti movement.
Complete self-surrender or total dedication to God was considered essential for the
attainment of spiritual knowledge. Every devotee was required to suppress his ego,
personal desires, pleasures and other worldly temptations. He had to devote himself to
the worship of God in through, word and deed. He believed in Bhakti as the only
means of salvation. Bhakti meant single-minded, uninterrupted and extreme devotion
to God without any ultimate motive, growing gradually into an intense love.

Many the bhakti saints belonged to the traditional Saguna school, which believed that
God has many forms and attributes, that He manifests himself in incarnations and that
his spirit is to be found in idols and worshipped at home and in temples. Others
belonged to the Nirguna School, which believed in a God without form or attributes.

Bhakti Saints

1. Ramanuja:
The earliest exponent of the Bhakti movement was Ramanuja (1017-1137) who
hailed from modern Andhra Pradesh. He was a great Vaishnava teacher. He
popularized the cult of devotion to a personal God and emphasized that salvation
can be achieved through the bhakti marga alone. He redefined the Vedanta
philosophy by laying greater stress on devotional worship to a personal God who
constituted the supreme reality. Ramanuja travelled widely to popularize his
teachings and wrote several books and treatises on the bhakti cult. His famous
 works are Vedanta Sanghmaha, and the commentaries on Brahma sutras and the
Bhagavad-Gita.

2. Ramananda:
Ramananda, a disciple of Raghavananda, who belonged to Ramanuja's sect,
spread the bhakti movement in the north. Ramananda was born at Prayag at about
the end of the fourteenth century. He was educated at Prayag and Benaras and
visited the various religious places in northern India. He also met learned scholars
of all faiths including Muslims. He advocated the worship of Rama and Sita in
place of Vishnu. Не believed in the Vishistadvaita philosophy of Ramanuja. He
preached through Hindi, the language of the common people in the Gangetic
valley. He ignored the traditional barriers of caste and creed. His disciples
included members of the higher castes as well as lower castes. Twelve of his
disciples who rose to prominence after his death included among other Raidas the
cobbler, Kabir the weaver, and Dhana the Jat farmer. Sena the barber and Pipa the
Rajput. Ramananda even admitted women as his disciples, two of them were
Padmavati and Sursari.

3. Kabir:
Of all the disciples of Ramananda, Kabir was the most outstanding and popular. It
is said that he was the son of a Brahmin widow and was brought up by a Muslim
weaver at Varanasi. He spent much of his time in the company of ascetics, saints
and Muslim Sufis. He stood for Hindu-Muslim unity and declared "Allah and
Rama were the names of the same God." He lived the life of a householder,
earning his living by weaving. Ramananda initiated him into the Bhakti cult.
Kabir denounced the Brahmins and the mullahs alike to be the sole custodians of
their religious order and criticized them for their orthodox and exploitative
attitude.

Kabir refused to accept the sanctity of the Vedas as well as the Quran. He believed
in the Hindu doctrines of karma and re-birth. He emphasized complete self-
surrender to God and devotional worship for the attainment of salvation. He
vehemently attacked fasts and ablutions, visited tombs and pilgrimages and
performances of other rituals and ceremonies. He denounced the caste system and
idol worship. His songs known as dohas are noted for their literary excellence,
besides carrying a great spiritual and moral message to the world. Kabir laid stress
on religious toleration and promoted brotherhood among the Hindus and Muslims.
He raised his voice against the evil customs of sati and child marriage. Kabir's
teachings were in perfect harmony with the social and religious needs of the time.
Kabir left many followers who formed a sect known as Kabir Panthis.

4. Guru Nanak:
Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was a mystic of the Nirguna school. His
followers branched off from Hinduism and founded a separate religious system.
He was born in a Khatri family at Talwandi in west Punjab. He was of a
 contemplative nature and spent most of his time in the company of saints. Though
married at the age of eighteen, Nanak renounced the world and became a faqir at
the age of thirty. He travelled throughout the country and is even said to have
visited Central Asia and Arabia. Like Kabir, Nanak also decried the caste system,
ritualism, the supremacy of the Brahmins and the mullahs. He was opposed to idol
worship, pilgrimages, fasts etc. He, however, believed in the doctrine of karma
and the transmigration of the soul. He had both Hindu and Muslim disciples. His
teachings are included in the Adi Granth compiled by the fifth Guru, Arjun Das.

5. Tulsidas:
Tulsidas, the famous author of Ramacharitra Manas was a great poet and a
devotee of Rama. He has depicted Rama as the incarnation of God and believed
that man could reach him only through bhakti or devotion.

6. Surdas:
Surdas was the foremost poet of the Krishna cult. He was a disciple of
Vallabhacharya. He sang the glories of Krishna's childhood and youth in his
famous Sursagar.

7. Mirabai:
Mirabai was the most notable of all the bhakti reformers amongst the women. She
was born in a princely family of Rajputana and was married to a prince of Chittor.
She became a widow soon after her marriage. To add to her misery, her father lost
his life in the historic battle of Khanua (1527) while fighting on behalf of Rana
Sanga. Unable to bear the strain of the miserable worldly life, Mirabai turned an
ascetic and adopted the bhakti cult. She worshipped Krishna. Her songs, full of
devotion and love, written in Rajasthani or Braj bhasha constitute a rich cultural
heritage of the sixteenth century India.

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra ran parallel to that north. The center of the Bhakti
movement in Maharashtra was Pandharpur with its famous temple of Vithoba. The leaders of
the movement were Jnaneshvar, Namadeva, Ekanath and Tukaram of the varkari group. Sant
Ramdas was another important bhakti saint of Maharashtra.

Jnaneshvar's father, Vitthal Pant was a disciple of Ramananda. Jnaneshvar was the originator
of the bhakti movement in Maharashtra. He was a great intellectual and spiritual genius. At
the age of fifteen he wrote a commentary on Bhagavad-Gita popularly known as Jnaneshvari.
His lyrical poems give expression to his deepest mystical experiences.

Namadeva, a tailor by profession, became the first prominent Bhakti reformer in

Maharashtra. Like other reformers of his age, Namadeva professed his faith in the unity of
God and was opposed to image worship and caste system. He boldly challenged the
supremacy of the Brahmin priests in Hindu religion. His followers belonged to all castes and
classes, including few Muslim convert to Hinduism. Namadeva promoted devotional worship
of God by the name of Hari. Some of the abhangs of Namadeva are included in the Guru
Granth Sahib.

Ekanath was the grandson of the well-known saint of Maharashtra, Bhanudas. Ekanath was
also opposed to the caste system and had greatest sympathy for people belonging to lower
castes. He composed many bharuds and kirtans. Tukaram, who flourished in Maharashtra in
the first half of the seventeenth century, was a Shudra

Impact of the Bhakti Movement:

The Bhakti movement, though it originated in the south, assumed the form of a widespread
mass movement, which embraced practically the whole of the country. Perhaps, after the
decline of Buddhism, there had never been a more widespread and popular movement in
India than the bhakti movement. It achieved to a considerable extent the objectives it set
forth. According to Prof. A.L. Srivastava, the Bhakti movement had two main objectives. One
was to reform the Hindu religion to enable it to withstand the onslaught of Islamic
propaganda and proselytism. Its second object was to bring about reconciliation between
Hinduism and Islam and foster friendly relations between the two communities.

The Bhakti movement succeeded to a great extent in realizing the first objective of bringing
about the simplification of worship and liberalizing the traditional caste rules. The high and
low among the Hindus forgot many of their prejudices and believed in the message of the
reformers of the bhakti cult that all people were equal in the eyes of God and that birth was
no bar to religious salvation. However, the movement failed in achieving the second objective
namely, Hindu-Muslim unity. Neither the Turko-Afghan rulers nor the Muslim public
accepted the Rama-Sita or Radha-Krishna cult. They refused to believe that Rama and
Rahim, Ishwar and Allah were the names of the same God.

The bhakti movement greatly contributed to the development of vernacular languages such as
Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali and Marathi. The Bhakti saints preached through
these languages. The theme of bhakti enriched the literature in these languages.

It is important to note that the bhakti reformers and the Sufi saints directly as well as
indirectly created an atmosphere of brotherhood and fellow feelings between the Hindus and
the Muslims. This enabled the Mughal Emperors to follow a policy of religious toleration.
The bhakti movement prepared the way for Akbar's glorious rule that tried to transform the
predominantly Muslim character of the Mughal state into a national state. The bhakti
movement also inspired Shivaji to establish the swarajya. Foundation of Sikhism was one of
the results of the bhakti movement.

II. Sufism
In the medieval Indian environment Sufism was the most interesting aspect of Islam. It came
to India before the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi, but after the foundation of the
Turkish rule, a large group of Sufis from different Islamic countries migrated to India &
established themselves in many parts & Hindustan.

The early Sufis traced their ideas to some verses & the Quran & conditions of the Prophet. To
these, however, they gave a mystic interpretation. Regarding the origin of the word “Sufi",
numerous explanations have been offered. According to one view, the Sufi saints were
garments of coarse wool (Suf) as a badge of poverty & from the word "Suf" the name or term
Sufi has been derived. Scholars say that those who were pious people were called Sufis.
Some scholars have traced its origin to the Greek word Sophia (knowledge).

It appears that the first writer to use the word Sufi is Jahiz of Basra in 869 A.D.

Sufism is a common term given to Islamic mysticism. But it was not organized in a single
sect & its religious doctrines were also not common, instead they were organized into various
silsilahs or religions orders. They accepted the Prophethood & Mohammad & the authority of
the Quran, but course of time they adopted variety of ideas and practices from different
sources, such as Christianity, Buddhism, & Hindu philosophical thoughts.

The concept of a relationship between God & the soul as one between the beloved & the
lover was adopted by the Sufis in India, Concept of non-violence, ascetic practices involving
starving & torturing of the body were also of Indian origin, were adopted by the Suf saints.

The Muslim mystics or Sufis of early years were ascetics, men of deep religious feelings,
who laid great stress on the principles of tauba (repentance) & Tawakkul (trust in God) These
were fundamentally inspired by early Sufi saints Quran.

In their journey to achieve union with the God, Sufis had to pass through 10 Stages which
were as follow

1. Tauba (repentance)
2. Wara (abstinence),
3. Zuhd (piety),
4. Fagr (poverty),
5. Sabr (patience),
6. Shukr (gratitude),
7. Khauf (fear),
8. Raja (hope),
9. Tawakkul (contentment or trust in God)
10. Riza (submission to the divine will).

In passing through these stages of spirituel development, the Sufi felt excessive love & desire
for God The Sufis had a two-fold object in view, namely, their own spirituel development &
the service of humanity. Union of the human soul with God through loving devotion was the
essence of the Sufi faith. loving devotion was the essence of the Sufi faith.
The Sufis, by their examples, by words & conduct set an ethical standard. They attempted to
bridge the gulf between orthodoxy & religion of faith & devotions. They spoke the language
of the masses & gave impetus to linguistic assimilation & to a cultural synthesis. They played
a silent but important. part in the propagation of their faith more by their example & service.
They imparted education & emphasized. the need to acquire it. They won the hearts of people
through their love & liberalism, sincerity of purpose, charity piety & social service. They
exercised considerably influenced. on kings, officials & nobles for the good of the people.

Sufi saints preached that Sufism was not to be made a means of livelihood. They stressed. the
importance of earning. There were many saints who worked in different professions &
recognized the " dignity of labor. They also did not abandon the family life. Except a few,
many Sufis were married However the typical materialistic approach was discouraged.
The Sufis were broad-minded people, who recognized the truth in other faiths. In extending
their help to others they made distinction based on caste & creed. The Sufi saints showed
great interest in learning Yoga, & the Hindu yogi’s & Siddhas frequently visited the
hermitages (Ashrams) of the Suh saints.

The Sufis adopted music & dancing as a mode ds invocation to God. To the Sufis music was
a means to an end. Those who entered into a fraternity & Sufi saints were called 'murids'
(disciple). The murid had to pledge absolute submission & devotion to his spiritual guide
called 'pir’

The Sufi orders or Silsilas:

The Sufis were organized into orders or Silsilahs named after the name or surname of the
founder of the order for ex- Chishti, Suhre wardi, etc. Each Sufi order had a khangah or
hermitage, where people gathered for spiritual discourses & guidance from the Sufi saints.

In the 11th 12th centuries, Lahore & Multan attracted many well-known Sufis from other
countries. The greatest figure in the history of Sufism in India was Khwaja Muinuddin
Chishti who arrived at Lahore. From Ghazni in 1161 & settled down at Ajmer where he died
in 1235-36. He was the founder of the chisti order of Sufis in India. In the 13th century the
Suhrawardi order was established in India by Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya. During the 15th
century two new Sufi orders. were established. One was Qadiri or Qadisiya order founded by
Shaba Nayamatullah Qadisi. Another was Shuttari or Shuttarria order founded by Shah
Abdullah Shuttari.

Thus, the Sufis were divided into silsilahs or orders named after the founder of each sect &
they lived in & maintained the Khangahs In the 16th century hermitages there were as many
as 14 Sufi orders in India, as mentioned by Abul Fazl. Sindh & Multan became centers of
spiritual activities of the saints of Suhrawardi order. The chisti silsilahs were more popular in
Ajmer, Nagpur, Hansi, Ayodhya, Badaun & other towns of UP.. The Chisti saints were more
liberal in their outlook. They adapted themselves to non-muslim environment. In the 16th
century the most notable Chisti saint was Shaikh Salim Chisti of Fatehpur Sikri who was
contemporary of Akbar, & the emperor greatly respected him.

Apart from the above four silsilahs two other orders also made their mark in India. They were
Firdausi Silsilah founded by Shaikh Badruddin Samar khand Naqshbandi silsilah founded by
Khuwaja Bagi Billah in the 16th century
Thus, to conclude Sufism & Bhakti movement freed the Indian society from the dogmatic
beliefs, ritualism, caste & communal hatred.