Growth and Heredity of Living Organism

Body of all organisms consists of cell and all cells arise from the division of

existing cells. Unicellular organisms multiply by cell division. In this way one

cell divides into two, and two transforms into four. They divide further in the

same manner and this is how growth of living organism takes place.

The cells found in most multicellular organisms originate from the divisions of

a single cell. The life of a multicellular organism originates from the zygote-the

union or fertilization of an egg and a sperm. Cell division provides the basis for

one form of growth, for both sexual and asexual reproduction.

At the end of this chapter we will be able to -

• explain the types of cell divisions;

• explain the growth and development of living organism through cell division;

• explain what role cell division plays to restore genetic trait.

Lesson 1: Types of cell division

In living organism three main types of cell divisions are found, such as,

(1) Amitosis (2) Mitosis and (3) Meiosis.

Amitosis: Amitosis cell division occurs in Bacteria, yeast, fungi and in amoeba.

Unicellular prokaryotes procreate through amitosis cell division. The nucleus

elongates and becomes dumb bell shaped and becomes slender in the middle and

gets separated from each other to form tow nuclei. At the same time the psytopalsm

also elongates in the middle to form tow cells. In this kind of cell division, the

nucleus of mother cell and psytopalsm get directly separated to form two cells.

Hence it is called direct cell division.

cytoplasm

Nucleus
Nucleus

Furrow

Daughter cell

nucleus

Fig. 2.1: Amitosis (direct cell division).

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Growth and Heredity of Living Organism 15

Mitosis: Somatic cells of higher plants and animals are divided in mitosis

cell division. The process of cell division by which nucleus and chromo-

somes of a eukaryotic cell gets divided only once is known as mitosis. In

this process the nucleus of the mother cell is divided only once and pro-

duces two daughter cells bearing similar characteristics and having same

size, quality and number of chromosomes. Mitosis ensures increase of

height and breadth of the body of animals and plants. The cells of the meri-

stematic (apex of branch and roots) tissue of plant increase their number by

mitotic division.

Meiosis: Meiotic cell division occurs during the formation of

reproductive cell from the reproductive mother cells. The characteristics

of meiotic cell division is that the nucleus is divided twice and

chromosomes divide once. As a result of cell division by meiosis the

number of chromosomes of the daughter cells becomes half of the number

of chromosomes of mother reproductive cells. In this process four new

cells are produced which contain half of the chromosomes of the mother

cell, hence called reduction division. Generally meiosis occurs in the

Mitosis

The features of mitosis

1. Mitotic cell division is the division of somatic cell.

2. In this process the nucleus of the mother cell is divided only once.

3. Mother cell is divided into two cells of same quality.

4. The number of chromosome of daughter nucleus and mother nucleus

remain identical after mitotic cell division.

5. In mitosis division, each chromosomes equally divided lengthwise

along the centromere. As a result the number of chromosomes of the

two new cells remain same as the number of chromosomes of the

mother cell. So, mitosis is also known as equational division.

Where mitosis occurs ?

Mitosis takes place in the somatic cells of all eukaryotic organisms. The

meristematic tissue of the growing part of the plant, viz, apex of stem and

roots, growing leaves, buds etc. show this type of cell division. Mitosis

occurs in somatic cells of the animal body, developing embryo and during

asexual reproduction of lower animals and plants.

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Fig. 2.2: Cell division in root tip and shoot tip.

In which cells mitosis does not occur?

In case of animals the nerve cells (neuron) of the nervous tissue, matured red blood corpuscles
(RBC) and

platelets of mammals and the cells of permanent tissue of plants does not show mitosis cell
division.

Lesson 2: The process of mitosis cell division

phase and cytoplasm in the second phase. The division of nucleus is known as

caryokinesis and the division of cytoplasm is cytokinesis. Mitosis is a

continuous process in which caryokinesis (division of nucleus) occurs first and

t h e n cytokinesis (division o f cytoplasm takes place. Before starting

caryokinesis and cytokinesis the nucleus of the dividing cell need to take some

preparations. This intermediary stage between the two consecutive cell divisions

is known as interphase or resting stage.

Division of nucleus or caryokinesis

The nucleus of the dividing cell passes through a continuous complex process

and completes caryokinesis. As cell division is a non-separable continuous

process, it is not right to divide them into different stage. Still for the benefit of

description, it is divided into five stages. These are (1) Prophase (2)

Pro-metaphase (3) Metaphase (4) Anaphase and (5) Telophase.

Prophase: This is the longest stage of mitosis cell division. At this stage the

following events occurs.

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Growth and Heredity of Living Organism

17

Nucleolus

Nuclear Membrane

Chromatid

-Nucleat

Membrane

Nucleus
Generating Nucleolus

Chromosome

Centromere

Chromatin

Cytoplasm

(Mother cell) (Barly Prophase)

(Late prophase)

Plant cell

Centrosome

- Centriole

Astar ray

Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Membrane

(Mother cell) (Early Prophase)

Nucleus

Generating Nucleolus

Chromosome

Chromatid

Centromere

Animal Cell

(Late prophase)
Fig. 2.3: Prophase

1. The nucleus becomes bigger in size.

2. Due to continuous dehydration nuclear chromatin condenses to form

visible thread like structure, known as chromosome. Then each

chromosome divides longitudinally into two chromatid. The sister

chromatids are joined together at their centromere.

Lesson 3 : Pro-metaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

Pro-metaphase: This phase is very short. In this phase-

1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus almost disappears.

2. At the end of prophase spindle apparatus is formed by the accumulation of

some protein fibre in the cell. The middle area of two poles of the spindle

apparatus is known as equator. The fibres of the spindle spread from one

pole to another. These are known as spindle fibre. In animal cells. in

addition to formation of spindle apparatus, centriole divides earlier and

reaches the two poles from where aster fiber radiates. Each mechanism of

a spindle machine is called spindle machine. The mechanisms which

connect with the centromere of the chromosomes are called traction fibers

or attraction fibers.

Pole

Centriole

Spindle apparatus

Chromostme

Chromosame

Degenitrating nucleolus

Spindle fibre
Degeneraing nuclear

membranc

Aster

Plant cell Fig. 2.4: Pro-metaphase Animal cell

Forma-3- Science, Class-8

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Metaphase: In this step-

1. All the chromosomes come and locate at the equator of spindle apparatus

and get attached to the centromere by spindle fibre.

2. At this stage the chromosomes are found shortest, quite thick and clear.

Polar region

Chromatids

Spindle fiber

Centromere Equatoial region

Equatorial region

Chromosme

Spindle fibre

Centromere

Polar region

Plant cell Animal cell

Fig. 2.5: Metaphase

Anaphase: In this stage-

1. The centromere of the chromosome now splits so that two independent

daughter chromosome, each with its own centromere, are formed.

2. The chromatids get separated from each other. At this stage each
chromatid is called daughter chromosome.

Then the contraction of the attraction fibers attached to the chromosomes

causes half of the daughter chromosome to move towards the north pole and

half towards the south pole. In this time, the chromosomes take the shape of

English letter V, L, J or I according to the position of centromere.

Polar region

Centriole

- Daughter chrumosome

- Disappearing Spindle fibre

Disappearing spindle tibre

Daughter chrumosome

Polar region Animal cell

Plant cell

Fig. 2.6: Anaphase

Lesson 4: Telophase: In this stage-

1. Daughter chromosomes reach their opposite poles.

2. Spindle fibre disappears and the chromosomes lose their identity, reverting

to a diffuse chromatin network.

cri

Finally, nuclear membrane reappears around the two daughter nuclei.

Nucleolus also reappears. In this way, two daughter nuclei formed at two

poles and signal the end of karyokinesis.

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Growth and Heredity of Living Organism 19

Nuclear
Membrane

- Nucieolus

- Chromosome

- Cel plate Disappearing Spindle fiber

Daughter

Nucleus

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Fig. 2.7: Telophase

Cytokinesis

At the end of telophase, cytokinesis starts. In plant cells the equatorial region of

the spindle apparatus gradually becomes wide and touches the cell wall and the

fibres disappear. At the equatorial region fragmoplast of the endoplasmic

reticulum are deposited and they combine together to form a membrane called

plasmalema. By deposition of other components on the plasmalema, cell plate is

formed. Cell wall is developed by the deposition of hemicellulose and other

components on the cell plate. By the development of the cell wall the mother cell

divides into two daughter cells.

Golgy

apparatus

Plasma

Cel plate Membrane Cell wall

Daughter

Cell

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Futtow
Plant Cell Animal Cell

Fig. 2.8: Cytokinesis

In animal cell, a cleavage furrow appears on the surface of the dividing cell and

encircles it at the midline of the spindle. The cleavage furrow deepens and

pinches the plasma membrane as though it were being tightened by an invisible

rubber band and gradually draws the furrow inward. Finally, the infolding edges

of the plasma membrane meet and fuse, completing cell division.

Lesson 5 & 6: Meiosis

At the beginning of this chapter we have learnt what Meiosis is. The question is

now,why meiosis occurs?

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In mitosis, mother cell divides and produces two daughter cells bearing same

number of chromosomes as in mother cell. Mitosis is essential for growth and

asexual reproduction. In case of sexual reproduction two gamete (male &

female) cells unite together to form a zygote. So, if the number of chromosome

in gamete cells does not reduce to half of the mother cell, the number of

chromosome becomes double as a result of the union of the two gametes. In case

of meiosis mother cell divides and produces daughter cells bearing half the

number of chromosomes of mother cell. The number of chromosome remain

same, as the mother cell, in the newly formed zygote resulted from the union of

such two gamete cells. As a result of cell division by meiosis the number of

chromosomes of a species remains constant generation after generation. This

happens during formation of gamete and in certain stage of life cycle of the

lower plant. This stage of chromosome is called haploid (n). When two haploid

cell unite, the state of chromosomes is called diploid.

2n2n

Meiosis Meiosis

Ovum Sperm Diploid

Haploid

Fertilization

Zygote

Fig. 2.9: Formation of zygote due to meiosis cel division.

So, the features of the organism are retained in the successive generation by

meiotic cell

Features of Meiosis

1. Meiosis takes place in the reproductive mother cell of diploid organism

and in the zygote of haploid organisms (lower plants).

Four haploid daughter cells are produced from a single cell.

3.

4.

In this process the nucleus divides twice and chromosomes divide once.

The four daughter cells thus formed contain half the number of chromo

some of the mother cells.

Where meiosis takes place?

Meiosis takes place in the diploid (2n) reproductive mother cells during formation of

gamete. Meiosis occurs inside the stamen and carpel of flowering plants and in

the testes and ovary of higher animals.Meiosis occurs in the zygote of haploid (n)

organism.

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Growth and Heredity of Living Organism 21

Meiosis cell division

During meiosis cell division, a primordial germ cell is divided in two successive

phases. First phase is called meiosis-I and the second phase is known as

meiosis-II. During the first division, chromosomes of the daughter cells become

half of the mother cells. Second division is same as mitosis. It means that cells

produced in the first division again divide into two daughter cells. As a result,

four daughter cells (n) are produced from each primordial germ cell (2n).

Mejosis - 1 Second division

First division (equational division)

(reduction division)

(n)

(n)

(п)

Reproductive mother cell (2a)

(n)

(n)

Meiosis - 2

Fig. 2.10: Concept of meiosis cell division.

Lesson 7-9: The role of chromosome, DNA and RNA in determination

of heredity

Children inherit some characteristics of their parents. The process by which

characteristics from parent are inherited to the offsprings is called heredity.

Characters inherited to children is known as hereditary characters. Once, the

knowledge of heredity was imaginary. Later on, scientists explain how these
characters inherit to offsprings from their parent.

During the second half of the nineteenth century Gregor

Johann Mendel first postulated two laws about how the traits

of the parents are transmitted to the offsprings. The research

of Mendel and his laws of genetics are now well established

as an important branch of life science. The modern theory of

heredity that prevails today, is based on the theory discovered

by Melend. This is why Johann Mendel is called the father of Gregor Johann Mendel

heredity. (1822-1884)

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The nucleus of a cell contains a fixed number of thread- like objects that bear

the hereditary characters of the organism are called chromosome. These are only

visible when a cell is about to divide into two i.e. during prophase stage of

meiosis cell division. Each chromosome consists of two parts-chromatid and

centromere. At prophase stage of meiosis cell division, each chromosome divides

longitudinally into two equal parts, known as chromatid. The point where sister

chromatids are joined is called centromere. During cell division, the spindle

fibres are attached to centromere.

Nucleic Acid

Nucleic acids are of two types-namely DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA

(Ribonucleic acid). DNA is the main component of chromosome. DNA & RNA

play vital role in transmission of hereditary traits.

It is accepted by all that the genes which are located in the chromosomes control

the characteristics of organisms. It is proved from different experiments that,

from the parents to the progeny.

In case of some virus, DNA is absent (eg. TMV). But in place of it, there is RNA.

In these cases, RNA is the hereditary material. A character of an organism may

be controlled by more than one gene, again a single gene may control several

characters. The eye colour, hair pattern, skin colour etc. of man are controlled by

gene. Like man, characters of other animals and plants are also controlled by

gene. Chromosome acts as carrier and transmit gene from one generation to next

generation, thus maintains the continuity of hereditary traits.

The continuity of such hereditary trait is maintained through meiosis cell

division. To maintain hereditary trait, chromosome carries gene directly from

parent to offsprings during cell division. For this reason, chromosome is known

as the physical basis of heredity.

So, from the above discussion we understand that the hereditary trait is

maintained by meiosis and through reduction of chromosome number, the

individuality of every species is restored.

In human body, each somatic cell bears 46 chromosomes. How many

chromosomes do germ cell and embryo (embryonic) cells contain?

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Growth and Heredity of Living Organism

New words: Amitosis, mitosis, meiosis, haploid, diploid, spindle fibre,

cytokinessis, DNA, RNA, daughter cell, zygote

What we have learned at the end of this chapter

- Growth of organism occurs by cell division.

- How many types of cell division and where these occur.

- What do we understand by haploid and diploid?

- Gene is the carrier of heredity and chromosome transmits them from generation to

generation.

- Gregor Johann Mendel is the father of genetics.