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CHAPTER 1: Introduction

Chapter Outline
Historical Background
Aristotle: Empiricism and the Laws of Association
Descartes: Mind-Body Dualism and the Reflex
The British Empiricists
Structuralism: The Experimental Study of Human Consciousness
Functionalism: The Study of the Adaptive Mind
The Theory of Evolution: Humans as Animals
Behaviorism: The Study of Observable Behavior
Five Schools of Behaviorism
Watson’s Methodological Behaviorism
Hull’s Neobehaviorism
Tolman’s Cognitive Behaviorism
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism

Explanation of Opening Scenario

The first quote in the opening scenario to this chapter illustrates how Skinner did not ignore the fact that people have
feelings. The second quote describes how Skinner’s views have often been misrepresented. These two quotes will
hopefully encourage students to ignore past biases about Skinner (and about behaviorism in general) as they begin
reading the text.

Dr. Dee Assignment

See the preface for complete information about this assignment. For this first chapter, we’ve included a sample set
of instructions that instructors may wish to adopt. In subsequent chapters, we provide only the sample letters plus
the explanation for each.

Sample Instructions for Dr. Dee Assignment

Dr. Dee Assignment

INTRODUCTION 1
The relationship concerns expressed in each of the following “lovelorn” letters can be related to one or more of the
principles or concepts described in this chapter. Pretending that you are Dr. Dee, compose a behavioral-type reply to
one of the letters in a manner similar to the Advice for the Lovelorn columns in text. Be sure to identify clearly the
relevant behavioral principle or concept on which you have based your reply.
As an alternative to basing your assignment on one of these letters, you can instead compose an entire Dr. Dee
column on your own (both the letter and the reply). For this option, you need not restrict yourself to romantic
relationships, and may instead address issues involving friends, family members, or even pets. Again, be sure to
identify clearly the behavioral principle or concept on which you have based your column. If you are basing the
column on an incident involving someone you know, be sure to disguise the person’s identity by altering some of
the facts and by using a pseudonym for the person involved.
I. Dear Dr. Dee,
Is there anything that I can do to rekindle my feelings of affection for my girlfriend? I’m starting to
wonder if I’m “falling out of love” with her, which is a shame since she’s such a great person.
Help
II. Dear Dr. Dee,
I have a terrible time meeting women because I’m such a poor conversationalist. My friend says that
I’m just a natural born introvert and there’s nothing I can do about it. Is he right?
Shy Guy

Relevant concepts:
I. Answers could make reference to the fact that feelings can be as much a function of behavior as behavior can be
a function of feelings (30-31). Hence, behaving in a romantic way, such as by sending flowers or arranging for
romantic evenings together, may rekindle the writer’s feelings of affection for his girlfriend (32).

II. This letter illustrates the danger of genetic explanations for behavior, which can easily lead to the assumption
that nothing can be done to alter a particular behavior pattern (35-36). Even if the writer does have an inherited
tendency toward shyness, chances are that he can still significantly improve his conversational skills through
practice. The evidence concerning deliberate practice in the attainment of skills is therefore also of relevance
(19-20).

Internet Resources
“Theoretical Early Roots of Behaviorism” by Robert H. Wozniak (1997):
http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Psych/rwozniak/theory.html
This is an article describing the early roots of behaviorism in functionalism and growing criticisms of the method of
introspection.

“Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” by John B. Watson (1913):

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm
This is the article that many consider to be the manifesto that launched the behaviorist revolution. (From York
University Classics in the History of Psychology.) See also the introduction and commentary to this article below.

Introduction to: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it”: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/intro.htm

An introduction to Watson’s classic work, written by Christopher D. Green. (From York University Classics in the
History of Psychology.)

Commentary on “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”:

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/commentary.htm
A commentary on Watson’s classic work, written by Robert H. Wozniak. (From York University Classics in the
History of Psychology.)

2 CHAPTER 1
On “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.” by E. B. Titchener (1914):
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/watson.htm
The response by Titchener, the famous structuralist, to Watson’s (1913) call to behaviorism. (From York University
Classics in the History of Psychology.)

INTRODUCTION 3
Hull’s theory of behavior:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Conflict/
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Hierarchy/part1.htm
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Hierarchy/part2.htm
Some articles outlining various aspects of Hull’s theory. (From York University Classics in the History of
Psychology.)

“Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men” by Edward C. Tolman (1948):

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/Maps/maps.htm
Tolman’s most famous article. It includes a description of the latent learning experiment discussed on page 22 of the
text. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology.)

Classic articles in the history of behaviorism: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/topic.htm#behaviorism

The complete list of classic articles in behavioral psychology at the York University site (some of which are listed
above).

Betty the tool-making crow (with videos): http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/tools/introduction.shtml

Betty is one bright bird (see especially the video of Betty bending a wire to form a hook). This is a prime example of
recent research in cognitive behaviorism or, more precisely, “comparative cognition.”

Tool use in animals: http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/tools.htm

This site lists several examples of tool use in animals, a topic of particular interest to those in the field of
comparative cognition.

Albert Bandura: http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/bandura.html

This site provides links to information about the life and work of Albert Bandura.

The B. F. Skinner Foundation: http://www.bfskinner.org/

This is the official website of the B. F. Skinner Foundation. It includes a short biography of Skinner and a brief
exposition of operant conditioning.

Precision teaching: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/

As noted in the text, Skinner was very interested in applying behavioral principles to the improvement of education.
This link will take you to an Athabasca University tutorial on the behaviorally-based method of instruction known as
precision teaching.

Association for Behavioral Analysis: http://www.abainternational.org/

This is the official website of the Association for Behavioral Analysis.

Various Links to Behavior Analysis and Learning: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/ba.shtml

From Athabasca University, this site contains a huge list of links to Internet resources on behavior analysis and
learning.

Suggested Readings

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of self-control. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Bjork, D. W. (1993). B. F. Skinner: A life. New York: Basic Books.

Buckley, K. W. (1989). Mechanical man: John Broadus Watson and the beginnings of behaviorism. New York:
Guilford Press.

4 CHAPTER 1
Hergenhahn, B. R. (1988). An introduction to theories of learning (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Malone, J. C. (1990). Theories of learning: A historical approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Acton, MA: Copley.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.

Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 2).
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 154–177.

Answers to Quick Quiz Items

Quick Quiz A
1. observed; measured; permanent; experience
2. classical; involuntary
3. operant; goal; voluntary
4. classical
5. operant
6. is followed by; produces

Quick Quiz B
1. Plato; heredity
2. Aristotle; learning
3. nature; nurture
4. contrast; contiguity
5. similarity; frequency
6. similarity
7. contrast
8. frequency
9. contiguity; classical

Quick Quiz C
1. involuntary; voluntary; free will; involuntary
2. Empiricists; Locke; experience; tabula rasa; blank slate
3. elements; association

Quick Quiz D
1. structuralist; introspection
2. functionalist
3. evolution; relevant; similar
4. conscious; introspection
5. functionalist; structuralist

Quick Quiz E
1. evolutionary adaptation; natural selection
2. 1) traits vary within and between species; 2) many traits are heritable; 3) organisms must compete for limited
resources

INTRODUCTION 5
3. heritable
4. reproductive
5. nature; nurture; inherited

Quick Quiz F
1. introspection
2. inference; deduction; observation
3. animal
4. natural; observable
5. parsimony; simpler
6. Morgan’s Canon

Quick Quiz G
1. methodological
2. directly observed
3. internal (or mental)
4. S-R; stimulus; response
5. heredity; environment; heredity
6. few; love; rage; fear

Quick Quiz H
1. operationalized
2. physiological
3. intervening; mediate
4. S-R; stimulus; response

Quick Quiz I
1. cognitive; purposive
2. cognitive map
3. latent; performance
4. useless; rats
5. animal cognition; comparative cognition

Quick Quiz J
1. social learning (or social-cognitive); observational; cognitive
2. reciprocal determinism; environment; behavior; person
3. cognitive-behavioral; cognitive

Quick Quiz K
1. radical; environmental
2. private; covert
3. inference
4. precedes; follows; parallel
5. cannot
6. pseudo
7. counter; environmental

Quick Quiz L
1. Tolman; molar
2. respondent (or reflexive); classically; operant; consequences; flexible
3. expects; past experience
4. genes; genetic; operant
5. evolution; operant
6. cautious; pessimistic

6 CHAPTER 1
Quick Quiz M
1. radical
2. experimental analysis; behavior analysis
3. applied behavior analysis

Answers to Study Question Items: See short-answer test items in the test bank.

Test Bank for Chapter 1

See preface for complete information about the test bank. Note that questions marked with a QZ, MD, or FN have
been used in the ready-to-use review quizzes, midterm exam, and final exam, respectively, that have been provided
in the appendix to this manual. Questions marked with WWW appear on the book companion website.

1. According to the text, the word “behavior” refers to any activity of an organism that can be
a) directly observed.
b) indirectly observed.
c) precisely measured.
d) both a and b
> D 3

2. According to the text, learning is a _____ in behavior that results from some type of experience.
a) change
b) permanent change
c) relatively permanent change
d) conscious change
> C 3

3. Classical conditioning is to _____ behavior as operant conditioning is to ______ behavior.

a) novel; voluntary
b) reflexive; voluntary
c) reflexive; novel
d) voluntary; reflexive
> B 3-5

4. Suppose your friend smiles after you give her a compliment. As a result, you are now more likely to
compliment her in the future. This is best described as an example of
a) classical conditioning.
b) cognitive learning.
c) observational learning.
d) operant conditioning.
> D 3-5 QZ

5. Walking to school is to _____ conditioning as sweating in a frightening situation is to _____ conditioning.

a) operant; classical
b) classical; operant
c) cognitive; classical
d) cognitive; operant
> A 3-5

INTRODUCTION 7
6. Examples of behaviors that can be classically conditioned include
a) anxiety.
b) salivation.
c) blinking.
d) all of these
> D 3-4

7. In operant conditioning, behaviors are

a) controlled by the events that precede them.
b) governed by the person’s thoughts and feelings.
c) controlled by their consequences.
d) largely innate.
> C 4-5

Historical Background
Aristotle and the Laws of Empiricism

8. Aristotle was a(n) _____ while Plato was a(n) _____.

a) empiricist; nativist
b) structuralist; functionalist
c) functionalist; structuralist
d) nativist; empiricist
> A 6

9. Jason thinks that great scientists are born and not made while Allison thinks that they have simply been given
superior training. Jason is best described as a(n) _____, while Allison is best described as a(n) _____.
a) functionalist; structuralist
b) empiricist; nativist
c) structuralist; functionalist
d) nativist; empiricist
> D 6

10. Joseph once saw an accident in which a car had plowed into a big oak tree. Now, each time he drives by that
tree, he is reminded of the accident. This is an example of Aristotle’s law of
a) frequency.
b) contrast.
c) contiguity.
d) similarity.
> C 6

11. As I look at the spotlight, I am reminded of the sun. This is best described as an example of Aristotle’s law of
a) contiguity.
b) contrast.
c) proximity.
d) similarity.
> D 6 QZ

12. Seeing someone who is very old makes me wonder what he or she looked like as a young person. This is an
example of the law of
a) frequency.
b) contrast.
c) contiguity.
d) similarity.
> B 6 WWW

8 CHAPTER 1
13. As I look at my messy apartment, I am reminded of my friend’s ultra-clean apartment. This is best described as
an example of Aristotle’s law of
a) contiguity.
b) contrast.
c) proximity.
d) similarity.
> B 6

14. When Trish saw the lush green forest, it reminded her of the desert that she had visited last year. This is best
described as an example of the law of
a) contiguity.
b) similarity.
c) contrast.
d) frequency.
> C 6

15. My neighbor so often mows his lawn on Sunday, that I can easily imagine the sound of his lawn mower even
on a Sunday when he doesn’t mow his lawn. This is best described as an example of Aristotle’s law of
a) contrast.
b) contingency.
c) frequency.
d) proximity.
> C 7

16. We easily associate birds with trees and tires with cars. This is in keeping with Aristotle’s law of
a) contiguity.
b) contingency.
c) proximity.
d) similarity.
> A 6-7

17. Aristotle’s laws of _____ and _____ are still considered important aspects of learning.
a) contiguity; proximity
b) frequency; similarity
c) contrast; contingency
d) frequency; contiguity
> D 6-7 FN

Descartes: Mind-Body Dualism and the Reflex

18. This person suggested that at least some types of behavior are mechanistic, and can therefore be scientifically
investigated.
a) Aristotle
b) Descartes
c) Locke
d) James
> B 8
19. Descartes believed that the behaviors of nonhuman animals are
a) entirely operant.
b) entirely reflexive.
c) freely chosen.
d) partially reflexive.
> B 8

INTRODUCTION 9
20. “I am able to control only some of my behaviors.” This statement best exemplifies _____ theory of human
behavior.
a) Descartes’
b) Plato’s
c) Locke’s
d) Titchener’s
> A 8

21. “A person is both a physical being and a spiritual being.” The person whose philosophical assumptions are
most in agreement with this statement is
a) Aristotle.
b) Locke.
c) Descartes.
d) Skinner.
> C 8 QZ

22. Who among the following most strongly believed that there is a fundamental difference between humans and
animals?
a) B. F. Skinner
b) René Descartes
c) William James
d) Clark Hull
> B 8

23. An individual who believes that humans and animals are fundamentally different would most likely agree with
the viewpoint of
a) Clark Hull.
b) Ivan Pavlov.
c) René Descartes.
d) B. F. Skinner.
> C 8

The British Empiricists

24. The notion that knowledge is almost entirely a function of experience was strongly promoted by
a) René Descartes.
b) the British empiricists.
c) Plato.
d) all of these
> B 8

25. The British empiricists promoted the notion that knowledge is almost entirely a function of
a) heredity.
b) reflection.
c) experience.
d) divine intervention.
> C 8

26. The term “tabula rasa” is most clearly associated with

a) Edward Titchener.
b) John Locke.
c) René Descartes.
d) B. F. Skinner.
> B 8 MD

10 CHAPTER 1
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27. The notion that the mind is a blank slate is most clearly associated with
a) Edward Titchener.
b) B. F. Skinner.
c) René Descartes.
d) John Locke.
> D 8

28. “All that we are is a function of what we have experienced.” This statement most closely agrees with the point
of view known as
a) British empiricism.
b) mind-body dualism.
c) social learning theory.
d) structuralism.
> A 8

Structuralism: The Experimental Study of Consciousness

29. Although _____________________ believed that the mind consists of various combinations of basic elements,
it was researchers associated with the approach known as _________________ who actually began to test that
idea.
a) the British Empiricists; Platonism
b) Plato; British Empiricism
c) the British Empiricists; Structuralism
d) Structuralists; Functionalism
> C 9

30. This perspective holds that it is possible to understand the mind by identifying its basic elements.
a) structuralism
b) behaviorism
c) nativism
d) empiricism
> A 9

31. In the method of _____, experimental subjects try to accurately describe their inner thoughts and emotions.
a) attentive vigilance
b) cognitive mapping
c) introspection
d) introversion
> C 9

32. Judit is asked to report her precise thought patterns as she plans her next move in chess. This is an example of
the method of
a) cognitive perception.
b) attentive perception.
c) cognitive elucidation.
d) introspection.
> D 9 FN

33. The structuralist emphasis on ______ helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.
a) inferences
b) systematic observation
c) observable behavior
d) unconscious processes
> B 9

INTRODUCTION 11
Functionalism: The Study of the Adaptive Mind

34. The functionalists believed that psychology should be the study of

a) the elements of conscious experience.
b) mind-body dualism.
c) observable behavior.
d) adaptive processes.
> D 10

35. “What purpose is served by our ability to dream?” This question would most likely be asked by a psychologist
who follows the approach known as
a) associationism.
b) structuralism.
c) mind-body dualism.
d) functionalism.
> D 10 QZ

36. Which of the following approaches would most readily lead to the discovery of principles that have practical
application?
a) British empiricism
b) structuralism
c) functionalism
d) mind-body dualism
> C 10

37. William James was a _____ while Titchener was a _____.

a) behaviorist; functionalist
b) functionalist; structuralist
c) structuralist; functionalist
d) functionalist; behaviorist
> B 9-10

38. Structuralism is to functionalism as _____ is to _____.

a) James; Titchener
b) Titchener; James
c) Watson; Locke
d) Locke; Watson
> B 9-10

39. One similarity between structuralism and functionalism is that both approaches
a) made use of animal experimentation.
b) focused on overt behavior.
c) emphasized the study of adaptive processes.
d) utilized the method of introspection.
> D 9-10 MD

40. Which school of psychology was the immediate predecessor to behaviorism?

a) Functionalism
b) British empiricism
c) Structuralism
d) Gestalt psychology
> A 10

12 CHAPTER 1
The Theory of Evolution: Humans as Animals

41. The principle or mechanism that explains how species change across generations in response to environmental
pressures is
a) inheritance.
b) functionalism.
c) natural selection.
d) Darwinism.
> C 11

42. Natural selection leads to

a) inheritance.
b) changes in species across generations.
c) changes in species within a generation.
d) learning to adapt to the environment.
> B 11

43. Natural selection leads to changes in a species because

a) some individuals survive longer than others.
b) some individuals reproduce more than others.
c) traits are learned, rather than genetic.
d) none of these
➢ B 11

44. Which of the following are the three components of the principle of natural selection?
a) traits vary within a population, there is competition for limited resources, individuals learn to adapt to their
environment
b) there is competition for limited resources, traits are heritable, there is survival of the fittest
c) traits vary within a population, traits are heritable, some species live longer than others
d) traits vary within a population, traits are heritable, there is competition for limited resources
> D 11

45. From an evolutionary perspective, the ability to learn is considered to be

a) a non-genetic trait.
b) an invariant trait.
c) an adaptation.
d) all of these
> C 11

Behaviorism: The Study of Observable Behavior

46. This person strongly criticized psychology for emphasizing the study of conscious experience.
a) Titchener
b) Watson
c) Locke
d) James
> B 12

47. According to Watson, a major problem with the study of internal events is that
a) one has to make inferences that are often unreliable.
b) it requires a large number of subjects.
c) the role of genetic factors is often ignored.
d) it is too simplistic to produce anything of value.
> A 12-13

INTRODUCTION 13
48. One of the major difficulties with the structuralist approach to psychology was the fact that the method of
_____ was unreliable.
a) deduction
b) induction
c) contemplation
d) introspection
> D 12-13 WWW

49. According to _____, a major problem with the study of internal events is that one has to make inferences that
are often ______.
a) Bandura; too simplistic
b) Watson; unreliable
c) Watson; too simplistic
d) Bandura; unreliable
> B 12-13

50. In researching the causes of a behavior, behaviorists

a) place equal emphasis on genetic and environmental factors.
b) place a stronger emphasis on the role of nurture over nature.
c) tend to be empiricists rather than nativists.
d) both b and c
> D 14

51. Behaviorism is traditionally defined as a ________ approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of
________ on observable behavior.
a) natural science; internal events
b) cognitive; environment influences
c) natural science; environmental influences
d) cognitive; internal events
> C 14 WWW

52. Julienne thinks that her poor marks are the result of low self-esteem which in turn is due to an unconscious fear
of success. James thinks that Julienne’s poor marks are the result of insufficient studying. According to the law
of _____, the explanation that is more likely correct is _____.
a) parsimony; James’
b) perseverance; Julienne’s
c) perseverance; James’
d) parsimony; Julienne’s
> A 14 QZ

53. The KISS rule in engineering (“Keep it simple, stupid”) is one version of
a) the law of redundancy.
b) the law of parsimony.
c) the law of effect.
d) the law of empiricism.
> B 14 FN

54. Consider these two statements: (A) the dog salivates because it knows that I am about to give it a treat; (B) the
dog salivates as a reflexive response to the smell of food. Which statement violates Morgan’s Canon?
a) A
b) B
c) both A and B
d) neither A nor B
> A 14

14 CHAPTER 1
And Furthermore: John B. Watson: Behaviorism’s Controversial Founder

55. Following his banishment from a university position, Watson

a) retired from psychology.
b) became the “pop” psychologist of his era.
c) applied the principles of conditioning to advertising.
d) both b and c.
> D 15

56. Given Watson’s behavioral leanings, it is interesting to note that he

a) was quite uncomfortable with the discussion of feelings.
b) was extremely interested in the meaning of dreams.
c) hated animals.
d) all of these
> A 15

Five Schools of Behaviorism

Watson’s Methodological Behaviorism

57. Although extreme, Watson’s methodological behaviorism played a valuable role in enabling psychology to
a) focus more strongly upon human, as opposed to animal, behavior.
b) become more experimental in nature.
c) break free from the extreme mentalism of the times.
d) emphasize the role of biological factors.
> C 17

58. Methodological behaviorism asserts that psychologists should study those behaviors that can be
a) investigated in animal experiments.
b) directly observed.
c) indirectly observed.
d) all of these
> B 17

59. Which school of behaviorism is most likely to consider reports about thoughts and feelings to be unscientific?
a) radical behaviorism
b) methodological behaviorism
c) neobehaviorism
d) social learning theory
> B 17

60. Which of the following theorists is most likely to be disgusted with a discussion about the psychological
importance of daydreaming?
a) Hull
b) Watson
c) Skinner
d) Bandura
> B 17 MD

61. Recall the opening vignette to Chapter 1 in the textbook where, after making love, one behaviorist comments,
“That was fine for you, how was it for me?” This joke is most descriptive of which school of behaviorism?
a) methodological behaviorism
b) social learning theory
c) radical behaviorism
d) neobehaviorism
> A 17

INTRODUCTION 15
62. Which behaviorist would be least interested in your inner thought processes while solving a math problem?
a) Skinner
b) Tolman
c) James
d) Watson
> D 17

63. Which of the following behaviorists would be least interested in conducting an experiment on a person’s
ability to form mental images?
a) Skinner
b) Hull
c) Watson
d) Tolman
> C 17 WWW

64. “Daydreams cannot be scientifically investigated.” This statement would most likely come from a
a) methodological behaviorist.
b) neobehaviorist.
c) cognitive behaviorist.
d) radical behaviorist.
> A 17

65. Watson’s specific theory of learning was

a) based largely on operant conditioning.
b) a stimulus-response theory.
c) a cognitive-reflex theory.
d) based largely on the study of innate patterns of behavior.
> B 17

66. Watson’s specific theory of learning was

a) an S-R theory.
b) derived largely from Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning.
c) both a and b
d) neither a nor b
> C 17 QZ

67. In an S-R theory, learning is believed to involve the formation of connections between _____ stimuli and
_____ responses.
a) general; general
b) specific; specific
c) observable; covert
d) covert; covert
> B 17

68. With respect to the nature-nurture debate, _____ shifted over time toward becoming an extreme proponent of
the _____ perspective with respect to human behavior.
a) Skinner; nurture
b) Watson; nurture
c) Skinner; nature
d) Watson; nature
> B 18 FN

16 CHAPTER 1
69. Of the following behaviorists, who would be most likely to reject the assumption that genes play a strong role
in determining differences in math ability?
a) Watson
b) Bandura
c) Skinner
d) Tolman
> A 18

And Furthermore: Deliberate Practice and Expert Performance

70. Researchers have discovered that expert performers

a) usually show strong evidence of talent from an early age.
b) show superlative skills in many different fields of endeavor.
c) usually require at least 10 years of practice to become experts.
d) both a and b
> C 19-21

71. Karen is an excellent tennis player. According to information presented in the text, Karen’s ability is probably
the result of
a) excellent motor skills that were inherited from her parents.
b) high self-efficacy.
c) high self-esteem.
d) an extensive amount of deliberate practice.
> D 19-21

72. On the basis of research findings, Ericsson and colleagues (1993) have argued that the most critical factor in
determining expert performance is
a) unstructured play.
b) deliberate practice.
c) innate ability.
d) a combination of a and c
> B 19-21

73. In a study of expert performance, Ericsson and colleagues (1993) report that top level performers practice their
craft
a) no more than one or two hours per day.
b) eight or more hours per day.
c) only when they feel like practicing.
d) about 4 hours per day.
> D 19-21

74. According to Ericsson and colleagues’ (1993) study of expert performance, heredity may influence expert
performance in determining
a) innate ability.
b) the extent to which one becomes interested in a subject matter.
c) one’s ability to endure the hard work that is required.
d) both b and c.
> D 19-21 MD

INTRODUCTION 17
Hull’s Neobehaviorism

75. A major challenge to methodological behaviorism came from _____, who used intervening variables, usually
in the form of hypothesized physiological process, to help explain behavior.
a) Hull
b) Tolman
c) Skinner
d) Watson
> A 21-22

76. Clark Hull believed that internal events can be included in a science of behavior given that they can be
a) inferred.
b) directly observed.
c) operationalized.
d) described.
> C 21-22

77. The ‘middle man’ or broker in a business transaction is analogous to what is called a(n)
a) extraneous variable.
b) intervening variable.
c) independent variable.
d) confounding variable.
> B 21-22

78. Neobehaviorism utilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized _____, to help explain
behavior.
a) cognitive processes
b) fixed action patterns
c) physiological processes
d) unconscious conflicts
> C 21-22

79. Which school of behaviorism would be most interested in the effect of thirst on behavior?
a) neobehaviorism
b) radical behaviorism
c) purposive behaviorism
d) methodological behaviorism
> A 21-22

80. Because I am hungry as a result of food deprivation, I walk quickly as I head to the cafeteria. This statement is
most descriptive of _____ brand of behaviorism.
a) Tolman’s
b) Skinner’s
c) Hull’s
d) Bandura’s
> C 21-22

81. Which of the following behaviorists would be most interested in manipulating the degree to which a rat has
been food deprived?
a) Watson
b) Tolman
c) Bandura
d) Hull
> D 21-22 QZ

18 CHAPTER 1
82. Which of the following approaches to behaviorism views behavior as very machine-like, with specific
responses becoming attached to specific stimuli?
a) radical behaviorism
b) purposive behaviorism
c) social learning theory
d) neobehaviorism
> D 21-22

83. Hull’s model of behavior is quite similar to modern cognitive approaches that view humans as
a) self-motivating.
b) animals that respond with fixed action-patterns that are not modifiable.
c) analogous to computers that process bits of information to produce responses.
d) more susceptible to social cues than to biological cues.
> C 21-22

84. Which of the following behaviorists would probably be most interested in robotics, because of its focus on
mechanistic aspects of behavior?
a) Tolman
b) Skinner
c) Hull
d) Bandura
> C 21-22 WWW

Tolman’s Cognitive Behaviorism

85. Tolman’s approach to behaviorism utilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized _____, to
help explain behavior.
a) cognitive processes
b) fixed action patterns
c) physiological processes
d) unconscious conflicts
> A 23

86. Tolman’s ‘molar’ approach to behaviorism was inspired by the _____________ approach of ______________.
a) holistic; Gestalt theorists
b) molecular; Hull
c) introspective; Titchener
d) methodological; Watson
> A 23

87. A mental representation of one’s surroundings is a

a) spatial mentation.
b) spatial cognition.
c) cognitive map.
d) spatial heuristic.
> C 24

88. Janice always gets lost whenever she deviates from the route that she normally takes when she drives home.
Tolman would be most likely to say that she is suffering from a defective
a) schema.
b) schemata.
c) cognitive map.
d) vestibular system.
> C 24

INTRODUCTION 19
89. When I visited Paris for a conference, I spent the first few days just wandering the streets. On the third day,
when I had to meet a friend at the Louvre museum, I knew exactly how to get there. This is best described as
an example of _____ learning.
a) delayed
b) S-R
c) latent
d) observational
> C 24 MD

90. Tolman and Honzik’s (1930) maze study suggested that

a) there is no distinction between learning and performance.
b) there is a distinction between learning and performance.
c) maze running in rats is a largely reflexive.
d) both a and c
> B 24-26

91. “Learning can take place in the absence of reward.” This statement most likely came from a
a) methodological behaviorist.
b) neobehaviorist.
c) cognitive behaviorist.
d) classical behaviorist.
> C 23-26

92. In _____, learning occurs even though there isn’t any observable demonstration of that learning.
a) operant conditioning
b) latent learning
c) classical conditioning
d) adjunctive learning
> B 24

93. Which of the following behaviorists would emphasize the distinction between learning and performance?
a) Skinner
b) Tolman
c) Watson
d) Hull
> B 23-26 WWW

94. The field of study known as __________________ could be considered a direct descendent of Tolman’s
approach to behaviorism.
a) teleological behaviorism.
b) animal cognition.
c) humanistic psychology.
d) evolutionary psychology.
> B 27

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

95. Which of the following theorists is most likely to explain behavior in terms of thoughts and feelings?
a) Skinner
b) Hull
c) Tolman
d) Bandura
> D 28-29

20 CHAPTER 1
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96. Observational learning is a particularly important aspect of
a) purposive behaviorism.
b) Neobehaviorism.
c) social learning theory.
d) methodological behaviorism.
> C 29

97. The social learning approach

a) recognizes the distinction between learning and performance.
b) is more closely aligned to Tolman’s approach than Hull’s.
c) assigns an important role to self-referent thoughts.
d) all of these
> D 28-29

98. Among the following, who is most likely to say that you go to the supermarket because you expect that food is
available at the supermarket?
a) a methodological behaviorist
b) a radical behaviorist
c) a social learning theorist
d) a neobehaviorist
> C 28-29 MD

99. This behaviorist believes that our behavior is often strongly influenced by the beliefs we have about our own
abilities.
a) Bandura
b) Tolman
c) Hull
d) Skinner
> A 28-29 QZ

100. The importance of “thinking before acting” is most consistent with the viewpoint of which behaviorist?
a) Skinner
b) Hull
c) Tolman
d) Bandura
> D 28-29 WWW

101. According to the notion of _____, behavior, environment and internal events (person variables) all influence
each other.
a) reciprocal determinism
b) interactive determinism
c) reciprocal inference
d) interactive inference
> A 29

102. Tara complains that she is doing poorly in her classes because she isn’t being taught well. The theorist most
likely to regard this explanation as an oversimplification would be
a) Skinner.
b) Bandura.
c) Tolman.
d) Hull.
> B 29-30 FN

INTRODUCTION 21
103. Bob believes that he has trouble studying because his parents neglected him as a child. The theorist most likely
to regard this explanation as overly simplistic would be
a) Watson.
b) Skinner.
c) Bandura.
d) Hull.
> C 29-30

Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism

104. According to Skinner, thoughts and feelings are

a) impossible to study.
b) the ultimate causes of behavior.
c) private behaviors that also require explanation.
d) reflexes more than operants.
> C 30

105. What is the position of Radical Behaviorism with respect to ‘internal events’ like thoughts and feelings?
a) Internal events have no place in the science of behavior.
b) Internal events should be studied, but they should not be used as explanations for behavior.
c) Internal events are the basic units of explanation of any behavior.
d) Internal events are caused by behavior, but they do not cause behavior.
> B 30

106. Who among the following would say that thoughts and feelings are a function of the environment and should
be studied as such?
a) Hull
b) Bandura
c) Skinner
d) Descartes
> C 30 QZ

Skinner’s View of Internal Events

107. “Thoughts are just another form of behavior and should be studied as such.” The behaviorist most likely to
have uttered such a statement is
a) Hull.
b) Tolman.
c) Bandura.
d) Skinner.
> D 30-31 WWW

108. Watson was a _______, while Skinner was a ________.

a) radical behaviorist; methodological behaviorist
b) methodological behaviorist; radical behaviorist
c) neobehaviorist; radical behaviorist
d) radical behaviorist; neobehaviorist
> B 17, 31 WWW

109. According to Skinner, ______ at describing their feelings.

a) people are often quite inaccurate
b) people are often quite accurate
c) males are generally inaccurate, females are generally accurate
d) adults are generally accurate, children are generally inaccurate.
> A 31

22 CHAPTER 1
110. According to Skinner, feelings are often inaccurately described because, when parents teach children to label
internal events,
a) they can only make inferences about what the children are actually feeling.
b) they pay too little attention to this type of training.
c) they often punish children for accurately describing their feelings.
d) both b and c
> A 31

111. Dr. Franzoi notices that one of her patients has great difficulty describing her emotions, possibly because she
was severely neglected as a young child. The behaviorist who would be most interested in this matter would
probably be
a) Skinner.
b) Bandura.
c) Tolman.
d) Watson.
> A 31

112. When we look for causal relationships between thoughts and behaviors, we need to recognize that thoughts and
feelings sometimes
a) follow a behavior.
b) precede a behavior.
c) occur parallel to the behavior.
d) all of these
> D 31-32

113. Removing the magazines from your room so you won’t be distracted by them while studying is an example of
what Skinner called
a) countercontrol.
b) counterdeterminism.
c) reciprocal control.
d) reciprocal determinism.
> A 33

114. Skinner’s notion of ________ is similar to Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism.

a) indeterminism
b) countercontrol
c) operant conditioning
d) counterconditioning
> B 33

115. Skinner comes closest to the notion of free will in his concept of
a) reciprocal determinism.
b) reciprocal control.
c) countercontrol.
d) counter determinism.
> C 33 MD

INTRODUCTION 23
Skinner’s Approach as Molar

116. Skinner is similar to Tolman in that they both emphasized a _____ view of behavior.
a) molecular
b) free will
c) cognitive
d) molar
> D 35

117. I head to the cafeteria to get food. Among behaviorists, this is a relatively ______ explanation for behavior.
a) molar
b) molecular
c) nondeterministic
d) existential
> A 35

118. Past experience is to expectation as _____ is to _____.

a) Skinner; Tolman
b) Skinner; Hull
c) Hull; Watson
d) Tolman; Watson
> A 35

Skinner’s View of Genetic Factors

119. Skinner _____ the role of genetic influences on behavior.

a) basically ignored
b) adamantly rejected
c) clearly recognized
d) overemphasized
> C 35

120. According to Skinner, behavior is ultimately the result of _____ influences.

a) genetic
b) environmental
c) cognitive
d) both genetic and environmental
> D 35

121. According to Skinner, operant conditioning is quite similar to the principle of

a) homeostasis.
b) natural selection.
c) gravity.
d) relativity.
> B 35-36 QZ

122. Operant conditioning constitutes a sort of mini-evolution of an organism’s behavior in the sense that ____
responses become more frequent while ____ responses become less frequent.
a) nonadaptive; adaptive
b) adaptive; nonadaptive
c) reflexive; operant
d) operant; reflexive
> B 35-36

24 CHAPTER 1
123. “That which works remains; that which doesn’t work is eliminated.” This statement reflects the principle of
a) classical conditioning
b) natural selection.
c) operant conditioning.
d) both natural selection and operant conditioning.
> D 35-36 FN

124. Changes in a species is to _____ as changes in an individual is to _____.

a) classical conditioning; operant conditioning.
b) operant conditioning; classical conditioning.
c) natural selection; operant conditioning
d) operant conditioning; natural selection
> C 35-36

125. John is having difficulty learning a new swim stroke. Fortunately for him, his swim coach is a
a) nativist.
b) humanist.
c) behaviorist.
d) structuralist.
> C 36

126. “Great athletes are made, not born.” This statement most exemplifies the _____ approach to behavior.
a) nativist
b) empiricist
c) humanist
d) existentialist
> B 36

127. Behaviorists _____ the role of genetic factors in learning.

a) have a growing appreciation for
b) reject
c) ignore
d) focus upon
> A 36

Behavior Analysis and Applied Behavior Analysis

128. The science of physiology is to the practice of medicine as _____ is to _____.

a) behavior analysis; applied behavior analysis
b) radical behaviorism; behavior analysis
c) behavior analysis; radical behaviorism
d) radical behaviorism; applied behavior analysis
> A 37

129. Aircraft engineering is to physics as

a) radical behaviorism is to applied behavior analysis.
b) applied behavior analysis is to behavior analysis.
c) behavior analysis is to applied behavior analysis.
d) behavior analysis is to radical behaviorism.
> B 37

INTRODUCTION 25
130. Philosophy is to science as _____ is to _____.
a) behavior analysis; radical behaviorism
b) radical behaviorism; applied behavior analysis
c) radical behaviorism; behavior analysis.
d) behavior analysis; applied behavior analysis
> C 37 MD

131. What is the relationship between ‘radical behaviorism’ and ‘behavior analysis’?
a) Radical behaviorism is the philosophical basis for behavior analysis.
b) Behavior analysis is the philosophical basis for radical behaviorism.
c) Radical behaviorists conduct scientific research, and behavior analysts are practicing clinicians.
d) Behavior analysis is a science, while radical behaviorism is the application of that science.
> A 37

132. All of the following are major schools of behaviorism EXCEPT

a) ontological behaviorism.
b) neobehaviorism.
c) purposive behaviorism.
d) social learning theory.
> A 16-37

And Furthermore: The Life of B. F. Skinner

133. With respect to the use of punishment, Skinner believed that it

a) often creates more problems than it solves.
b) is an effective means of childhood management.
c) has little or no effect on children.
d) has little or no effect on adults.
> A 39

134. A strong trait of B. F. Skinner’s that later became reflected in his brand of behaviorism was his
a) objectivity.
b) mysticism.
c) mathematical ability.
d) fear of emotions.
> A 39

135. Which of the following personal characteristics most directly influenced Skinner’s work as a psychologist?
a) love of poetry
b) extreme emotionality
c) inventiveness
d) athleticism
> C 39 WWW

136. Skinner’s book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, proposed that

a) freedom and dignity are necessary characteristics of human existence.
b) society must be engineered to control human behavior for the better.
c) people must be taught to be free.
d) society has been over-engineered to the point where people have lost their dignity .
> B 41

26 CHAPTER 1
137. Concerning his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner was severely criticized for
a) proposing that government should be abolished.
b) rejecting the concept of free will.
c) rejecting the concept of an engineered society.
d) both b and c
> B 41

138. Skinner’s daughter

a) grew up in an experimental chamber.
b) became mentally ill.
c) both a and b
d) neither a nor b
> D 40

139. An invention of Skinner’s that is likely to benefit greatly from the modern day availability of personal
computers is
a) programmed instruction.
b) whole language learning.
c) peer-based instruction.
d) distance education.
> A 41-42

Fill-in-the-Blank Items
Most of these items are taken from or are very similar to the end-of-chapter test items in the text; the items at the end
that are marked WWW are posted on the student resource website.

1. Steven once became terribly ill while visiting Chicago. As a result, whenever he visits Chicago, he thinks of
the illness he suffered at that time. Among the four laws of association, this is best described as an example of
the law of ______________.
> contiguity

2. In considering the process of fantasizing, a psychologist who adheres to the approach known as
_____________ would be most concerned with understanding the adaptive value of fantasizing.
> functionalism

3. When Tara saw the lush green lawn, it reminded her of just how dry the lawn had been the previous year.
Among the four laws of association, this is best described as an example of the law of ______________.
> contrast

4. After struggling unsuccessfully to eliminate his test anxiety, Andres finally accepts that there are some aspects
of himself that he can control and some that he cannot control. This conclusion is similar to that of the French
philosopher _______________ and his theory of ______________________ dualism.
> Descartes; mind-body

5. In trying to understand her feelings for Juan, Pamela pays close attention to the sensations she feels each time
she sees him. This is an example of the method of ___________________. This was a favorite method of
research by psychologists who adhered to the approach known as ______________________.
> introspection; structuralism

6. Jason once found $20 while cleaning the apartment. As a result, he often cleans the apartment. This is an
example of _____________ conditioning.
> operant

INTRODUCTION 27
7. “My cat never gets lost. It’s like she has a blueprint in her mind of the exact layout of the entire town.” This
statement fits best with (name the behaviorist) ____________’s brand of behaviorism known as
________________________________.
> Tolman; cognitive (or purposive) behaviorism

8. Descartes believed that the behavior of ________________ is entirely reflexive.

> animals

9. The law of ________________ holds that simpler explanations are usually preferable explanations.
> parsimony

10. The assumption that environmental events, observable behavior, and internal events all influence each other is
called __________________________.
> reciprocal determinism

11. Diane often gets lost when she drives around the city in which she lives. Tolman might say that she has a faulty
_____________________________.
> cognitive map

12. Although Roberta just sits there throughout the lecture, she can afterwards repeat everything the professor said.
This is an example of ________________ learning, which illustrates the distinction between learning and
________________.
> observational (or latent); performance

13. Skinner’s approach to the study of behavior is a ____________ approach. In this sense, Skinner is quite similar
to ________________.
> molar; Tolman

14. The behavioral science that grew out of the philosophy of radical behaviorism is called _____________.
> behavior analysis (or the experimental analysis of behavior)

15. The mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings is called a ____________________.

> cognitive map WWW

16. The results of Tolman and Honzik’s (1930) experiment was regarded as a demonstration of _____________
learning (or the distinction between performance and behavior).
> latent WWW

17. Neal was recently bitten by a spider, and is now afraid of spiders. This is best seen as an example of
_____________ conditioning.
> classical WWW

Short-Answer Items
Most of these items are end-of-chapter study questions from the text; those marked WWW are additional items from
the student resource website.

1. Name and briefly describe the two fundamental forms of learning emphasized in this textbook.

Classical conditioning is the process by which certain inborn, involuntary behaviors come to be elicited in new
situations. Operant conditioning involves the strengthening or weakening of a behavior as a result of its
consequences. (3-5)

28 CHAPTER 1
2. Describe the nativist versus empiricist approaches to knowledge. How would a nativist versus an empiricist
explain how Picasso became such a great artist?

The nativist (nature) perspective assumes that a person’s characteristics are largely inborn, while the empiricist
(nurture) perspective assumes that a person’s characteristics are mostly learned. A nativist would assume that
Picasso’s artistic talent is largely innate, while an empiricist would assume that his artistic talent is largely the
result of learning. (6)

3. Name and briefly describe the four laws of association.

Law of Similarity: Events that are similar to each other are readily associated.
Law of Contrast: Events that are opposite from each other are readily associated.
Law of Contiguity: Events that occur in close proximity to each other in time or space are readily associated.
Law of Frequency: The more frequently two items occur together, the more strongly they are associated.
(6-7)

4. Outline Descartes’ dualistic model of human behavior. In his view, what is the basic distinction between the
behavior of humans and the behavior of animals.

Descartes’ notion of mind-body dualism holds that some human behaviors are reflexes that are automatically
elicited by external stimulation, while other behaviors are freely chosen and controlled by the mind. Animal
behavior is entirely reflexive, while human behavior is a combination of reflexes and freely chosen behaviors.
(8)

5. How did the British empiricists view the acquisition of knowledge and the composition of the conscious mind?

The British empiricists maintained that almost all knowledge is a function of experience. They also believed
that the conscious mind is composed of a finite set of basic elements (specific colors, sounds, smells, etc.) that
are combined through the principles of association into complex sensations and thought patterns. (8)

6. Describe the structuralist approach to psychology. Name and define the basic method by which the structuralists
gathered data.

Structuralism assumes that it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying the basic elements
of which it is composed. Structuralists used the method of introspection, in which the subject in an experiment
attempts to accurately describe his or her conscious thoughts, emotions, and sensory experiences. (9)

7. Describe the functionalist approach to psychology. Where did functionalists stand on the issue of animal
experimentation, and what was their reasoning behind this?

Functionalists assumed that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us, and that the focus of
psychology should be the study of those adaptive processes. They believed, like Darwin, that humans evolved
from other animals and that much of what we learn from other animals may be of direct relevance to humans.
(10)

INTRODUCTION 29
8. Describe Darwin’s principle of natural selection. What are the three main components of the principle of natural
selection?

The principle of natural selection states that individuals that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures
are more likely to survive and reproduce than those that cannot adapt. The three components of natural
selection are 1) variability of traits (e.g., some individuals are larger than others), 2) traits are heritable, or have
a genetic basis, and 3) organisms must compete for limited resources. (11)

9. Define the law of parsimony and Morgan’s Canon.

The law of parsimony holds that simpler explanations for a phenomenon are generally preferable to more
complex explanations. Morgan’s Canon holds that one should interpret an animal’s behavior in terms of lower,
more primitive processes (e.g., reflex or habit) than higher, more mentalistic processes (e.g., decision-making or
imagination). (14)

10. Describe Watson’s methodological behaviorism. How did Watson’s position on the nature-nurture debate
change over time?

Methodological behaviorism asserts that, for methodological reasons, psychologists should study only those
behaviors that can be directly observed. Over time, Watson also became something of an extremist regarding
the nature-nurture issue. In his original 1913 article, he emphasized the influence of both heredity and
environment on behavior. Later, following extensive observations of human infants, he came to the conclusion
that humans inherit only a few fundamental reflexes along with three basic emotions (love, rage, and fear).
Everything else, he believed, is learned. (16-18)

11. Describe Hull’s neobehaviorism. How does Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism differ from it.

Hull’s neobehaviorism is a brand of behaviorism that utilizes intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized
physiological processes, to help explain behavior. Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism is similar except that the
intervening variables are usually in the form of hypothesized cognitive processes. (21-24)

12. Describe Bandura’s social learning theory. Outline or diagram his concept of reciprocal determinism.

Social learning theory is a behavioral approach that strongly emphasizes the importance of observational
learning and cognitive variables in explaining human behavior. According to the concept of reciprocal
determinism, environmental events, observable behavior, and “person variables” (which include thoughts and
feelings) are seen as having a reciprocal influence on each other. (28-29)

13. Describe Skinner’s radical behaviorism. How does his approach to determinism differ from that of Bandura’s?

Radical behaviorism emphasizes the influence of the environment on overt behavior, rejects the use of internal
events to explain behavior, and views thoughts and feelings as behaviors which themselves need to be
explained. Although Skinner might be seen as agreeing with some aspects of Bandura’s notion of reciprocal
determinism—in the sense that environmental events, internal events, and observable behavior are seen as
capable of interacting with each other—he differs from Bandura in assuming that it is the environment that
ultimately determines both external behavior and internal (private) behavior. (30-34)

30 CHAPTER 1
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related by Dr. Yelloly,[195] in which death was occasioned by arsenic,
but where not the slightest appearance of putrefaction was visible at
the time of examination, which did not take place until forty-nine
hours after death.
On the other hand, Morgagni[196] states that, on dissecting a
female who died from Arsenic, “facies corporis posterior, ne suris
quidem et calcibus exceptis, tota erat nigra.” And in the interesting
case of William Mitchell, as hereafter related, the appearance of the
body appears to have indicated that decomposition had proceeded
with more than ordinary celerity.
The fact of accelerated, or retarded putrefaction, therefore, cannot
be received with any confidence as a collateral indication of
poisoning. Dr. Carson, however, in the trial of Charles Angus,
adduced the circumstance of its absence, as a negative proof that
the deceased had not been poisoned; and in the celebrated Scotch
trial of Patrick Ogilvy, and Catharine Nairne,[197] the same fact was
forcibly urged in their defence.
Gaspard à Reies,[198] and other writers, have maintained that the
discovery of living worms in the intestines of a person, suspected to
have died from poison, ought to be received as a direct refutation of
the charge. We are, however, not disposed to concur in such an
opinion. With respect to the value of the indication supposed to be
afforded by the circumstance of froth issuing from the mouth of the
corpse, soon after death, Mr. Hunter has given a very satisfactory
opinion, and to which we must refer the reader, see Appendix, p.
273.
Q. IV. How far the absence of poison, or the inability
of the chemist to detect it, in the body, or in the
fluids ejected from it, is to be received as a negative
to an accusation of poisoning?
We have already stated, that of all the proofs which can be
adduced by the physician, in support of a charge of murder by
poison, no one can be put in competition with that which arises from
the discovery of the poisonous substance itself, in the stomach, or in
the contents of the matter ejected by vomiting or purging. The law
expects, therefore, that the professional witness should be prepared
to state, that every experiment, calculated to detect the presence of
poison, has been scrupulously and faithfully performed; and we may
take this occasion to observe, that the circumstance of advanced
putrefaction can rarely, in the present state of our chemical
knowledge, be admitted as a satisfactory plea for not having
proceeded to an anatomical inspection, as preliminary to chemical
inquiry; and, as to the danger of such dissections, Dr. Gordon Smith
has very truly observed, “that much is placed to this account which
belongs merely to disgust.” Had an examination of the body taken
place in the case of Ogilvy and Nairne, how many doubts would
have been cleared away; indeed, this omission afforded the
prisoners a strong ground of defence; they complained that the
informer had intentionally prevented the dissection of the body,
being conscious that the suspicions he had raised, and the project
he had formed for their ruin, would, by such a measure, have been
totally removed and defeated. To this it was answered, that when
the informer (a younger brother of the deceased) arrived, he did
insist on the body being opened and examined, as soon as a
physician of eminence could be present, which the prisoners did not
then oppose; but that when the physician arrived on the ensuing
day, he declared the body to be in such a putrid state, that no
certain conclusions could be drawn from outward appearances, nor
even from a dissection of the body, which, besides, could not be
performed with safety to the surgeon and attendants, and that he
therefore thought proper to decline the investigation. Fortunately for
the ends of justice, the circumstantial evidence of guilt was too
strong to be affected by this culpable defect in the medical
testimony, although it has been often asserted that the prisoners
should have received the benefit of the omission by an acquittal. See
Donellan’s case in the Appendix, p. 243.
With respect to the mode of conducting a chemical analysis upon
these occasions, we have reserved our directions, until we shall
enter on the discussion of poisons individually. We have, however, in
this place some remarks of a general nature to offer, to which we are
desirous of drawing the attention of those, who, without much
experience, may be called upon to conduct such investigations. In
the first place, we are desirous of convincing him, that the processes
which he must institute, for the detection of a mineral body, are by
no means so elaborate and embarrassing, as a superficial view of
the subject may lead him to conclude. During the progress of the
present work the author has repeatedly felt the truth of the opinion
which he is now expressing; for, like Becher, he has laid down his
pen, and taken up his tests, and, by the most simple modes of
manipulation, has satisfied his own mind of the extreme delicacy of
the different processes which are recommended for the detection of
a poisonous mineral; in short, it is very difficult to convince those
whose chemical knowledge is wholly theoretical, with how little
trouble, and with how much pleasure and profit, such experiments
may be conducted. If such then be the perfect state at which our
analytical knowledge has arrived, the reader may perhaps conclude,
that in every case of mineral poisoning the deleterious substance
should be found, and that the inability of the chemist to detect its
presence, should go far to negative the charge. Such an inference,
however, is neither correct, nor philosophical, for the poison may
have been absorbed, or eliminated, during life, it may have
undergone chemical changes, or it may have entered into
combinations, by which its characters are masked, or wholly
changed. To Dr. Bostock the judicial physician is under many
obligations, but there is no discovery for which he is more deeply
indebted to him, than for that which has resulted from his
satisfactory experiments, in elucidation of the present question. He
has shewn, in the instance of Corrosive Sublimate,[199] that an animal
may be suddenly killed by receiving a metallic poison into the
stomach, and yet that the most delicate chemical re-agents may not
be able to detect any portion of such poison, after death, in the
contents of that viscus. Dr. Henry, in a letter to Dr. Duncan,[200]
communicates the case of Hannah Tomlinson, aged twenty, who
died, under the care of Dr. Holme, on the sixth day after a dose of
Corrosive Sublimate. In this case, although an ounce of the
mercurial salt had been swallowed, and the fluid ejected from the
stomach was examined, only twelve hours afterwards, by Drs. Henry
and Roget, yet not the slightest trace of the poison could be
detected! More recently we have received from the pen of Mr.
Alexander Murray,[201] surgeon of Alford, some highly interesting
cases of poisoning by Arsenic, and which are so illustrative of the
present question, as well as several others that have fallen under
consideration, that no apology can be necessary for introducing
some account of them in this place. A family of the name of Mitchell,
and which consisted of William, a robust man, aged 45, James, æt:
52, Mary, æt: 50, and Helen, æt: 48, breakfasted together on
Sunday morning, (August 19, 1821) on porridge, consisting of milk,
salt, and meal. William partook largely, but James, who perceived “a
sickening taste,” took less than common, while the sisters had their
usual quantity. William was seized with sickness shortly afterwards,
about 10 a. m., on his way to church, and then with thirst and
headache; and, on his return home, between three and four in the
afternoon, he was seized with vomiting, which recurred often during
the next four or five days, especially on his attempting to quench his
thirst. In the early part of the week, he was heard to complain of
pain in his stomach, eyes, throat, breast, and arms; he was
observed to void his urine frequently; and about this time, he
pointed out to one of his sisters a hollow[202] between his breast and
belly, into which according to her expression, “she could have laid
her arm.”
His illness had scarcely at any time confined him to bed. On the
evening of Friday, the 24th of August, he rode six miles, for the
purpose of consulting Mr. Murray, the surgeon, and reporter of the
cases; on Wednesday the 22d he had taken a dose of Epsom salts
which operated, and at the time Mr. Murray first saw him he
complained of the following symptoms:—pain and heat in the region
of the stomach and lower part of the chest; occasional uneasiness in
the abdomen, and sometimes ineffectual efforts to go to stool;
thirst; difficulty of breathing; heat and uneasiness of throat, with
hoarseness; soreness of eyes, which had the common appearance of
inflammation; shifting pains in his extremities, particularly the arms,
which had not their usual strength; great restlessness; anxious
expression of countenance; pulse frequent, 100-110, not strong.
A blister was applied over the stomach and lower part of the
chest, and he took an opiate at bed time. On the following day,
(Saturday 25th) Mr. Murray visited him at his own house, and found
him nearly as before, except that his countenance more strongly
exhibited a disturbed and anxious expression, and the redness of the
eyes, and the hoarseness were increased. Mr. Murray also observed
small roundish white accuminated prominences, on the palate and
uvula, apparently as if the membrane covering the palate bones and
velum pendulum, was detached at the parts by a whitish liquid. This
day he took an ounce of castor oil, which operated in the afternoon,
his illness was not observed to change during the evening, and he
retired at about eight o’clock to rest. At a little past two in the
morning, he rose in search of water to drink, and on returning to
bed he was heard to utter a deep groan; after which he lay
motionless and quiet, and very soon was found to have expired. The
surgeon who saw the body, about 10 a. m., states that “many bluish
spots were observed on the inferior extremities.” James, Mary, and
Helen Mitchell were attacked the same forenoon with their brother
William, and with nearly similar symptoms; they were all, however,
fortunate enough to recover, although a considerable period elapsed
before their usual strength returned, and in all of them a numbness
of the arms, or legs, occurred, together with a loss of muscular
power.
The body of William Mitchell was, owing to particular
circumstances, not opened until the 29th of August, (3 days 8 hours
after death) when the following appearances presented themselves.
“The face had a natural, composed appearance; and the rigidity of
the body did not appear to be different from what is common. The
right ear, and corresponding side of the face, as well as the scalp,
exhibited a deep clay-blue colour. On the chest and belly, several
spots and streaks, some green, others blue, were observed; and the
back, upon which the body lay, was from head to foot of a livid
colour; while several roundish spots, of a still deeper hue, gave to
the shoulders and neck a mottled appearance. The penis was much
swollen and red. The scrotum also was enlarged, and of a dark blue
colour.
Upon opening the abdomen, the smell was not unusually
offensive, and its contents did not appear to have undergone
alteration after death, but several ounces of a highly-coloured liquid
were found in the cavity. The surface of the jejunum and ilium
presented many purple spots, some of which were several inches in
circumference. The peritoneal surface of the stomach, in a tract
which extended from the cardia, and occupied, for some distance
downwards, the whole circumference of that viscus, except the small
curvature, was of a clear, dark red colour; and through this space
dark lines, apparently veins, were observed to ramify. This
appearance, perhaps, from 20 to 30 square inches in extent, was
strongly marked in contrast with the natural state of the inferior
extremity and small curvature. The substance connecting the
stomach to the spleen, was, as well as a small part of the transverse
colon, of a red colour. The spleen was gorged with blood; the liver
healthy. The duodenum, from a small distance below the pylorus,
almost to its inferior extremity, and round nearly the whole intestine,
was of a very dark purple colour. Upon opening the stomach, the
internal surface of that part where the outward appearance, already
described, existed, was found of a bright red colour, and over this
lighter dots were thickly scattered[203], making such an appearance
as might be produced by a red colour being dashed from a painter’s
pencil, upon a somewhat darker ground.
The internal coats of the duodenum were very dark coloured, with
a slightly reddish hue, pulpy, thickened, and easily separated from
the peritoneal covering, while in one roundish spot, of the size of a
crown piece, the villous and muscular coats were entirely wanting.
Red patches were observed on the inner surface of the jejunum and
ilium, the shape, size, and situation of which were the same as those
of the appearances already noted as occurring on the outside of
these intestines. The stomach and duodenum contained about a
quart of a brown, semi-opaque, thickish liquid; the jejunum and
ilium were empty, and coated with a yellow viscid matter. The lungs
and heart were quite healthy; but in the cavity of the thorax were
ten ounces of a reddish turbid liquid, and about half that quantity in
the pericardium. The pharynx was of an unusually red colour. The
whole of the brain was healthy, and of firm consistence.”
Mr. Murray concludes by stating that no part of the salt and milk
used on the sunday morning, was to be found after he visited the
family, and that although the remainder of the meal, and also the
contents of William Mitchell’s stomach and duodenum were
examined by Drs. Henderson and Fraser, of Aberdeen, as well as by
Mr. Craigie, surgeon, who assisted in the dissection, and Mr.
Alexander Murray, yet, “no poisonous ingredient was detected in
these substances.”
The pathological and anatomical facts were, however, in
themselves, so striking and satisfactory, that not the slightest doubt
can exist as to the cause of the sufferings and death of the
deceased; while, as Mr. Murray very justly states, the high
probability, arising from the separate symptoms of each individual, is
strengthened almost to certainty, by the simultaneous occurrence of
these in a whole family of four persons; while no similar disease,
indeed no epidemic of any kind, prevailed at that time.
 We have only to add that the brother-in-law of this family was, in
October, 1821, tried before the Judiciary Court at Aberdeen, for
administering poison to his four relations; when the testimony given
by the medical witnesses induced the judge and jury to consider the
abstract act of poisoning proved. The accused afterwards confessed
his guilt, and that he perpetrated the crime by means of Arsenic, put
among the salt on the sunday morning on which the family were
taken ill.
The public, and the profession, are greatly indebted to Mr.
Alexander Murray for the details of this instructive case; and the
patient attention and judgment with which he conducted the
investigation, deserve the highest commendation, and afford an
example which we sincerely hope future practitioners will endeavour
to follow.
 Q. V. What degree of information can be derived
from administering the contents of the stomach of a
person supposed to have been poisoned, to dogs, or
other animals?
It has from time immemorial been generally believed, that no
proof of poisoning is more satisfactory than that which is furnished
by the effects produced upon dogs, by their swallowing the contents
of the stomach of persons who are supposed to have died from
poison. Writers on Forensic medicine have, however, adduced
several objections to the validity of such a test; some of which are
undoubtedly worthy of consideration, while others are the
deductions of a theory which receives no support from experience.
In the first place it has been stated, that substances poisonous to
man, will not always occasion deleterious effects upon animals[204];
this, to a certain extent, is undoubtedly true; some of the
Ruminantia appear to be less sensible to the operation of narcotic
plants, than carnivorous animals. Aloes are injurious to dogs and
foxes. Oxen are said to eat the Philandria Palustris, which is
pernicious to horses; but we are very much inclined to believe that a
poison sufficiently powerful to destroy the life of a man, would if
administered in the same state of concentration, destroy that also of
an inferior animal. It is in smaller doses only that the difference in
the action of such bodies upon various animals becomes evident and
appreciable. This opinion is confirmed by numerous experiments. Mr.
John Hunter, in his evidence[205] on the trial of Donellan, in answer
to the question, whether any certain conclusion can be drawn
respecting the poisonous operation of a substance upon man, from
its effects upon an animal of the brute creation, replied, “As far as
my experience goes, which is not a very confined one, because I
have poisoned some thousands of animals, they are very nearly the
same; opium, for instance, will poison a dog similar to a man;
arsenic will have very near the same effect upon a dog, as it would
have, I take it for granted, upon a man; I know something of the
effects of them, and I believe their operations will be nearly similar.”
If any farther confirmation of this opinion were required, how
extensively and satisfactorily has it been afforded by the late
experiments of M. Orfila.[206] Mr. Hunter also, on the memorable trial
above mentioned, explained a source of fallacy which attends such
experiments upon animals; he is asked “whether there are not many
things which kill animals almost instantaneously, that will have no
detrimental or noxious effect upon a human subject, such, for
instance, as spirits?” He replies that a great deal depends upon the
manner of conducting the experiment, and that by forcing an animal
to drink, the liquor often passes into the lungs. See Appendix, p.
272. Orfila, in his valuable work on poisons, instituted a series of
experiments upon this subject, with the intention of determining the
value of an experiment so generally accredited; from which he is led
to conclude, 1st. That the practitioner should never attempt by force
to make an animal swallow the suspected substance, nor should he
put it into his food; for by such a proceeding he would not only run
the hazard of losing the greatest part of it, because the animal
would reject it, but the food with which it is combined might exert
upon it some chemical action, or so envelope it as to protect the
coats of the stomach from its contact; besides which it would, says
he, happen, at least six times in ten, that a part of it would flow
through the larynx into the lungs, and the animal will die of
Asphyxia. 2d. The best method that can be employed, consists in
detaching the œsophagus, perforating it with a small hole,
introducing into it a glass funnel, and pouring the liquid into the
stomach; that being done, the œsophagus is to be tied below the
opening. It would, observes M. Orfila, be imprudent to prefer to this
method, the use of an elastic gum tube adapted to a syringe, for
many bite the tube, pierce it with holes, and the fluid then flows out
of the mouth; besides which, syringes of tin might decompose
certain poisonous fluids. The obvious objection to such a mode of
administration is anticipated by this laborious experimenter with
much ingenuity. It may be asserted, says he, that the animal
perished from the operation of tying the œsophagus, and not from
the action of the poison thus introduced into the stomach, but such
an objection has no foundation in truth, for either the suspected
substance is in quantity sufficient to destroy the animal, or it is not;
in the first case death will take place during the first forty-eight
hours, and will be preceded by symptoms more or less severe, a
phenomenon never observed in the simple ligature of the
œsophagus; in the second case, the experiment will not be more
conclusive, than if the œsophagus had not been tied: and the author
asserts, that the operation of tying the œsophagus would not, of
itself, produce during the first forty-eight hours any other symptom
than a slight dejection, and that consequently all other morbid
phenomena that may be observed, upon such trials, ought to be
attributed to the poisonous substance. To all this we reply, that we
believe, in the hands of Orfila who has made a thousand
experiments, that such results may be satisfactory, but we feel no
hesitation in declaring, that we should not place the smallest reliance
upon such an experiment when conducted by a person
unaccustomed to the operations of experimental physiology. If there
be no other mode of employing an animal as a test for poison, but
by tying his œsophagus, we must, in a judicial point of view, reject it
altogether.
But there still remains another source of fallacy connected with
these experiments, to which considerable importance has been
attached. It has been said that the acrid humours ejected from the
stomach of a person labouring under a spontaneous disease, may
kill an animal. Morgagni[207] relates a very remarkable instance, in
illustration of this fact. A child having died of a fever was opened,
when a quantity of green bile was found in the stomach, which
changed the colour of the scalpel to violet; having dipped the point
of the knife into this bile, two pigeons were wounded with it, and
they soon died in convulsions. The bile was then mixed with some
bread, and given to a cock, which also died in the same manner.
From this general view of the subject before us, the forensic
physician will be enabled to appreciate its just value, and to apply
the indications it may furnish, in each particular case, without the
risk of error. In some instances such experiments may prove
nothing, in others they may afford only equivocal results, but which
may add something to the general weight of circumstantial
evidence; while others, again, may furnish proofs so unquestionable,
as to leave no doubt upon the subject; such was the case in the
instance of Michael Whiting[208], who was convicted of administering
corrosive sublimate to his brothers-in-law, when it appeared in
evidence that a portion of the poisoned dumpling was given to a
sow, who in consequence became sick, and remained ill for several
days.
We have now disposed of the several questions connected with
the subject of poisoning, which must be regarded, in their forensic
relations, as being of the highest importance. In considering the
subjects, generally, there must necessarily remain doubts, many of
which will be considerably diminished, or entirely removed, upon
their application to particular cases; still, however, the nature of
medical evidence upon such occasions must be frequently regarded
as only sustaining high probabilities, and the professional witness
may exclaim with Hoffman[209] “Ardua sane provincia ei imponitur cui
determinandæ ejusmodi quæstiones exhibentur.”
 ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS.

Poisonous substances have been very differently arranged by

different authors, each appearing to have adopted a classification
best suited to promote the particular views and objects of his own
pursuit; thus, the botanist and chemist, engaged in the examination
of the physical characters by which poisons may be individually
distinguished and identified, have very judiciously erected their
system upon the basis of natural history. The pathologist, whose
leading object is the investigation of the morbid effects which follow
the administration of these agents, with equal propriety and justice
prefers a classification deduced from a generalization of the
symptoms they are found to occasion; while the physiologist, who
seeks to ascertain through what organs, and by what mechanism
they destroy life, may be reasonably expected to arrange the
different poisons under divisions corresponding with the results of so
interesting an inquiry.
To meet the comprehensive views of the forensic toxicologist, an
arrangement would seem to be required, that should at once
embrace the several objects which we have just enumerated; for the
data from which the proof of poisoning is to be inferred, are, as we
have often stated, highly complicated in their relations. No such
classification, however, can be accomplished, and we are therefore
compelled to select one which may approach the nearest to our
imaginary fabric. That which was proposed by Fodéré,[210] and
adopted, with some trivial alteration in the order of succession of the
classes, by Orfila, in his celebrated system of toxicology, although it
has many defects and some errors, nevertheless merits the
preference of the forensic physician; its basis is strictly pathological,
and yet it distributes the different poisons, with some few and
unimportant exceptions, in an order corresponding with that of their
natural history.
The first two classes, for instance, present us with substances of a
mineral origin; the third and fourth, with those which are principally
of a vegetable nature; and the sixth, with objects chiefly belonging
to the animal kingdom. The importance of acknowledging a division,
which has a reference to the three great kingdoms of Nature, is
perhaps greater than the reader may anticipate; for in enumerating
the various experiments to be instituted for the detection of poisons,
we are, by such an arrangement, enabled to bring together a
connected series of processes, nearly allied to, intimately connected
with, and in some respects, mutually dependant upon each other.
The following is the arrangement of Fodéré as modified by Orfila:
viz. Cl. I, Corrosive, or Escharotic poisons. Cl. II, Astringent poisons.
Cl. III, Acrid or Rubefacient poisons. Cl. IV, Narcotic or Stupefying
poisons. Cl. V, Narcotico-Acrid poisons. And Cl. VI, Septic or
Putrefying poisons.
Class I. Corrosive or Escharotic Poisons. Such as corrode and burn
the textures to which they are applied. When internally administered
they give origin to the following symptoms: violent pain
accompanied with a sense of heat and burning in the stomach, and
throughout the whole extent of the alimentary canal; frequent
vomitings, often sanguineous, and alternating with bloody diarrhœa,
with or without tenesmus; the pulse hard, small, frequent, and at
length imperceptible; an icy coldness of the body; cold sweats; a
great anxiety and oppression at the præcordia; and hiccup.
Sometimes the heat of the skin is intense, the thirst
inextinguishable, and the unhappy patient is tormented with Dysuria
and Ischuria, violent cramps in the extremities, and horrid
convulsions, which are relieved only by death. Such are the general
symptoms by which this species of poisoning is characterised; the
rapidity with which the symptoms terminate their course, will
depend upon the violence of the dose, and the particular species of
poison which has produced them; there are, moreover, other
symptoms which will be more conveniently described, when we
come to speak of the effects of corrosive poisons individually. In this
class are ranked the following substances. Metals. I. Arsenic—1.
Arsenious Acid, or white oxide of Arsenic. 2. Arsenites, or
combinations of that acid with salifiable bases. 3. Arsenic Acid. 4.
Arseniates, or combination of the preceding acid with the bases. 5.
Sulphurets of Arsenic, or Orpiment and Realgar. II. Mercury—1.
Corrosive Sublimate of Mercury, or Oxy-muriate of Mercury. 2. Red
Oxide of Mercury. 3. Red Precipitate, or Nitric Oxide of Mercury. 4.
Other preparations of Mercury. III. Antimony—1. Tartarized
Antimony, or Tartar Emetic. 2. Oxide of Antimony. 3. Antimonial
Wine. 4. Muriate of Antimony, or Butter of Antimony. IV. Copper—1.
Blue Vitriol, or Sulphate of Copper. 2. Verdegris. 3. Oxide of Copper.
4. Other preparations of Copper. V. Tin—1. Muriate of Tin. VI. Zinc—
1. Sulphate of Zinc, or White Vitriol. 2. Oxide of Zinc. VII. Silver—1.
Nitrate of Silver, or Lunar Caustic. The Concentrated Acids—1.
Sulphuric. 2. Muriatic. 3. Nitric. 4. Phosphoric, &c. Hot Liquids—1.
Boiling water. 2. Melted Lead. The Caustic Alkalies—1. Potass. 2.
Soda. 3. Ammonia. The Caustic Alkaline Earths—1. Lime. 2. Baryta.
3. Muriate, and Carbonate of Baryta. Cantharides. Phosphorus.
Class II. Astringent Poisons. They occasion a remarkable and
unrelenting constriction of the great intestines, especially the colon,
so as to resist the operation of the most powerful cathartic
remedies. Violent cholics ensue, and partial paralysis; in the end if
the dose be sufficiently large, or if small doses have been frequently
repeated, they will excite inflammation of the alimentary canal, but it
is not succeeded by that disorganization which generally
characterises the operation of poisons, belonging to the preceding
division. We rank under the present class only the preparations of
Lead, viz. 1, Acetate of Lead, or Sugar of Lead; 2, Oxides of Lead;
Red Lead; Litharge; 3, Various Saturnine impregnations.
Class III. Acrid, or Rubefacient Poisons. These poisons are known by
their producing an acrid taste, more or less pungent and bitter; a
burning heat, and considerable dryness in the mouth and fauces;
and a constriction, more or less painful, in the throat. Acute pains
are, after a short interval, experienced in the stomach and bowels,
which are quickly followed by copious vomiting and purging, and
which continue, with the most painful efforts, long after the
alimentary canal has been completely evacuated. A few hours after,
phenomena are observed which indicate a lesion of the nervous
system, such as vertigo, dilated pupils, dejection, insensibility,
laborious respiration, and death. The lesions of texture, occasioned
by the action of Acrid poisons, have the greatest analogy to those
produced by Corrosive poisons; in fact, says M. Orfila, “we do not
hesitate to declare, that there exists a perfect identity between the
alterations of the digestive canal produced by the poisons of these
two classes, when introduced into the stomach.” The substances
included under this class belong, for the most part, to the vegetable
kingdom, such as Scammony, Camboge, Black and White Hellebore,
Bryony, Euphorbium, Seeds of the Ricinus, Iatropa Curcas (Indian
nut), Croton Tiglium, Squill, Aconite, &c. &c.
Class IV. Narcotic, or Stupefying Poisons. Such as occasion stupor,
drowsiness, paralysis, or apoplexy, and convulsions. They do not
produce any change in the structure of parts to which they are
applied. M. Orfila has satisfactorily ascertained that no alteration can
be discovered, on dissection, in the digestive canal of persons who
have swallowed any one of the poisonous substances of this class.
Class V. Narcotico-Acrid Poisons. This division, as its name implies,
is intended to receive such substances as produce the united effects
of those belonging to the two preceding classes, acting for instance
at the same time, as narcotics and rubefacients. Amongst the
articles of this class the following may be enumerated, Belladonna,
Stramonium, Tobacco, Foxglove, Hemlock, Nux Vomica, Camphor,
Cocculus Indicus, certain Mushrooms, Alcohol, &c. &c.
Class VI. Septic and Putrefying Poisons. By this term are included
those poisons which, according to Orfila, “occasion a general debility,
dissolution of the humours, and syncope, but which do not, in
general, alter the intellectual faculties.” The articles of this class
belong almost entirely to the animal kingdom, with the exception
perhaps of a few gaseous compounds, and the Spurred Rye, or
Ergot, viz. venomous animals; animals whose fluids have been
depraved by antecedent disease; the poison of fishes; substances in
a state of putridity; Spurred Rye, or Ergot.
Such is the classification which, for reasons already stated, it is
our intention to adopt on the present occasion. We shall, however, in
an additional chapter, under the title of “Aërial Poisons,” treat of
those substances which are exclusively capable of acting upon the
body through the medium of the atmosphere, or which require to be
in a state of vapour, or gas, to ensure their operation.
With regard to the classification of Fodéré and Orfila, we must
here observe that we follow it only conventionally, and that, while
we acknowledge it as being very convenient for the consideration of
poisons, in reference to their forensic relations, yet we must not be
considered as insensible to its many defects and fallacies. In the first
place, it has little or no reference to the enlarged views of the
modern physiologist, respecting the “modus operandi” of poisons;
nor indeed is its construction susceptible of such modifications and
improvements, as can ever render its degree of perfection
progressive with the advancement of science. In the next place, the
classes are in many particulars ill-defined, and indistinctly, if not
erroneously, divided. How questionable, for instance, are the
boundaries which separate Corrosive from Acrid poisons? even the
respective species of each class are, in many instances, less allied to
each other than the great divisions to which they are subordinate. As
an exemplification of this fact we have only to compare the
physiological actions of Arsenic and Corrosive Sublimate; the former
of these substances occasions death by being absorbed, and thus
acting as a vital agent, the latter, by its local action as a caustic on
the textures with which it comes in contact. In the same manner, if
we examine the individual actions of the different species composing
the class of “Acrid” poisons, we shall find the same want of
uniformity; thus the Spurge-flax, and the Jatropa Curcas act by
occasioning a local inflammation, while the Hellebore, being rapidly
absorbed, exerts a fatal action on the nervous system, and produces
only a very slight inflammation. The class of Narcotic poisons is more
absolute in its definition, and more uniform in its physiological
affinities, and therefore less objectionable, than the divisions to
which we have just alluded; but the propriety of the term “Narcotico-
Acrid” may be very reasonably questioned;[211] even Orfila expresses
his doubts upon the subject, “because the narcotic or sedative
effects only follow the previous excitement.” Some of the poisons,
under this last mentioned class, are rapidly absorbed, and act,
through the medium of the circulation, on the nervous system,
without producing any local inflammation; whilst others, again,
merely act upon the extremities of the nerves, with which they come
in contact, and without being absorbed, occasion death by a species
of sympathetic action.
These few objections, and many more might be adduced, are
sufficient to demonstrate the imperfection of the classification under
consideration, and which would render it wholly unavailable to the
pathologist who must adopt his treatment according to the
physiological action of each poison. The author has accordingly, in
his “Pharmacologia”[212] ventured to propose an arrangement, in
conformity with such views; and the following sketch of it may
perhaps form a useful introduction to the general observations which
it will be hereafter necessary to offer upon the “modus operandi” of
poisons.
 A CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT MODES BY
WHICH POISONS PRODUCE THEIR EFFECTS.

† This mark denotes that the substance, against which it is placed,

may also act by being absorbed.
‡ Signifies that the article has also a local action.
I. BY ACTING THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF THE NERVES,
WITHOUT BEING ABSORBED, AND WITHOUT EXCITING ANY
LOCAL INFLAMMATION.
a. By which the functions of the nervous system are destroyed.

Acrid.

Aconite.
Jatropa Curcas.

Narcotico-Acrid.

Alcohol.
Oil of Tobacco.

Narcotic.

Essential Oil of Almonds.†

Camphor.†
Opium†?
b. By rendering the heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood.
Infusion of Tobacco.
Upas Antiar.

II. BY ENTERING THE CIRCULATION, AND ACTING THROUGH

THAT MEDIUM WITH DIFFERENT DEGREES OF FORCE, ON THE
HEART, BRAIN, AND ALIMENTARY CANAL.
Corrosive.

Arsenic.
Emetic Tartar.
Muriate of Baryta.

Acrid.

Hellebore.
Savine.
Meadow Saffron.
Squill.

Narcotic.

Opium.‡
Lettuce.
Henbane.
Prussic acid.

Narcotico-Acrid.

Deadly Nightshade.‡
Hemlock.
Camphor.‡
Cocculus Indicus.
 III. BY A LOCAL ACTION ON THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF THE
STOMACH, EXCITING A HIGH DEGREE OF INFLAMMATION.
Corrosive.

Corrosive Sublimate.†
Verdegris.
Muriate and
Oxide of Tin.
Sulphate of Zinc.
Nitrate of Silver.
Acids.
Alkalies.
Cantharides.†

Acrid.

Bryony.
Elaterium.†
Colocynth.†
Camboge.
Euphorbium.
Hedge Hyssop.
Croton Tiglium.
Ranunculi.

The preceding classification of poisons will not only furnish the

practitioner with a general theorem for the administration of
antidotes, but it will suggest the different modes and forms of
administration of which each particular substance is susceptible; it
will shew, that certain poisons may occasion death without coming
into contact with any part of the alimentary canal, and that others
will produce little or no effect, however extensively they may be
applied to an external surface. The first class comprehends such
poisons as operate, through the medium of the nerves, upon the
organs immediately subservient to life; in the application of such
agents it is obvious that they cannot require to be introduced into
the stomach, they may convey their destructive influence by an
application to any part duly supplied with nerves, and whose
extremities are exposed to their action; although at the same time, it
may be observed that, in general, poisons of this kind act most
powerfully when internally administered, owing to the extensive
sympathetic relations of this central organ over every function of the
living body. The second class consists of poisons that are incapable
of producing any effect, except through the medium of the
circulation; whence we shall be enabled to explain and appreciate
the various circumstances which may accelerate or retard their
operation. Poisons of this class may be applied externally to abraded
parts, or even to surfaces covered with cuticle, provided their
absorption be promoted by friction; and it may be here observed,
that the function of absorption is not performed with the same force
in every tissue; as a general proposition it may be said to be
energetic in proportion to the number of lymphatics and veins,
although the late experiments of M. Majendie have shewn how
greatly it is influenced by the state of the circulation.[213] If these
poisons be administered internally, they find their way into the
circulating current either through the branches of the thoracic duct,
or those of the venæ portarum; when, as if by a species of election,
each substance very frequently expends its venom upon some one
particular system of organs. Many of the substances arranged under
this second division, have moreover a local effect upon the structure
with which they first come in contact; it is thus with Colocynth, and
some other bodies; while on the contrary, several of those poisons
which are distinguished for their local action, are subsequently
absorbed, and are thus as it were enabled to ensure their work of
destruction by a double mode of operation. We shall receive ample
evidence of this truth, as we proceed in the history of particular
poisons. The third class comprises such agents as inflict their
vengeance upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, by actual
contact, and destroy, by exciting local inflammation.
 MINERAL POISONS.

Under this head is included the greater proportion of those

substances which are employed as the instruments of crime; for they
are generally of easy access, require but little preparation, and are
so destructive in small doses, and, at the same time, so little
disgusting in flavour, as to furnish the assassin with the sure and
secret means of destruction. Fortunately, however, for the ends of
justice, such agents are pre-eminently the objects of successful
analysis. In treating of the history of the individual substances
derived from this kingdom, we shall consider, 1st. their external
characters, such as form, colour, odour, taste, specific gravity; 2d.
their chemical composition, and habitudes; 3d. the tests by which
their presence may be recognised; 4th. the symptoms which they
occasion; 5th. their physiological action; 6th. their different modes
and forms of application; 7th. the lesions of structure they occasion;
8th. the phenomena presented on dissection.
 Cl. 1. CORROSIVE POISONS.

ARSENIC.

The greek word Αρσενικον was employed by Dioscorides, and

other writers of that period, to denote a particular mineral of a
reddish colour, which Aristotle had already described by the name of
σανδαρακη,[214] and his disciple Theophrastus, by that of αρρενικον.
It was employed by the ancients both as a pigment and as a
medicine, and appears to have been a compound of Sulphur, and a
peculiar metal, to which the name of Arsenic is now exclusively
applied. At what period this metal was first discovered seems very
doubtful; and although a process for obtaining it is described in the
Pharmacopœia of Schroeder, published in 1649, yet its peculiar
nature was examined, for the first time by Brandt, in 1733.
The metal, Arsenic, is distinguished by the following properties,
viz.
It has a bluish-grey colour, not unlike that of steel, and a
considerable lustre; its texture is grained, and sometimes scaly; its
hardness not very considerable, but its fragility is so great that it
falls to pieces under a moderate blow of the hammer, and admits of
being easily reduced to a very fine powder; according to Bergman its
specific gravity is 8·31. When cold, it emits no sensible odour, but if
heated, it yields a strong alliaceous, or garlic-like smell, which is to
be considered as the most characteristic of its properties. Its point of
fusion is unknown, for it is the most volatile of all the metals, and
sublimes, before it melts, at the temperature of 540° Fah., and if the
process be conducted slowly in close vessels, the metallic sublimate
will assume a tetrahedral[215] form of crystallization; if the air be
admitted, and the temperature still farther raised, it will burn with an
obscure bluish flame.
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