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Modern Control Design
With MATLAB and SIMULINK
This page intentionally left blank
Modern Control Design
With MATLAB and SIMULINK

Ashish Tewari
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India

JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD

Copyright © 2002 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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To the memory of my father,
Dr. Kamaleshwar Sahai Tewari.
To my wife, Prachi, and daughter, Manya.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface xiii

Introduction 1
1.1 What is Control? 1
1.2 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems 2
1.3 Other Classifications of Control Systems 6
1.4 On the Road to Control System Analysis and Design 10
1.5 MATLAB, SIMULINK, and the Control System Toolbox 11
References 12

2. Linear Systems and Classical Control 13

2.1 How Valid is the Assumption of Linearity? 13
2.2 Singularity Functions 22
2.3 Frequency Response 26
2.4 Laplace Transform and the Transfer Function 36
2.5 Response to Singularity Functions 51
2.6 Response to Arbitrary Inputs 58
2.7 Performance 62
2.8 Stability 71
2.9 Root-Locus Method 73
2.10 Nyquist Stability Criterion 77
2.11 Robustness 81
2.12 Closed-Loop Compensation Techniques for Single-Input, Single-Output Systems 87
2.12.1 Proportional-integral-derivative compensation 88
2.12.2 Lag, lead, and lead-lag compensation 96
2.13 Multivariable Systems 105
Exercises 115
References 124

3. State-Space Representation 125

3.1 The State-Space: Why Do I Need It? 125
3.2 Linear Transformation of State-Space Representations 140
viii CONTENTS

3.3 System Characteristics from State-Space Representation 146

3.4 Special State-Space Representations: The Canonical Forms 152
3.5 Block Building in Linear, Time-Invariant State-Space 160
Exercises 168
References 170

4. Solving the State-Equations 171

4.1 Solution of the Linear Time Invariant State Equations 171
4.2 Calculation of the State-Transition Matrix 176
4.3 Understanding the Stability Criteria through the State-Transition Matrix 183
4.4 Numerical Solution of Linear Time-Invariant State-Equations 184
4.5 Numerical Solution of Linear Time-Varying State-Equations 198
4.6 Numerical Solution of Nonlinear State-Equations 204
4.7 Simulating Control System Response with SIMUUNK 213
Exercises 216
References 218

5. Control System Design in State-Space 219

5.1 Design: Classical vs. Modern 219
5.2 Controllability 222
5.3 Pole-Placement Design Using Full-State Feedback 228
5.3.1 Pole-placement regulator design (or single-input plants 230
5.3.2 Pole-placement regulator design for multi-input plants 245
5.3.3 Pole-placement regulator design for plants with noise 247
5.3.4 Pole-placement design of tracking systems 251
5.4 Observers, Observability, and Compensators 256
5.4.1 Pole-placement design of full-order observers and compensators 258
5.4.2 Pole-placement design of reduced-order observers and compensators 269
5.4.3 Noise and robustness issues 276
Exercises 277
References 282

6. Linear Optimal Control 283

6.1 The Optimal Control Problem 283
6.1.1 The general optimal control formulation for regulators 284
6.1.2 Optimal regulator gain matrix and the riccati equation 286
6.2 Infinite-Time Linear Optimal Regulator Design 288
6.3 Optimal Control of Tracking Systems 298
6.4 Output Weighted Linear Optimal Control 308
6.5 Terminal Time Weighting: Solving the Matrix Riccati Equation 312
Exercises 318
References 321
 CONTENTS ix

7. Kalman Filters 323

7.1 Stochastic Systems 323
7.2 Filtering of Random Signals 329
7.3 White Noise, and White Noise Filters 334
7.4 The Kalman Filter 339
7.5 Optimal (Linear, Quadratic, Gaussian) Compensators 351
7.6 Robust Multivariable LOG Control: Loop Transfer Recovery 356
Exercises 370
References 371

8. Digital Control Systems 373

8.1 What are Digital Systems? 373
8.2 A/D Conversion and the z-Transform 375
8.3 Pulse Transfer Functions of Single-Input, Single-Output Systems 379
8.4 Frequency Response of Single-Input, Single-Output Digital Systems 384
8.5 Stability of Single-Input, Single-Output Digital Systems 386
8.6 Performance of Single-Input, Single-Output Digital Systems 390
8.7 Closed-Loop Compensation Techniques for Single-Input, Single-Output Digital
Systems 393
8.8 State-Space Modeling of Multivariable Digital Systems 396
8.9 Solution of Linear Digital State-Equations 402
8.10 Design of Multivariable, Digital Control Systems Using Pole-Placement:
Regulators, Observers, and Compensators 406
8.11 Linear Optimal Control of Digital Systems 415
8.12 Stochastic Digital Systems, Digital Kalman Filters, and Optimal Digital
Compensators 424
Exercises 432
References 436

9. Advanced Topics in Modern Control 437

9.1 Introduction 437
9.2 #00 Robust, Optimal Control 437
9.3 Structured Singular Value Synthesis for Robust Control 442
9.4 Time-Optimal Control with Pre-shaped Inputs 446
9.5 Output-Rate Weighted Linear Optimal Control 453
9.6 Nonlinear Optimal Control 455
Exercises 463
References 465

Appendix A: Introduction to MATLAB, SIMULINK and the

Control System Toolbox 467
x CONTENTS

Appendix B: Review of Matrices and

Linear Algebra 481

Appendix C: Mass, Stiffness, and Control Influence Matrices of

the Flexible Spacecraft 487

Answers to Selected Exercises 489

Index 495
Preface

The motivation for writing this book can be ascribed chiefly to the usual struggle of
an average reader to understand and utilize controls concepts, without getting lost in
the mathematics. Many textbooks are available on modern control, which do a fine
job of presenting the control theory. However, an introductory text on modern control
usually stops short of the really useful concepts - such as optimal control and Kalman
filters - while an advanced text which covers these topics assumes too much mathe-
matical background of the reader. Furthermore, the examples and exercises contained
in many control theory textbooks are too simple to represent modern control appli-
cations, because of the computational complexity involved in solving practical prob-
lems. This book aims at introducing the reader to the basic concepts and applications
of modern control theory in an easy to read manner, while covering in detail what
may be normally considered advanced topics, such as multivariable state-space design,
solutions to time-varying and nonlinear state-equations, optimal control, Kalman filters,
robust control, and digital control. An effort is made to explain the underlying princi-
ples behind many controls concepts. The numerical examples and exercises are chosen
to represent practical problems in modern control. Perhaps the greatest distinguishing
feature of this book is the ready and extensive use of MATLAB (with its Control
System Toolbox) and SIMULINK®, as practical computational tools to solve problems
across the spectrum of modern control. MATLAB/SIMULINK combination has become
the single most common - and industry-wide standard - software in the analysis and
design of modern control systems. In giving the reader a hands-on experience with the
MATLAB/SIMULINK and the Control System Toolbox as applied to some practical design
problems, the book is useful for a practicing engineer, apart from being an introductory
text for the beginner.
This book can be used as a textbook in an introductory course on control systems at
the third, or fourth year undergraduate level. As stated above, another objective of the
book is to make it readable by a practicing engineer without a formal controls back-
ground. Many modern control applications are interdisciplinary in nature, and people
from a variety of disciplines are interested in applying control theory to solve practical
problems in their own respective fields. Bearing this in mind, the examples and exercises
are taken to cover as many different areas as possible, such as aerospace, chemical, elec-
trical and mechanical applications. Continuity in reading is preserved, without frequently
referring to an appendix, or other distractions. At the end of each chapter, readers are

® MATLAB, SIMULINK, and Control System Toolbox are registered trademarks of the Math Works, Inc.
xii PREFACE

given a number of exercises, in order to consolidate their grasp of the material presented
in the chapter. Answers to selected numerical exercises are provided near the end of
the book.
While the main focus of the material presented in the book is on the state-space
methods applied to linear, time-invariant control - which forms a majority of modern
control applications - the classical frequency domain control design and analysis is not
neglected, and large parts of Chapters 2 and 8 cover classical control. Most of the
example problems are solved with MATLAB/SIMULINK, using MATLAB command
lines, and SIMULINK block-diagrams immediately followed by their resulting outputs.
The reader can directly reproduce the MATLAB statements and SIMULINK blocks
presented in the text to obtain the same results. Also presented are a number of computer
programs in the form of new MATLAB M-files (i.e. the M-files which are not included
with MATLAB, or the Control System Toolbox) to solve a variety of problems ranging
from step and impulse responses of single-input, single-output systems, to the solution
of the matrix Riccati equation for the terminal-time weighted, multivariable, optimal
control design. This is perhaps the only available controls textbook which gives ready
computer programs to solve such a wide range of problems. The reader becomes aware
of the power of MATLAB/SIMULINK in going through the examples presented in the
book, and gets a good exposure to programming in MATLAB/SIMULINK. The numer-
ical examples presented require MATLAB 6.0, SIMULINK 4.0, and Control System
Toolbox 5.0. Older versions of this software can also be adapted to run the examples and
models presented in the book, with some modifications (refer to the respective Users'
Manuals).
The numerical examples in the book through MATLAB/SIMULINK and the Control
System Toolbox have been designed to prevent the use of the software as a black box, or by
rote. The theoretical background and numerical techniques behind the software commands
are explained in the text, so that readers can write their own programs in MATLAB, or
another language. Many of the examples contain instructions on programming. It is also
explained how many of the important Control System Toolbox commands can be replaced
by a set of intrinsic MATLAB commands. This is to avoid over-dependence on a particular
version of the Control System Toolbox, which is frequently updated with new features.
After going through the book, readers are better equipped to learn the advanced features
of the software for design applications.
Readers are introduced to advanced topics such as HOC-robust optimal control, struc-
tured singular value synthesis, input shaping, rate-weighted optimal control, and nonlinear
control in the final chapter of the book. Since the book is intended to be of introduc-
tory rather than exhaustive nature, the reader is referred to other articles that cover these
advanced topics in detail.
I am grateful to the editorial and production staff at the Wiley college group, Chichester,
who diligently worked with many aspects of the book. I would like to specially thank
Karen Mossman, Gemma Quilter, Simon Plumtree, Robert Hambrook, Dawn Booth and
See Hanson for their encouragement and guidance in the preparation of the manuscript.
I found working with Wiley, Chichester, a pleasant experience, and an education into
the many aspects of writing and publishing a textbook. I would also like to thank my
students and colleagues, who encouraged and inspired me to write this book. I thank all
 PREFACE xiii

the reviewers for finding the errors in the draft manuscript, and for providing many
constructive suggestions. Writing this book would have been impossible without the
constant support of my wife, Prachi, and my little daughter, Manya, whose total age
in months closely followed the number of chapters as they were being written.

Ashish Tewari
This page intentionally left blank
1
Introduction

1.1 What is Control?

When we use the word control in everyday life, we are referring to the act of producing a
desired result. By this broad definition, control is seen to cover all artificial processes. The
temperature inside a refrigerator is controlled by a thermostat. The picture we see on the
television is a result of a controlled beam of electrons made to scan the television screen
in a selected pattern. A compact-disc player focuses a fine laser beam at the desired spot
on the rotating compact-disc in order to produce the desired music. While driving a car,
the driver is controlling the speed and direction of the car so as to reach the destination
quickly, without hitting anything on the way. The list is endless. Whether the control is
automatic (such as in the refrigerator, television or compact-disc player), or caused by a
human being (such as the car driver), it is an integral part of our daily existence. However,
control is not confined to artificial processes alone. Imagine living in a world where
the temperature is unbearably hot (or cold), without the life-supporting oxygen, water or
sunlight. We often do not realize how controlled the natural environment we live in is. The
composition, temperature and pressure of the earth's atmosphere are kept stable in their
livable state by an intricate set of natural processes. The daily variation of temperature
caused by the sun controls the metabolism of all living organisms. Even the simplest
life form is sustained by unimaginably complex chemical processes. The ultimate control
system is the human body, where the controlling mechanism is so complex that even
while sleeping, the brain regulates the heartbeat, body temperature and blood-pressure by
countless chemical and electrical impulses per second, in a way not quite understood yet.
(You have to wonder who designed that control system!) Hence, control is everywhere
we look, and is crucial for the existence of life itself.
A study of control involves developing a mathematical model for each component of
the control system. We have twice used the word system without defining it. A system
is a set of self-contained processes under study. A control system by definition consists
of the system to be controlled - called the plant - as well as the system which exercises
control over the plant, called the controller. A controller could be either human, or an
artificial device. The controller is said to supply a signal to the plant, called the input to
the plant (or the control input), in order to produce a desired response from the plant,
called the output from the plant. When referring to an isolated system, the terms input and
output are used to describe the signal that goes into a system, and the signal that comes
out of a system, respectively. Let us take the example of the control system consisting
of a car and its driver. If we select the car to be the plant, then the driver becomes the
 INTRODUCTION

controller, who applies an input to the plant in the form of pressing the gas pedal if it
is desired to increase the speed of the car. The speed increase can then be the output
from the plant. Note that in a control system, what control input can be applied to the
plant is determined by the physical processes of the plant (in this case, the car's engine),
but the output could be anything that can be directly measured (such as the car's speed
or its position). In other words, many different choices of the output can be available
at the same time, and the controller can use any number of them, depending upon the
application. Say if the driver wants to make sure she is obeying the highway speed limit,
she will be focusing on the speedometer. Hence, the speed becomes the plant output. If
she wants to stop well before a stop sign, the car's position with respect to the stop sign
becomes the plant output. If the driver is overtaking a truck on the highway, both the
speed and the position of the car vis-d-vis the truck are the plant outputs. Since the plant
output is the same as the output of the control system, it is simply called the output when
referring to the control system as a whole. After understanding the basic terminology of
the control system, let us now move on to see what different varieties of control systems
there are.

1.2 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems

Let us return to the example of the car driver control system. We have encountered the
not so rare breed of drivers who generally boast of their driving skills with the following
words: "Oh I am so good that I can drive this car with my eyes closed!" Let us imagine
we give such a driver an opportunity to live up to that boast (without riding with her,
of course) and apply a blindfold. Now ask the driver to accelerate to a particular speed
(assuming that she continues driving in a straight line). While driving in this fashion,
the driver has absolutely no idea about what her actual speed is. By pressing the gas
pedal (control input) she hopes that the car's speed will come up to the desired value,
but has no means of verifying the actual increase in speed. Such a control system, in
which the control input is applied without the knowledge of the plant output, is called
an open-loop control system. Figure 1.1 shows a block-diagram of an open-loop control
system, where the sub-systems (controller and plant) are shown as rectangular blocks, with
arrows indicating input and output to each block. By now it must be clear that an open-
loop controller is like a rifle shooter who gets only one shot at the target. Hence, open-loop
control will be successful only if the controller has a pretty good prior knowledge of the
behavior of the plant, which can be defined as the relationship between the control input

UBbirtJU uuipui l/UIUIUI IMJJUl

(desired (gas pedal (speed)

speed) force)
Controller Plant
(driver) (car)

Figure 1.1 An open-loop control system: the controller applies the control input without knowing the
plant output
 OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS

and the plant output. If one knows what output a system will produce when a known
input is applied to it, one is said to know the system's behavior.
Mathematically, the relationship between the output of a linear plant and the control
input (the system's behavior) can be described by a transfer function (the concepts of
linear systems and transfer functions are explained in Chapter 2). Suppose the driver
knows from previous driving experience that, to maintain a speed of 50 kilometers per
hour, she needs to apply one kilogram of force on the gas pedal. Then the car's transfer
function is said to be 50 km/hr/kg. (This is a very simplified example. The actual car
is not going to have such a simple transfer function.} Now, if the driver can accurately
control the force exerted on the gas pedal, she can be quite confident of achieving her
target speed, even though blindfolded. However, as anybody reasonably experienced with
driving knows, there are many uncertainties - such as the condition of the road, tyre
pressure, the condition of the engine, or even the uncertainty in gas pedal force actually
being applied by the driver - which can cause a change in the car's behavior. If the
transfer function in the driver's mind was determined on smooth roads, with properly
inflated tyres and a well maintained engine, she is going to get a speed of less than
50 krn/hr with 1 kg force on the gas pedal if, say, the road she is driving on happens to
have rough patches. In addition, if a wind happens to be blowing opposite to the car's
direction of motion, a further change in the car's behavior will be produced. Such an
unknown and undesirable input to the plant, such as road roughness or the head-wind, is
called a noise. In the presence of uncertainty about the plant's behavior, or due to a noise
(or both), it is clear from the above example that an open-loop control system is unlikely
to be successful.
Suppose the driver decides to drive the car like a sane person (i.e. with both eyes
wide open). Now she can see her actual speed, as measured by the speedometer. In this
situation, the driver can adjust the force she applies to the pedal so as to get the desired
speed on the speedometer; it may not be a one shot approach, and some trial and error
might be required, causing the speed to initially overshoot or undershoot the desired value.
However, after some time (depending on the ability of the driver), the target speed can be
achieved (if it is within the capability of the car), irrespective of the condition of the road
or the presence of a wind. Note that now the driver - instead of applying a pre-determined
control input as in the open-loop case - is adjusting the control input according to the
actual observed output. Such a control system in which the control input is a function
of the plant's output is called a closed-loop system. Since in a closed-loop system the
controller is constantly in touch with the actual output, it is likely to succeed in achieving
the desired output even in the presence of noise and/or uncertainty in the linear plant's
behavior (transfer-function). The mechanism by which the information about the actual
output is conveyed to the controller is called feedback. On a block-diagram, the path
from the plant output to the controller input is called a feedback-loop. A block-diagram
example of a possible closed-loop system is given in Figure 1.2.
Comparing Figures 1.1 and 1.2, we find a new element in Figure 1.2 denoted by a circle
before the controller block, into which two arrows are leading and out of which one arrow
is emerging and leading to the controller. This circle is called a summing junction, which
adds the signals leading into it with the appropriate signs which are indicated adjacent to
the respective arrowheads. If a sign is omitted, a positive sign is assumed. The output of
 INTRODUCTION

Desired Control input (u) Output (y)

output (gas pedal (speed)
rorcej
Controller Plant
(driver) (car)

Feedback loop

Figure 1.2 Example of a closed-loop control system with feedback; the controller applies a control
input based on the plant output

the summing junction is the arithmetic sum of its two (or more) inputs. Using the symbols
u (control input), y (output), and yd (desired output), we can see in Figure 1.2 that the
input to the controller is the error signal (yd — y). In Figure 1.2, the controller itself is a
system which produces an output (control input), u, based upon the input it receives in
the form of (yd — y)- Hence, the behavior of a linear controller could be mathematically
described by its transfer-function, which is the relationship between u and (yd — .v)- Note
that Figure 1.2 shows only a popular kind of closed-loop system. In other closed-loop
systems, the input to the controller could be different from the error signal (yd — y).
The controller transfer-function is the main design parameter in the design of a control
system and determines how rapidly - and with what maximum overshoot (i.e. maximum
value of | yd — y|) - the actual output, y, will become equal to the desired output, yd- We
will see later how the controller transfer-function can be obtained, given a set of design
requirements. (However, deriving the transfer-function of a human controller is beyond
the present science, as mentioned in the previous section.) When the desired output, yd, is
a constant, the resulting controller is called a regulator. If the desired output is changing
with time, the corresponding control system is called a tracking system. In any case, the
principal task of a closed-loop controller is to make (yd — y) = 0 as quickly as possible.
Figure 1.3 shows a possible plot of the actual output of a closed-loop control system.
Whereas the desired output yd has been achieved after some time in Figure 1.3, there
is a large maximum overshoot which could be unacceptable. A successful closed-loop
controller design should achieve both a small maximum overshoot, and a small error
magnitude |yd — y| as quickly as possible. In Chapter 4 we will see that the output of a
linear system to an arbitrary input consists of a fluctuating sort of response (called the
transient response), which begins as soon as the input is applied, and a settled kind of
response (called the steady-state response) after a long time has elapsed since the input
was initially applied. If the linear system is stable, the transient response would decay
to zero after sometime (stability is an important property of a system, and is discussed
in Section 2.8), and only the steady-state response would persist for a long time. The
transient response of a linear system depends largely upon the characteristics and the
initial state of the system, while the steady-state response depends both upon system's
characteristics and the input as a function of time, i.e. u(t). The maximum overshoot is
a property of the transient response, but the error magnitude | yd — y| at large time (or in
the limit t —>• oo) is a property of the steady-state response of the closed-loop system. In
 OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS

Desired output, yd

u
Time (f)

Figure 1.3 Example of a closed-loop control system's response; the desired output is achieved after
some time, but there is a large maximum overshoot

Figure 1.3 the steady-state response asymptotically approaches a constant yd in the limit
t -> oo.
Figure 1.3 shows the basic fact that it is impossible to get the desired output imme-
diately. The reason why the output of a linear, stable system does not instantaneously
settle to its steady-state has to do with the inherent physical characteristics of all prac-
tical systems that involve either dissipation or storage of energy supplied by the input.
Examples of energy storage devices are a spring in a mechanical system, and a capacitor
in an electrical system. Examples of energy dissipation processes are mechanical friction,
heat transfer, and electrical resistance. Due to a transfer of energy from the applied input
to the energy storage or dissipation elements, there is initially a fluctuation of the total
energy of the system, which results in the transient response. As the time passes, the
energy contribution of storage/dissipative processes in a stable system declines rapidly,
and the total energy (hence, the output) of the system tends to the same function of time
as that of the applied input. To better understand this behavior of linear, stable systems,
consider a bucket with a small hole in its bottom as the system. The input is the flow
rate of water supplied to the bucket, which could be a specific function of time, and the
output is the total flow rate of water coming out of the bucket (from the hole, as well
as from the overflowing top). Initially, the bucket takes some time to fill due to the hole
(dissipative process) and its internal volume (storage device). However, after the bucket
is full, the output largely follows the changing input.
While the most common closed-loop control system is the feedback control system, as
shown in Figure 1.2, there are other possibilities such as the feedforward control system.
In a feedforward control system - whose example is shown in Figure 1.4 - in addition
to a feedback loop, a feedforward path from the desired output (y^) to the control input
is generally employed to counteract the effect of noise, or to reduce a known undesirable
plant behavior. The feedforward controller incorporates some a priori knowledge of the
plant's behavior, thereby reducing the burden on the feedback controller in controlling
 INTRODUCTION

Disturbance
Feedforward
controller + AK Control input (u)
(engine RPM *\J (fuel flow)
governor) /
Desired-
+ / Output(y)
output
(yd)_ +
p—
Feedback
controller
(driver +
*S^\JL-/
r
» Plant
(car)
( speed)
—>-
gas pedal)

Feedback loop

Figure 1.4 A closed-loop control system with a feedforward path; the engine RPM governor takes
care of the fuel flow disturbance, leaving the driver free to concentrate on achieving desired speed with
gas pedal force

the plant. Note that if the feedback controller is removed from Figure 1.4, the resulting
control system becomes open-loop type. Hence, a feedforward control system can be
regarded as a hybrid of open and closed-loop control systems. In the car driver example,
the feedforward controller could be an engine rotational speed governor that keeps the
engine's RPM constant in the presence of disturbance (noise) in the fuel flow rate caused
by known imperfections in the fuel supply system. This reduces the burden on the driver,
who would have been required to apply a rapidly changing gas pedal force to counteract
the fuel supply disturbance if there was no feedforward controller. Now the feedback
controller consists of the driver and the gas-pedal mechanism, and the control input is the
fuel flow into the engine, which is influenced by not only the gas-pedal force, but also by
the RPM governor output and the disturbance. It is clear from the present example that
many practical control systems can benefit from the feedforward arrangement.
In this section, we have seen that a control system can be classified as either open- or
closed-loop, depending upon the physical arrangement of its components. However, there
are other ways of classifying control systems, as discussed in the next section.

1.3 Other Classifications of Control Systems

Apart from being open- or closed-loop, a control system can be classified according to
the physical nature of the laws obeyed by the system, and the mathematical nature of the
governing differential equations. To understand such classifications, we must define the
state of a system, which is the fundamental concept in modern control. The state of a
system is any set of physical quantities which need to be specified at a given time in order
to completely determine the behavior of the system. This definition is a little confusing,
because it introduces another word, determine, which needs further explanation given in
the following paragraph. We will return to the concept of state in Chapter 3, but here let
us only say that the state is all the information we need about a system to tell what the
system is doing at any given time. For example, if one is given information about the
speed of a car and the positions of other vehicles on the road relative to the car, then
 OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

one has sufficient information to drive the car safely. Thus, the state of such a system
consists of the car's speed and relative positions of other vehicles. However, for the same
system one could choose another set of physical quantities to be the system's state, such
as velocities of all other vehicles relative to the car, and the position of the car with
respect to the road divider. Hence, by definition the state is not a unique set of physical
quantities.
A control system is said to be deterministic when the set of physical laws governing the
system are such that if the state of the system at some time (called the initial conditions)
and the input are specified, then one can precisely predict the state at a later time. The laws
governing a deterministic system are called deterministic laws. Since the characteristics of
a deterministic system can be found merely by studying its response to initial conditions
(transient response), we often study such systems by taking the applied input to be zero.
A response to initial conditions when the applied input is zero depicts how the system's
state evolves from some initial time to that at a later time. Obviously, the evolution of
only a deterministic system can be determined. Going back to the definition of state, it is
clear that the latter is arrived at keeping a deterministic system in mind, but the concept of
state can also be used to describe systems that are not deterministic. A system that is not
deterministic is either stochastic, or has no laws governing it. A stochastic (also called
probabilistic) system has such governing laws that although the initial conditions (i.e.
state of a system at some time) are known in every detail, it is impossible to determine
the system's state at a later time. In other words, based upon the stochastic governing
laws and the initial conditions, one could only determine the probability of a state, rather
than the state itself. When we toss a perfect coin, we are dealing with a stochastic law that
states that both the possible outcomes of the toss (head or tail) have an equal probability
of 50 percent. We should, however, make a distinction between a physically stochastic-
system, and our ability (as humans) to predict the behavior of a deterministic system based
upon our measurement of the initial conditions and our understanding of the governing
laws. Due to an uncertainty in our knowledge of the governing deterministic laws, as
well as errors in measuring the initial conditions, we will frequently be unable to predict
the state of a deterministic system at a later time. Such a problem of unpredictability is
highlighted by a special class of deterministic systems, namely chaotic systems. A system
is called chaotic if even a small change in the initial conditions produces an arbitrarily
large change in the system's state at a later time.
An example of chaotic control systems is a double pendulum (Figure 1.5). It consists
of two masses, m\ and mi, joined together and suspended from point O by two rigid
massless links of lengths LI and L2 as shown. Here, the state of the system can be
defined by the angular displacements of the two links, 0\(t} and #2(0. as well as their
respective angular velocities, 0\ \t) and #7( }(t). (In this book, the notation used for
representing a &th order time derivative of /(r) is f ( k ) ( t ) , i.e. dkf(t)/dtk = f{k}(t).
Thus, 0j (1) (0 denotes dO\(t)/dt, etc.) Suppose we do not apply an input to the system,
and begin observing the system at some time, t = 0, at which the initial conditions are,
say, 6*i(0) = 40°, 02(0) = 80°, #, (l) (0) = 0°/s, and 0^1)(0) = 0°/s. Then at a later time,
say after 100 s, the system's state will be very much different from what it would have
been if the initial conditions were, say, 0j(0) = 40.01°, 6>2(0) = 80°, 6>,(1)(0) = 0°/s, and
0( ^(0) = 0°/s. Figure 1.6 shows the time history of the angle Oi(t) between 85 s and 100 s
 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.5 A double pendulum is a chaotic system because a small change in its initial conditions
produces an arbitrarily large change in the system's state after some time

-100
90 95 100
Time (s)

Figure 1.6 Time history between 85 s and 100 s of angle QI of a double pendulum with mi = 1 kg,
m-i = 2 kg, LI = 1 m, and 1-2 = 2 m for the two sets of initial conditions #1 (0) = 40°, #2(0) = 80°,
0J1)(0) = 0%, 0^(0) = 0% and 0,(0) = 40.01°, 02(0) = 80°, 0,(1|(0) = 0%, 0^(0) =0%.
respectively

for the two sets of initial conditions, for a double pendulum with m\ — 1 kg, mi = 2 kg,
LI = 1 m, and LI = 2 m. Note that we know the governing laws of this deterministic
system, yet we cannot predict its state after a given time, because there will always be
some error in measuring the initial conditions. Chaotic systems are so interesting that they
have become the subject of specialization at many physics and engineering departments.
Any unpredictable system can be mistaken to be a stochastic system. Taking the
car driver example of Section 1.2, there may exist deterministic laws that govern the
road conditions, wind velocity, etc., but our ignorance about them causes us to treat
such phenomena as random noise, i.e. stochastic processes. Another situation when a
deterministic system may appear to be stochastic is exemplified by the toss of a coin
deliberately loaded to fall every time on one particular side (either head or tail). An
 OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

unwary spectator may believe such a system to be stochastic, when actually it is very
much deterministic!
When we analyze and design control systems, we try to express their governing physical
laws by differential equations. The mathematical nature of the governing differential
equations provides another way of classifying control systems. Here we depart from the
realm of physics, and delve into mathematics. Depending upon whether the differential
equations used to describe a control system are linear or nonlinear in nature, we can call
the system either linear or nonlinear. Furthermore, a control system whose description
requires partial differential equations is called a distributed parameter system, whereas a
system requiring only ordinary differential equations is called a lumped parameter system.
A vibrating string, or a membrane is a distributed parameter system, because its properties
(mass and stiffness) are distributed in space. A mass suspended by a spring is a lumped
parameter system, because its mass and stiffness are concentrated at discrete points in
space. (A more common nomenclature of distributed and lumped parameter systems is
continuous and discrete systems, respectively, but we avoid this terminology in this book
as it might be confused with continuous time and discrete time systems.) A particular
system can be treated as linear, or nonlinear, distributed, or lumped parameter, depending
upon what aspects of its behavior we are interested in. For example, if we want to study
only small angular displacements of a simple pendulum, its differential equation of motion
can be treated to be linear; but if large angular displacements are to be studied, the same
pendulum is treated as a nonlinear system. Similarly, when we are interested in the motion
of a car as a whole, its state can be described by only two quantities: the position and
the velocity of the car. Hence, it can be treated as a lumped parameter system whose
entire mass is concentrated at one point (the center of mass). However, if we want to
take into account how the tyres of the car are deforming as it moves along an uneven
road, the car becomes a distributed parameter system whose state is described exactly by
an infinite set of quantities (such as deformations of all the points on the tyres, and their
time derivatives, in addition to the speed and position of the car). Other classifications
based upon the mathematical nature of governing differential equations will be discussed
in Chapter 2.
Yet another way of classifying control systems is whether their outputs are contin-
uous or discontinuous in time. If one can express the system's state (which is obtained
by solving the system's differential equations) as a continuous function of time, the
system is called continuous in time (or analog system). However, a majority of modern
control systems produce outputs that 'jump' (or are discontinuous) in time. Such control
systems are called discrete in time (or digital systems). Note that in the limit of very small
time steps, a digital system can be approximated as an analog system. In this book, we
will make this assumption quite often. If the time steps chosen to sample the discontin-
uous output are relatively large, then a digital system can have a significantly different
behaviour from that of a corresponding analog system. In modern applications, even
analog controllers are implemented on a digital processor, which can introduce digital
characteristics to the control system. Chapter 8 is devoted to the study of digital systems.
There are other minor classifications of control systems based upon the systems' char-
acteristics, such as stability, controllability, observability, etc., which we will take up
in subsequent chapters. Frequently, control systems are also classified based upon the
10 INTRODUCTION

number of inputs and outputs of the system, such as single-input, single-output system,
or two-input, three-output system, etc. In classical control (an object of Chapter 2)
the distinction between single-input, single-output (SISO) and multi-input, multi-output
(MIMO) systems is crucial.

1.4 On the Road to Control System Analysis

and Design
When we find an unidentified object on the street, the first thing we may do is prod or poke
it with a stick, pick it up and shake it, or even hit it with a hammer and hear the sound it
makes, in order to find out something about it. We treat an unknown control system in a
similar fashion, i.e. we apply some well known inputs to it and carefully observe how it
responds to those inputs. This has been an age old method of analyzing a system. Some
of the well known inputs applied to study a system are the singularity functions, thus
called due to their peculiar nature of being singular in the mathematical sense (their time
derivative tends to infinity at some time). Two prominent members of this zoo are the unit
step function and the unit impulse function. In Chapter 2, useful computer programs are
presented to enable you to find the response to impulse and step inputs - as well as the
response to an arbitrary input - of a single-input, single-output control system. Chapter 2
also discusses important properties of a control system, namely, performance, stability,
and robustness, and presents the analysis and design of linear control systems using the
classical approach of frequency response, and transform methods. Chapter 3 introduces
the state-space modeling for linear control systems, covering various applications from
all walks of engineering. The solution of a linear system's governing equations using
the state-space method is discussed in Chapter 4. In this chapter, many new computer
programs are presented to help you solve the state-equations for linear or nonlinear
systems.
The design of modern control systems using the state-space approach is introduced in
Chapter 5, which also discusses two important properties of a plant, namely its controlla-
bility and observability. In this chapter, it is first assumed that all the quantities defining
the state of a plant (called state variables) are available for exact measurement. However,
this assumption is not always practical, since some of the state variables may not be
measurable. Hence, we need a procedure for estimating the unmeasurable state variables
from the information provided by those variables that we can measure. Later sections of
Chapter 5 contains material about how this process of state estimation is carried out by
an observer, and how such an estimation can be incorporated into the control system in
the form of a compensator. Chapter 6 introduces the procedure of designing an optimal
control system, which means a control system meeting all the design requirements in
the most efficient manner. Chapter 6 also provides new computer programs for solving
important optimal control problems. Chapter 7 introduces the treatment of random signals
generated by stochastic systems, and extends the philosophy of state estimation to plants
with noise, which is treated as a random signal. Here we also learn how an optimal
state estimation can be carried out, and how a control system can be made robust with
respect to measurement and process noise. Chapter 8 presents the design and analysis of
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 Hyrcanus I

John Hyrcanus, the oldest surviving son of Simon, became the

next Jewish ruler. So, imperceptibly a royal house had been created,
and the princely honor came to Hyrcanus by hereditary succession.
In just that way have all royal lines been created—starting with a
great deliverer, like Judas Maccabee. But the title, King, came later.
Hyrcanus had not only to rout the usurper Ptolemy before the
rulership could become his, but had also to resist the siege of
Antiochus VII., the next Syrian king, who would not yet renounce
Judea without another struggle. Peace was at last reached by
Hyrcanus agreeing to the payment of an indemnity and tribute for a
few outlying towns.
This first repulse showed that the new kingdom was not very
strong and that it owed its independence to Syrian weakness (due to
the continued conflicts of rivals and pretenders), rather than to its
own material power. But Syria's embarrassment was Judah's
opportunity. After Antiochus had been slain in a Parthian conflict,
John Hyrcanus, once secure, began a vigorous campaign to enlarge
his boundaries. Very soon he had incorporated the old land of the
Ten Tribes, now called Samaria. The complete conquest of the
Samaritans was undertaken toward the end of his life. Their famous
temple on Mount Gerizim was destroyed. Idumea (Edom) was also
conquered and Judaism imposed on it by force. But that kind of
conversion was always against the free and tolerant spirit of Judaism
and against its very genius. We shall later see that it brought its own
retribution and weakened the cause of Israel.

Pharisees and Sadducees.

Let us not forget that the rise of the Hasmoneans had come about
in a measure through a conflict for religious integrity between the
extreme pietists on the one hand, the Chassidim, and the worldly
Hellenists on the other, with varied shades of opinion in between.
These religious divergences had now crystallized into two schools
that acquired the names Pharisees and Sadducees. It is hard to say
just when these distinctions began. Perhaps they were always there;
for we meet the two groups—conservative and progressive—under
different names in all creeds and in nearly all eras. The division is
naturally inherent in the human temperament. It marks broadly the
two grand divisions into which all men become grouped in organized
society.
Now let us consider in particular the distinctions that differentiated
these two parties in the Jewish State. The Sadducees were largely
composed of the priestly families; but the priestly caste was not
necessarily the religious class. It corresponded rather to what we
would call the aristocracy—we have seen that the High Priest was
also a prince. In this party, too, were largely the military. They were
faithful to the Mosaic Law, the Pentateuch, which they rigorously
enforced, but gave slight allegiance to the later religious injunctions
that came to be developed from the Law by the Scribes; in so far
they were religiously unprogressive. Still in their attitude toward life
in general, they did not approve of holding aloof from the world, but
encouraged a mingling with it and entering into intimate commercial
and political relations with other nations. They regarded it their
patriotic duty to aggrandize the nation in every way and to make it a
splendid power.
The name Sadducee is derived from Zadok, of the family of Aaron,
the chief priest of the time of Solomon's Temple, who thus gave his
name to the priestly house, "Sons of Zadok."
The Pharisees, while interpreting Biblical law more leniently in
certain respects than the Sadducees, were determined supporters of
all the mass of legal minutiæ that had been evolved from the Law
proper and which had become a "Second Law." These rites and
ceremonies that were added to the original Mosaic code
(occasionally by a rather forced deduction) they considered equally
binding with it. They called it the Oral Law to distinguish it from the
Written Law, and the tradition was that it, too, was revealed to
Moses.
 In their political policy they equally diverged from the Sadducees,
believing in standing somewhat apart from the peoples about them.
They looked askance upon too intimate relations with the world at
large; for they believed it their duty to subordinate all interests,
national and commercial, to the religious, trusting the outcome
rather to divine providence than to the judgment of their statesmen
or the enterprise of energetic leaders.
Further, as against the priestly aristocracy, that wished to confine
all ecclesiastical functions to the priestly order, the Pharisees were
more democratic in that they desired to extend the privileges of
priestly sanctification and holiness to all. Purifying ablutions, they
claimed, were obligatory on the whole people. Their meals should
also be consecrated, even as the repasts of the priests—so that all
Israel should be a "Kingdom of priests and a holy nation." Hence,
"Second Maccabees," the work of a Pharisee, declares, "Unto all are
given the heritage, the kingdom, the priesthood and the sanctuary."
The chief characteristics of the Pharisees are expressed in their
name: Pharash, the Law expounders; Pharash, the separatists—
though the former is probably its true derivation.
The Pharisees, it will be seen, were the more pious, the
Sadducees the more worldly, though the Pharisees as a whole were
not as pious as the Chassidim had been, nor the Sadducees as
worldly as the Hellenists had been. The Sadducees further denied
belief in bodily resurrection or in judgment after death (though not
necessarily renouncing immortality), on the strength of the famous
teaching of Antigonus of Socho, "Be not as servants who serve the
Master for the sake of reward, but rather as those who serve the
Master without thought of reward." As distinct from the Pharisees
they were strong believers in free-will, that the destiny of men is in
their own hands. We might call the Sadducees the rationalists and
the Pharisees traditionalists.
Some Pharisees again did carry the fulfilment of rites and
ceremonies too far; a few, perhaps, were even ostentatious in their
piety. By strange mischance these few have transferred their dubious
reputation to all Pharisees as such. Most unjustly however, for the
Pharisees earned the confidence of the great bulk of the people and
were on the whole identified with them. So strangely has that
sinister repute persisted that "Pharisee" is to-day defined in some
dictionaries as self-righteous or hypocritical (see note). How
undeserved as describing those whose trust in God was absolute,
without reservation or misgiving. This is but one of many instances
where the world's verdict has been unjust to the Jew.

Essenes.

We meet also a third party nearer in sympathy to the Pharisees.

The old Chassidim, the extremists, had developed into an ascetic
party under the name of Essenes, with a similar meaning—pious.
They lived the life of a celibate brotherhood, holding the little they
allowed themselves, in common. They hardly affected the national
life of Israel, because they were too few and because they slighted
patriotic obligations. They practiced all the self-denial of the Nazirites
of old and sought to reach from cleanliness to godliness. Another
derivation of the name Essene is "bather," baptist, from their
frequent ablutions. Yet another is "healer."
The Hasmonean royalty—to what party did they belong? Well, we
might say that they began their career with all the religious
enthusiasm of the Pharisees, they closed it with the political outlook
of the Sadducees. This was something like an anti-climax.
John Hyrcanus perhaps represents the dividing line. He started on
a career of conquest simply to satisfy national ambition; though he
had forced Judaism on the Idumeans. In his later years, he rejected
many traditional observances of the Oral Law that completed his
estrangement from the Pharisees. Taking a material and external
survey, Hyrcanus left the Jews at the end of his life with an
independent State, that in power and extent was as great as
Northern Israel in its palmy days, as great perhaps as the realm of
Solomon. He could mint his own coins, on some of which, still in
existence, we find inscribed, "Jochanan, High Priest of the
Commonwealth of the Judeans." Yes, it was all very splendid! But
surely the Jews had learned by now the insufficiency of national
glory that was material and external, that that kind of splendor was
apart from the Jewish ideal, "not by might, not by power, but by my
spirit, saith the Lord." The age needed a Jeremiah again. Alas, the
era of the Prophets was over!

Notes and References.

Hasmonean:

This was the family name of Mattathias, afterwards assumed by

his descendants.

Pharisees and Sadducees:

Geiger, "History of the Jews," vol. i, chapter viii, translation.

The fact that Jesus of Nazareth condemned the false Pharisees—
as Micah condemned false prophets (see Matthew xxiii and Luke xi)
has much to do with their general condemnation in literature.
The Talmud is also bitter against the false Pharisees, the Zebuim,
the tainted ones, who do evil like Zimri and claim the goody reward
like Phineas. In its severe denunciation of the false Pharisees, it
divides them into six classes:
1. Those who do the will of God for earthly motives. 2. The
ostentatious who go with slow steps and say "Wait for me, I have a
good deed to perform." 3. Those who knock their heads against a
wall because in their looking up they fear they may see a woman. 4.
Those who pose as saints. 5. Those who say, "Tell me of another
duty." 6. Those who are pious because of the fear of God.
"Who are the genuine Pharisees?" asks the Talmud. "Those who
do the will of their Father in Heaven because they love Him."
 King:

Carlyle reminds us of the derivation of "King" from Können—the

man who "can"!

Samaritans:

See People of the Book, vol. iii, p. 244.

Theme for Discussion:

Compare modern with ancient parties in Israel.

Coin of Johanan the High Priest.

 CHAPTER VIII.
A ROYAL HOUSE AGAIN.
Aristobulus.

In Aristobulus, eldest son and successor of John Hyrcanus, we see

the Hasmonean further and further estranged from the generous
spirit that called them to the fore. Judas Maccabeus wished to be the
Saviour of Judaism and the Jews, Aristobulus wanted only to be their
king. The story of Abimelech in the days of the Judges and Jotham's
parable come forcibly to mind (Judges ix). Aristobulus began his
reign by inprisoning his mother, to prevent her succession to the
throne, according to his father's wish, and likewise all his brothers
but one, on suspicion of their treason. Antigonus was his favorite
brother, and he shared the royal power with him. The king was
certainly unpopular with the people, who accused him of being more
Greek than Jew. Slander made him even worse than he was,
ascribing to him the death of his beloved brother Antigonus, who
was assassinated toward the close of his reign. He continued his
father's policy of conquest, and subdued portions of northern
Palestine, including Galilee, and, like his father again imposed
Judaism upon them. While in both instances the motive for the
forced conversion was probably ancestral pride, still it showed
religious zeal too—though not of the highest kind.

Alexander Janneus.

The widow of Aristobulus, Salome Alexandra, released her

husband's brother from prison at his death and by marrying
Alexander Janneus, the eldest, and appointing him to the office of
High Priest she allowed the kingly power to devolve upon him. Like
his brother, he was not a man of peace, but of war. He further
increased Judea's territory by conquest on the western Philistine side
bordering on the Mediterranean.
He was not the man to quiet the growing dissensions between
Pharisees and Sadducees, but rather to foment them. For the royal
Sadducean party was getting more and more estranged in policy and
aim from the national and religious aspirations of the people. There
was a not always silent protest against the warrior king officiating as
High Priest. At the Feast of Tabernacles, the people pelted him with
their citrons, which they were carrying together with palms (lulab
and esrog), symbols of the harvest, for this is also called the Feast of
Ingathering. This could not end without a tragedy, and a large
number were slain by his foreign mercenaries. (Royal body guards
were usually composed of foreigners.) This conflict grew into a civil
war, both sides in turn hiring foreign troops, and resulted in a
terrible decimating of Judah's numbers, the Pharisees losing more
largely. Such is one of the evils of uniting religious authority with
temporal power. The rebellion was finally put down, but only with an
iron hand.
This king, who could not be at peace, spent his last days in
fighting the Arabians, who were just beginning to be Judea's most
dangerous neighbor. But he inherited from his Maccabean ancestors
love of arms without inheriting their military genius. This meant
much wanton waste of life and some reverses. How vain this
purpose of spending blood and substance in extending his territorial
sway and making it nominally Jewish by force of arms, while
fomenting religious antagonism at home—always destructive of
religion itself. He left an even bigger State than his father, John
Hyrcanus. Judea now meant the whole seacoast (with the exception
of Ascalon) from Mount Carmel to Egypt and reached far east of the
Jordan.

Queen Salome Alexandra.

 The throne went by will to Alexander Janneus' widow, who, it will
be remembered, was also the widow of his elder brother,
Aristobulus. Upon her eldest son, Hyrcanus, Queen Salome
bestowed the high priesthood. Her sympathies, however, were
entirely with the Pharisees. The exiles came back and political
prisoners were released. The land enjoyed a pleasing contrast under
her pious and gentle sway. All the Pharisaic ordinances, abolished by
the late king, were reinstituted. Indeed, all religious interests were
placed in their hands. It was a prosperous, peaceful reign, and was
later looked back upon as a blessed day. In the stormy days that
were to follow, it might well seem in retrospect, a golden age.

Coin of the Time of Alexandra.

The "Pairs."

We have seen that the priesthood and Temple were no longer the
religious centres around which the people rallied. The Jews had
outgrown the age of priestism, although the splendid ritual of the
sacrificial altar still continued. The religious guides and teachers
were the scribes, learned in the Law, who for sometime had been
presiding in couples. Hence they are called the "Pairs." The first of
each pair held the office of Nasi, Prince or President of the
Sanhedrin, and the second that of Ab Beth Din, Father of the Court
or Vice-President.
Here are their names with some of the most famous sayings
attributed to them:
 Jose ben Joezer—Let thy house be a meeting place for the
wise. Cover thyself with the dust of their feet and quench thy
thirst with their words.
Jose ben Jochanan—Let thy house be opened wide and let
the needy be thy household.
Joshua ben Perachia—Procure for thyself an instructor,
possess thyself of a worthy associate, and judge every man in
the scale of merit.
Mattai the Arbelite—Associate not with the wicked and flatter
not thyself that thou canst evade punishment.
Jehudah ben Tabbai—Constitute not thyself dictator to the
Judges.
Simon ben Shetach—Be guarded in thy words; perchance
from them men may learn to lie.
Shemaiah—Love labor and hate pomp and suffer thyself to
remain unknown to the head of the State.
Abtalion—Ye wise be guarded in your words; or you may be
exiled to a place of evil waters (false doctrine) and your
disciples may drink and die.
Hillel and Shammai, the last "Pair," will be treated in a
separate chapter.

Simon ben Shetach flourished in this reign. He was brother-in-law

of the king, by whom he had been nevertheless imprisoned. But
when the queen came to the throne he was practically placed as the
religious head of affairs. Simon ben Shetach and his associate, Judah
ben Tabbai, reorganized the Council and hence were called
"restorers of the Law." From this time on the Pharisaic became the
official interpretation of Judaism.
In all large towns Simon ben Shetach established schools for
young men for the study of the Pentateuch and the laws interpreted
from it. As President of the Council, he was very severe on those
who infringed on the law. He has even been called the Judean
Brutus, as he did not spare his own son. He reinstituted many
customs that had been neglected during the Sadducean regime.
Among these was the joyous "Water Celebration" during
Tabernacles, a trace of which still survives in the ritual of Shemini
Atzereth (the eighth day that follows and concludes the festival of
Succoth). The celebrations were accompanied by illuminations and
torchlight processions, religious music and dancing. The water
drawing at the Spring of Siloah was heralded by blasts of the priests'
trumpets. Another national custom revived was the summer "Wood
Festival," on Ab 15. It had relation to the use of wood at the altar
fires, and was a further opportunity for joyous unbending among the
youths and maidens.
The Pharisees on the whole were the more democratic party, and
decided that the maintenance of the Temple should be borne by all
and not merely by voluntary offerings of the rich few. This new law
brought enormous revenues to the Temple which later became its
menace, attracting the covetous rather than the worshipful.

Notes and References.

Sayings of the Fathers:

Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, chapter i. Taylor. Cambridge Press.

Translations and notes.
These sayings, which form one book of the Mishna, will be found
in the Sabbath Afternoon Service of the Jewish Prayer Book.

Water Festival:

For a vivid description see Poetry of the Talmud, Seckles.

Theme for Discussion:

 Contrast the Wood Festival of ancient Judea with Arbor Day in
modern America. Mark the difference of purpose.

The Pool of Siloam.

 CHAPTER IX.
RIVAL CLAIMANTS FOR THE THRONE.
Aristobulus II.

Even before the good Queen Salome died storm clouds began to
darken the horizon of Judah. Her second son, Aristobulus, inherited
all his father's fierceness and tyranny. The throne had been naturally
left to the elder brother, Hyrcanus, but the headstrong Aristobulus
seized the reins of power on the dangerous theory that he was more
fit to rule. Civil war began before the good queen had quite breathed
her last. Hyrcanus, the weak, yielded, and all might have been well
were it not for the interference of a new enemy who was eventually
to bring about the ruin of the Jewish State.

Antipater the Idumean.

It will be recalled that John Hyrcanus had conquered the

Idumeans and made them, seemingly, Jews. We shall now see the
kind of Jews they were. One of them, Antipater, was the local
governor of this Idumean province. He was a man who lusted for
power and had absolutely no scruples as to the means of gaining his
ends. He saw that if only he could place the weak Hyrcanus on the
throne, he might become a power behind it.
He began by insinuating himself into the favor of the Jewish
nobility, and, ostensibly, as a pleader for justice, emphasized the
evils of Aristobulus' usurpation. Letting that poison work, he came to
the innocent Hyrcanus and played upon his fears with a made-up
story of conspiracy against his life. Most reluctantly was Hyrcanus
persuaded to flee with him from Jerusalem to an Arabian prince,
Aretas. Aretas was induced to lend his aid in the expectation that
Hyrcanus, once in power, would restore the cities Alexander Janneus
had taken from the Arabians.
So unhappy Judah was plunged in war again to gratify the
unworthy ambitions of unworthy men and men not of their own
people. Aristobulus was defeated in battle by Aretas and was
besieged in the Temple Citadel.

Prayer of Onias.

An interesting incident is told at this juncture that recalls the Bible

story of Balaam. (Numbers xxii-xxiv.) In the party of Hyrcanus there
was a man, Onias, who, so said credulous rumor, had brought rain in
times of drought through his fervent prayer. He was now brought
into the camp and asked to invoke God's curse on Aristobulus and
his allies. But such prayer he considered blasphemous, therefore he
voiced his petition to heaven in these words: "O God, King of the
whole world, since those that stand now with me are Thy people
and those that are besieged are also Thy priests, I beseech Thee
that Thou wilt neither hearken to the prayer of those against these,
nor bring about what these pray against those." Alas, the temper of
warfare had not patience or appreciation with this sublime attitude.
The man was stoned. But in a sense his prayer was answered.

Pompey Takes Jerusalem.

For the Aesop fable of the two bears quarrelling over a find, thus
affording opportunity for a third to step in and seize it, was here to
be exemplified. Rome was ever on the watch to bring all outlying
provinces into her net. Pompey, her victorious general, whose head
Julius Caesar was later to demand, was just now making his
triumphant march through Asia. The warring brothers, Hyrcanus and
Aristobolus, appealed to his lieutenant. To leave the decision with
Rome was a dangerous precedent, for the power that could grant a
throne by its decision might also take it away. So, while the decision
was rendered in favor of Aristobulus, it was as vassal rather than as
independent king that he held his throne for some two years. The
real gainer was Rome. It had now the right to revoke its decision;
and it did. The people, disgusted with their unworthy leaders who
cared nothing for the nation, but only for its honors—appealed to
Rome to abolish the monarchy that had been gradually introduced
and restore the old regime of the High Priesthood.
But the headstrong Aristobulus dared resist even Rome and
entrenched himself against invasion. This was fatal both for him and
Judea. The temple mount was besieged. It was taken with frightful
massacre by lustful Romans. This was in 63. Pompey sacrilegiously
entered the Holy of Holies, in which to his surprise he found no idol;
a spiritual God was an unfamiliar concept to the pagan mind. He
curtailed the Jewish state and made it tributary. Aristobulus must
grace Pompey's triumph at Rome.
So much for the vain conquests of John Hyrcanus and Alexander
Janneus. They evaporated with a word from Pompey. Thus ended
the Judean independence for which the early Maccabees had fought
so nobly. It had endured but seventy-nine years. Over this tributary
State Hyrcanus II. was made High Priest. The kingship created by
the first Aristobulus was short-lived indeed. The scheming Antipater
had won, but graver issues were to be the outcome.
 CHAPTER X.
JUDEA UNDER ROMAN SUZERAINTY.
Growth of Rome.

Rome, from the city on the Tiber, had spread over all Italy. Then
gradually it mastered the lands on both sides of the Mediterranean.
Greece and Carthage were absorbed in the same year, 146 B.C.E.
Soon its tide of conquest reached Asia, and nearly all the lands in
the East conquered by Alexander—excepting Persia—were under its
sway. When Greco Syria—which had included Judea until the
Maccabean independence—fell before its arms, it was to be
expected that the never-satisfied Rome would not rest until the land
of our fathers had been added to its possessions. We have seen how
an unhappy series of events played into its hands and hastened this
end. In a sense Rome was becoming the "mistress of the world."
Nor was her sway as transitory as that of earlier world powers—
Assyria, Babylonia, Persia or Macedonia. It was to endure for many
centuries and it has left a lasting impress upon the world's
civilization.
Already the Jewish captives that Pompey took to Rome, later freed
and called Libertini, formed together with earlier emigrants the
beginnings of an important Jewish community. Here later still we
find this Jewish colony on the Tiber quietly influencing Roman
affairs.
Judea, with the rest of Palestine, was now placed under the
general supervision of Rome's Syrian governor. Internally its life was
not interfered with, but all temporal—that is political—power was
taken from the High Priest. His authority was confined to the
Temple. Both Aristobulus, who had escaped from Rome, and his son,
Alexander, made foolhardy attempts for the throne, which only
resulted in further curtailing of Judah's power. Yet another desperate
attempt was made for the throne. Alas, it only resulted in thirty
thousand of the defeated malcontents being sold into slavery. This
chafing against Rome's rule only brought its mailed hand more
fiercely against ill-fated Israel.

From First Triumvirate to Empire.

But Rome now entered upon its own period of civil war at home
and men lustful of power drenched this country in blood. In 60 B. C. E.
Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus divided the Roman possessions
between them and formed the First Triumvirate (Crassus given Syria,
plundered the Temple treasures). On the death of Crassus, Caesar,
ambitious for supreme power—the fatal weakness of this really great
man—crossed the river Rubicon that was the boundary of his
province of Gaul, made war on Pompey, who was soon slain, and
held for a brief time sole sway. In 44 Caesar was killed by Brutus
and Cassius. These in turn were overthrown by Cæsar's avenger,
Marc Antony, and a new Triumvirate was formed, consisting of
Antony, Octavian (Augustus) and Lepidus. These were as disloyal to
each other as the first group. Antony, seduced from his duty by the
witchery of that fatally beautiful woman, Cleopatra of Egypt, was
finally defeated and overthrown in the battle of Actium, 30. Octavian
Augustus now held the reins alone and the Roman Empire was
launched. Augustus, the first emperor, reigned from 60 B.C.E. to 14
A.C.E.
 Julius Caesar
These few outlines of Roman history will have to be kept in mind
to follow events in Judea, for much was to happen to storm-tossed
Israel between the first Triumvirate and the empire of Augustus.
Every change in government at Rome affected the land of Israel and
its people.
Indeed, in all their subsequent history no great event occurred in
the world without affecting the Jews in some way, and many of
these world events were in turn influenced by them.
When Pompey was killed in 48, that arch-conspirator, Antipater,
who had sided with him while in power, now with Hyrcanus, his
puppet, professed friendship for Caesar and helped him with Jewish
troops for his Egyptian campaign. Caesar extended favors to both.
Hyrcanus, as High Priest, was once more given political authority,
and Antipater was made Procurator of Judea. We have witnessed the
thin entering of the wedge; behold the Idumean now head of Jewish
affairs. Caesar now granted permission to rebuild the walls of
Jerusalem, and concessions and privileges were also conferred on
the Jews of Alexandria and Asia Minor, for Rome's sway reached far.
Caesar's good will made the rulership of Antipater tolerable for a
while and when the news of Caesar's death reached the Jews they
mourned him as a lost friend.
The political power granted to Hyrcanus as High Priest carried with
it the title of Ethnarch, which means governor of a province. But all
power was really exercised by Antipater who, as Procurator of Judea,
made his son Phasael governor of Jerusalem, and his son Herod
governor of Galilee. How this intruding stranger had tightened his
grip on the land of our fathers!

Herod Enters on the Scene.

Herod was to play an important role in Judah's fortunes. Already

as governor of Galilee, a youth of twenty-five, he showed his
masterfulness in the summary execution of a marauder. Summoned
to the Sanhedrin to answer for this action, he dared defy it. Why?
Because Cassius, now master of Syria (including Judea) at Caesar's
death, was put under obligation by the crafty Antipater and his
equally cunning son Herod. Together they succeeded in squeezing
money from Judæa for the maintenance of an army against Antony.
Thus the Jews were embroiled in Rome's conflicts to further the
ambitions of these Idumeans. As a result Herod was now made
governor of Celo-Syria (Palestine) and could snap his fingers at the
Sanhedrin. Judea, in fact, was a prey to anarchy brought about by
conspiracies and usurpations.
In 42 Brutus and Cassius were defeated at Philippi by Antony and
Octavian, and it seemed that an end had come to the fortunes of
Herod. Antipater had been slain, caught in a final act of heartless
duplicity against Hyrcanus. But Herod had the adroit cunning of his
father and knew how to desert a sinking ship and change his
allegiance to the man of rising fortunes. With plausible words Herod
made his peace with Antony. Nor did the complaints against him and
his brother by the Jewish nobility avail. On the contrary Antony
made them both tetrarchs—subordinate governors—of Judea at the
expense of the weak and aging Hyrcanus.

The Last Hasmonean Ruler.

Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus, taking advantage of a Parthian

uprising, made one more effort to seize the Jewish throne. He
succeeded. Herod was put to flight and Hyrcanus deposed
altogether. This last scion of the Hasmonean house held a brief royal
sway from 40 to 37. He lacked the greatness of the earlier
Maccabeans to hold the nation; and, antagonized the Sanhedrin
instead of attaching it to him. Herod, after varied shifts, sailed to
Rome, making an appeal at headquarters. Deceiving all by his
plausibility, he obtained an appointment as "King of Judea" from
Antony's senate. But for that throne he must now fight "the man in
possession." There followed a series of engagements in which
Jewish blood flowed freely. With the aid of Rome, Herod was of
course successful, ultimately taking Jerusalem itself. Antigonus was
put to death. Thus ended the Hasmonean rule in Judea so gloriously
begun a little over a century before.

Theme for Discussion.

Single out great events in history influenced by and influencing the

Jews.

Coin of Antigonus, 40 B. C. E.
 CHAPTER XI.
HEROD.
What had been the result of the attempt of Alexander Janneus to
force Judaism upon Idumea? It had begun by giving the Idumean
Antipater, from the intimate relations created, the opportunity to
make Hyrcanus his puppet, and ended by placing the Jewish crown
upon the head of Herod, who was absolutely un-Jewish in ancestry
and sympathies, and really a pagan at heart. Herod, in fact,
delivered Judea to Rome that he might be made its vassal king.
He had married Mariamne, the beautiful grand daughter of the
weak Hyrcanus—a stroke of policy, to be allied in marriage to
Judah's royal family.

Herod as Man.

Undoubtedly he was a man of power of a sort, born to command;

but there was no soft spot in his nature. He had all the instincts of a
tyrant, and neither scruple nor pity deterred him from carrying out
his passionate will and his insatiable ambition. He inherited all his
father's cunning, allied with fine judgment and untiring energy.
Though of undoubted bravery, he knew how to fawn before those in
power.
The first dozen years of his reign were marked by storm and
conflict with enemies both without and within. The feelings of the
Jews can be imagined in having this alien thrust upon them by all-
powerful Rome and whose first act was to slay their patriots and
confiscate their property. Rebellion was put down with a merciless
hand. Step by step he carried out his relentless purpose and put to
death all the survivors of the royal line, the flower of the Jewish
nobility, and likewise every member (except Shemaiah and Abtalion)
of the Sanhedrin that had some years before censured one of his
misdeeds.
Very unwillingly he appointed his wife's brother as High Priest. It
was a fatal distinction for the young man, for the people too openly
expressed their regard for this scion of the Hasmonean line. What
was the consequence? One day when refreshing himself in the bath,
he was held under the water till life was extinct. It was called an
accident! Alexandra, his mother, a hard woman, appealed to Rome
through Cleopatra to punish this murder. Herod was summoned to
answer for his conduct before Antony, but his plausible manner
aided by bribery won his acquittal. The tyrant marked his return by
the execution of another brother-in-law, to whom he had entrusted
Mariamne in his absence, and whom he jealously imagined disloyal.
That Antony at this time gave part of Palestine proper to
Cleopatra, including even a bit of Judea, and that Herod must bear it
without protest, showed on what slender tenure he held his throne.
So completely was he under Rome's control that Antony, to satisfy
the whim of Cleopatra who disliked Herod, commanded him to
undertake a campaign against the Arabians, while she secretly
assisted them.
When Antony fell at Actium in 31 in that contest between
continents, Herod managed adroitly at the right moment to go over
to the side of the victorious Octavian Augustus. Before departing for
Rome to curry favor with the Emperor, he took a precaution, which
only his cruelty deemed necessary. He put to death his own
kinsman, the aged Hyrcanus, to whose weakness he in a measure
owed his throne.
He returned in the good graces of Augustus, and received back all
the lands taken from him by Antony for Cleopatra. But before his
departure, he had repeated the order given prior to his previous
visit, that Mariamne should be put to death in case his cause should
take a fatal turn in Rome. Learning of this revolting plan in his
absence, she upbraided him on his return. This gave his envious
relatives opportunity to slander her and defame her honor. The
jealous Herod believed the calumny against his innocent wife—and
think of it—ordered her to be put to death, though, in his savage,
sensual way, he loved her. Remorse came too late, which wild
excesses could not drown. Soon her mother followed her to the
block on the better founded charge of conspiracy. More deeds of
needless bloodshed were perpetrated by his wanton command until
every remnant of the Hasmonean house was destroyed.

Herod as Builder.

Herod was a renowned builder. He wanted to have a splendid

capital with which he might dazzle Roman grandees and foreign
plenipotentiaries. Notice the bent of his mind—his conception of a
monarch—not a father of his people living up to such a maxim, for
example, as ich dïen (I serve) but the possessor of glory and with
the power to play with the life and death of his subjects. He must
needs have grandeur without, though there was misery enough
within. He erected temples, amphitheatres and hippodromes. He
built for himself a palace that was a fortress too, with parks and
gardens around it. New cities were laid out, not for the honor of
Israel but for the honor of Augustus Caesar and named after him.
Samaria was rebuilt and renamed Sebaste. He rebuilt a city on the
coast and called it Caesarea, with a fine haven. One he named
Antipatris after his father, another after his brother, Phasaelis;
Agrippaeum, after Agrippa, and Herodium, a stronghold, after
himself. Existing fortresses were restored and strengthened. Nor did
he neglect to mark the outlying provinces with examples of his
building passion.
 Emperor Augustus.
The old Temple, built in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, now
looked shabby among these fine edifices, and he determined to
rebuild it. This was one of his great achievements. There was no
religious motive whatever in the project, for he had built outside of
Jerusalem many heathen shrines. The purpose was wholly worldly. If
there is to be a Temple, let it be gorgeous to gratify my vanity! It
took many years to build and was not finished till long after Herod's
death. The whole circumference of the Temple, including the fortress
of Antonia connected with it, covered almost a mile. It must have
been magnificent, for a proverb arose, "He who has not seen
Herod's Temple has never seen anything beautiful." Yet, with all his
grandeur, he was but a subject king under the sway of the Roman
emperor. He could not make treaties or war without the consent of
the emperor, to whom he had to supply on demand troops and
money.
The introduction of heathen games in theatres and race-courses,
in which the lives of gladiators and runners were lightly sacrificed to
gratify the brutal instincts of the spectators, deeply grieved the
Jews, imbued with the sanctity of human life. It was in such violent
antagonism to the ethics of Judaism. But what could they do? They
were in the power of this pagan tyrant.
He gathered in his capital, too, Greek litterateurs and artists. To
these scholars were given state positions of trust. But this was no
more an indication of love of culture than Temple building was love
of religion. Ostentation was at the root of both.
Yet the Pharisaic party (the great mass of the people) was too
strong for him to carry his paganizing influence as far as he wished.
He ungraciously yielded, out of prudence, now and then to the
religious sensibilities of the people. The building of the sanctuary
proper he entrusted to priests, nor were images placed on the
Jerusalem buildings. But the Roman eagle was later erected over the
Temple gate. For an attempt to remove it, forty-two young men,
zealous for the law, were burnt alive. The Jewish Sanhedrin was
shorn of all power.
He appointed unfit men as High Priests and removed them when
they did not do his bidding. That such appointments should be left in
his unsympathetic hands. Finally, the people were heavily taxed to
support heathen splendor of which they did not approve. So his
reign, so hateful to them, was maintained only by despotism and
force. An attempt was even made to assassinate him. The populace
had to be watched by spies. Yet in the year 25 he brought all his
energies to the fore to save the people from the consequences of
famine. Let us remember this in his favor; also that he used his
power to secure protection for Jews in the Diaspora.

Herod as Father.
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