Higher Certificate

in Human Resource Management

INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING
AND DEVELOPMENT

Module Guide

Copyright© 2023
MANCOSA
All rights reserved, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying machines, without the
written permission of the publisher. Please report all errors and omissions to the following email address:
[email protected]
 Higher Certificate
in Human Resource Management
INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Preface.................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Unit 1: Introduction to Training and Development ................................................................................................. 11

Unit 2: Approaching Training and Development:.................................................................................................. 22

Unit 3: Training and Development Design and Delivery........................................................................................ 37

Unit 4: Training and Development Evaluation ....................................................................................................... 62

Unit 5: Training and Development Legislation....................................................................................................... 68

Answers to Revision Questions ............................................................................................................................ 75

Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................... 88

i
 Introduction to Training and Development

List of Content

List of Figures

Figure: 2.1 A systems approach to T&D adapted from Wärnich et al. (2015: 347) ........................................... 27

Figure:2.2 Analysis Phase adapted from Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 107 ...................................................... 28

Figure:2.3 Causes and Outcomes of a Needs Assessment adapted from Noe, 2013: 115. ............................. 29

Figure:3.1 Design Phase adapted from Blanchard and Thacker, 2013: 162 .................................................... 42

Figure:3.2 Expectancy Theory of Motivation adapted from Noe (2013). ........................................................... 48

Figure 3.3 On-The-Job Training Methods ......................................................................................................... 51

Figure 3.3 The advantages and disadvantages of away-from-the-job training and development are detailed in
the table below (Grobler et al, 2006: 320)......................................................................................................... 54

Figure 3.4 Away-from-the-job Training and Development Methods .................................................................. 55

Figure 4.1 Criteria for the Evaluation of Training .............................................................................................. 65

Figure 4.1 Criteria for the Evaluation of Training .............................................................................................. 83

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Details the key features of “training” and “development”, and highlights the difference between
these two terms. ................................................................................................................................. 17

Table 1.2 below highlights the differences between training, development and education............................... 18

Table 2.1 Key Concerns of Upper-Level and Mid-Level Managers and Trainers adapted from Noe (2013: 116)
........................................................................................................................................................... 30

Table 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs Assessment adapted from Noe (2013). ......................... 32

Table 3.1 Learning Outcomes adapted from Noe (2013).................................................................................. 47

Table: 3.2 The advantages and disadvantages of OJT are detailed in the table below (Grobler et al, 2006:
312). ................................................................................................................................................ 51

Table 5.1 The NQF – Showing Original 8 Levels and Revised 10 Levels ........................................................ 72

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Introduction to Training and Development

Preface
A. Welcome

Dear Student
It is a great pleasure to welcome you to Introduction to Training and Development (ITD5). To make sure that
you share our passion about this area of study, we encourage you to read this overview thoroughly. Refer to it as
often as you need to, since it will certainly make studying this module a lot easier. The intention of this module is
to develop both your confidence and proficiency in this module.

The field of Training and Development is extremely dynamic and challenging. The learning content, activities and
self- study questions contained in this guide will therefore provide you with opportunities to explore the latest
developments in this field and help you to discover the field of Training and Development as it is practiced today.

This is a distance-learning module. Since you do not have a tutor standing next to you while you study, you need
to apply self-discipline. You will have the opportunity to collaborate with each other via social media tools. Your
study skills will include self-direction and responsibility. However, you will gain a lot from the experience! These
study skills will contribute to your life skills, which will help you to succeed in all areas of life.

We hope you enjoy the module.

MANCOSA does not own or purport to own, unless explicitly stated otherwise, any intellectual property rights in or
to multimedia used or provided in this module guide. Such multimedia is copyrighted by the respective creators
thereto and used by MANCOSA for educational purposes only. Should you wish to use copyrighted material from
this guide for purposes of your own that extend beyond fair dealing/use, you must obtain permission from the
copyright owner.

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 Introduction to Training and Development

B. Module Overview
• The module is a 20 credit module at NQF level 5.

Course Overview
The broad areas covered by this module include:
• Introduction to Training and Development
• Approaching Training and Development
• Training and Development Design and Delivery
• Training and Development Evaluation
• Training and Development Legislation

Aims of the Module:

This module has been designed and written to assist in achieving learning outcomes as reflected in the
following areas.
The aim of this module is to ensure students have a holistic and practical understanding of employee training and
development within organisations. The need, process and value of training and development are unpacked and
evaluated.
Upon completion of this module, the student should be able to:
• Identify the major purposes of training and development
• Explain how to conduct a training needs assessment
• Identify different training and development techniques
• Explain the importance of relevant legislation
• Describe the link between training and development and the other HRM functions

General
At a Certificate level students are expected to understand basic concepts, relating these concepts to relevant
theories and models. At the same time this allows for the student to be exposed to a practical workplace
environment.

Resource List
If it is at all possible, try to access the websites, journals and other sources of pertinent information such as
newspapers, newsletters, etc. A Resource list is attached at the back of the manual. Please feel free to update
this.

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Introduction to Training and Development

C. Exit Level Outcomes and Associated Assessment Criteria of the Programme

Exit Level Outcomes Associated Assessment Criteria

• Define the contemporary human resource • Contemporary human resource management concepts
management concepts are explored to understand human resource
management

• Plan, manage and coordinate human • Human resource activities are examined to determine
resource activities for an organisation how it is managed and coordinated for an organisation

• Apply human resource techniques when • Human resource techniques are identified to understand
selecting and recruiting employees how it is applied when selecting and recruiting
employees

• Implement human resource management • Human resource management principles are explained
principles to ensure development of to understand how it can be implemented for the
employees and ensure maintenance of development of employees
good working relationships
• Principles of Human resource management are
examined to ensure the maintenance of good working
relationships

• Explain the human resource principles • Human resource principles are discussed to determine
related to employee benefits its relation to employee benefits compensation and
compensation and retention retention

• Understand and apply Health and Safety • Health and safety regulations are identified to
regulations within the work environment understand how it is applied within the work environment

• Supervise and manage employees’ • Employee performance is analysed to understand and

performance in the workplace identify the best practices for supervising and managing
employees in the workplace

• Determine and apply rewards and • Rewards and incentives are explored to understand how
incentives it is applied to an employee’s performance in the
workplace

• Analyse, adhere, use, meet the legislative • Legislative requirements and business policies and
requirements and the business policies procedures are evaluated to understand how it is applied
and procedures in the human resources in human resources management activities
management activities

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 Introduction to Training and Development

• Conduct employee and organisation • Employee and organisation training needs analysis is
training needs analysis to take appropriate examined to take appropriate action in an organisation
action

• Develop the standard operational • Standard operational procedures are discussed to

procedures to manage and enhance explore how it enhances employees performance
employee performance

D. Learning Outcomes and Associated Assessment Criteria of the Module

LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE MODULE ASSOCIATED ASSESSMENT CRITERIA OF THE MODULE

• Identify the major purposes of training • The purpose of training and development is examined to
and development explore its differences in human resource management

• Explain how to conduct a training needs • Training needs assessment is explained to understand
assessment how it is conducted

• Identify different training and • Training and development techniques are described to
development techniques explore its impact in human resource management

• Explain the importance of relevant • Legislation is identified to understand its role and
legislation importance in training and development

• Describe the link between training and • Training and development is examined to understand its
development and the other HRM link to other HRM functions
functions

E. Learning Outcomes of the Units

You will find the Unit Learning Outcomes on the introductory pages of each Unit in the Module Guide. The Unit
Learning Outcomes lists an overview of the areas you must demonstrate knowledge in and the practical skills you
must be able to achieve at the end of each Unit lesson in the Module Guide.

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Introduction to Training and Development

F. Notional Learning Hours

Learning time
Types of learning activities
%

Lectures/Workshops (face to face, limited or technologically mediated) 15

Tutorials: individual groups of 30 or less 0

Syndicate groups 0

Practical workplace experience (experiential learning/work-based learning etc.) 0

Independent self-study of standard texts and references (study guides, books, journal 60
articles)

Independent self-study of specially prepared materials (case studies, multi-media, etc.) 20

Other: Online 5

TOTAL 100

G. How to Use this Module

This Module Guide was compiled to help you work through your units and textbook for this module, by breaking
your studies into manageable parts. The Module Guide gives you extra theory and explanations where necessary,
and so enables you to get the most from your module.

The purpose of the Module Guide is to allow you the opportunity to integrate the theoretical concepts from the
prescribed textbook and recommended readings. We suggest that you briefly skim read through the entire guide
to get an overview of its contents. At the beginning of each Unit, you will find a list of Learning Outcomes and
Associated Assessment Criteria. This outlines the main points that you should understand when you have
completed the Unit/s. Do not attempt to read and study everything at once. Each study session should be 90
minutes without a break

This module should be studied using the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings and the relevant
sections of this Module Guide. You must read about the topic that you intend to study in the appropriate section
before you start reading the textbook in detail. Ensure that you make your own notes as you work through both the
textbook and this module. In the event that you do not have the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings,
you must make use of any other source that deals with the sections in this module. If you want to do further reading,
and want to obtain publications that were used as source documents when we wrote this guide, you should look
at the reference list and the bibliography at the end of the Module Guide. In addition, at the end of each Unit there
may be link to the PowerPoint presentation and other useful reading.

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 Introduction to Training and Development

H. Study Material
The study material for this module includes tutorial letters, programme handbook, this Module Guide, a list of
prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings which may be supplemented by additional readings.

I. Prescribed and Recommended Textbook/Readings

There is at least one prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings allocated for the module.
The prescribed and recommended readings/textbooks presents a tremendous amount of material in a simple,
easy-to-learn format. You should read ahead during your course. Make a point of it to re-read the learning content
in your module textbook. This will increase your retention of important concepts and skills. You may wish to read
more widely than just the Module Guide and the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings, the
Bibliography and Reference list provides you with additional reading.

The prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings for this module are:

Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human Resource Management in South
Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire: Cengage Learning EMEA.

Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O.,
Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021) Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training in the Workplace: Exploring its
Scope and Outcomes", European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156

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Introduction to Training and Development

J. Special Features
In the Module Guide, you will find the following icons together with a description. These are designed to help you
study. It is imperative that you work through them as they also provide guidelines for examination purposes.

Special Feature Icon Explanation

LEARNING The Learning Outcomes indicate aspects of the particular Unit you have
OUTCOMES to master.

The Associated Assessment Criteria is the evaluation of the students’

ASSOCIATED
understanding which are aligned to the outcomes. The Associated
ASSESSMENT
Assessment Criteria sets the standard for the successful demonstration
CRITERIA
of the understanding of a concept or skill.

A Think Point asks you to stop and think about an issue. Sometimes
THINK POINT you are asked to apply a concept to your own experience or to think of
an example.

You may come across Activities that ask you to carry out specific tasks.
In most cases, there are no right or wrong answers to these activities.
ACTIVITY
The purpose of the activities is to give you an opportunity to apply what
you have learned.

At this point, you should read the references supplied. If you are unable
READINGS to acquire the suggested readings, then you are welcome to consult
any current source that deals with the subject.

PRACTICAL
Practical Application or Examples will be discussed to enhance
APPLICATION OR
understanding of this module.
EXAMPLES

You may come across Knowledge Check Questions at the end of each
KNOWLEDGE
Unit in the form of Knowledge Check Questions (KCQ’s) that will test
CHECK
your knowledge. You should refer to the Module Guide or your
QUESTIONS
textbook(s) for the answers.

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 Introduction to Training and Development

You may come across Revision Questions that test your understanding
REVISION
of what you have learned so far. These may be attempted with the aid
QUESTIONS
of your textbooks, journal articles and Module Guide.

Case Studies are included in different sections in this Module Guide.

CASE STUDY This activity provides students with the opportunity to apply theory to
practice.

You may come across links to Videos Activities as well as instructions

VIDEO ACTIVITY
on activities to attend to after watching the video.

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Introduction to Training and Development

Unit
1: Introduction to Training and
Development

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 Introduction to Training and Development

Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES:

1.1 Introduction • Introduces the topic areas of the unit

1.2 Defining Important Concepts in Training • Define training and development

and Development • Understand key concepts relevant to training and
development

1.3 What is the Difference between Training • Describe the differences between each key concepts
and Development?

1.4 What is the Difference between Training, • Understand the difference between key concepts in
Development and Education? training
• Discuss the reason behind training, development and
education

1.5 The Purpose of Training & Development • Explain the purpose of training and development

1.6 Training and Development in the Twenty- • Understand the training and development in the twenty-
First Century first century

1.7 Summary • Summarise content areas of the unit

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Introduction to Training and Development

Prescribed and Recommended Textbooks/Readings

Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.

Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156

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 Introduction to Training and Development

1.1 Introduction
Management Development and Key Transition Points in Careers
GKN is a global engineering group with headquarters in Reddicth, United Kingdom, which can trace its origins
back to the 18th Century. It now produces and supplies systems, components and services to the automotive and
aerospace industries, including parts for Airbus and Boeing jets. The company employs 40,000 people in more
than 35 countries. Amongst its strategic objectives are:

To achieve market leadership by developing technology and delivering exceptional customer service.

To be the employer of choice with a high performance culture, motivated people and outstanding leaders.

Management development is seen as key to achieving these objectives. For a number of years GKN has been
putting in place a talent management strategy covering employees at all levels of the organisation. This strategy
focuses on the key transition points in the careers of the employees. At these points it assesses managers, for
example, against the roles they aspire to fill, and works with them to create development plans that will meet the
needs of the business. Two key examples of these transition points are early career graduates and senior
executives about to move into new roles.

The International Graduate Programme is an intensive and personalised fast-track program aimed at nurturing the
company’s future global leaders. It gives engineering graduates joining the company an introduction to GKN and
allows them to explore their own interests and set their own goals within the company.

The starting point of the programme is to help the graduates explore their individual aspirations and skills. They
then embark on three 6 month placements across the businesses, including at least one international assignment.
This gives them the opportunity to develop language skills, work in different cultures and develop an understanding
of global business. They then move into the career-managed phase of the program, spending around 18 months
in each of the two permanent roles. The exact nature of these will depend on their own individual skills, interests
and passions, with the aim of developing their own career paths and leading to a significant management role.
Throughout the program the graduates are given the opportunity to test and grow their technical and management
skills across different businesses within the group, experiencing different countries and cultures. They are
supported to develop their skills by working on real projects, solving real problems and tackling real change issues.

For senior executives, transitions could involve a change in role, geography or business situation. They needed to
be able to ‘hit the ground running’, to formulate a new vision and get buy-in from the staff involved.

A new approach was developed with the help of a consulting company, Kiddy and Partners. This involved a
coaching-based program that also included an element of assessment, involving simulation-based approaches to

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Introduction to Training and Development

assessment that helped to define what managers need to be good at, to measure competence and potential, and
to advise on how to act on the results.

A key feature of the program was its collaborative approach, with each executive’s program being developed
specifically for them in conjunction with GKN’s HR function, the executive line managers and the consultant.

The program was first tried on a pilot basis. Whilst some executives were at first doubtful about its use at this stage
of their careers, the fact they were in a role transition and therefore outside of their comfort zone helped to gain
acceptance. Feedback from the pilots was positive, with individual participants suggesting they got most value
from this type of executive development.

Whilst the individual executives valued the coaching, key stakeholders also identified visible changes in the
approach and performance of those who had taken part in the program. For example, one individual who had
previously focused on his own part of the organisation moved to developing collective agendas and networks
across the group. From an organisational point of view, information from the program feeds into the executive
succession planning process by providing an objective view of the individuals making up this key group.
(James, 2011 cited in Noe et al., 2012: 395 – 396).

It is evident that in order to compete in this rapidly changing business environment, it becomes necessary to
compete and add value to gain a competitive advantage in the business world. Developing and harnessing the
talent and potential in an organisation contributes to the competitiveness of the business.

According to Noe et al. (2015: 406), “employee development is a necessary component of a company’s efforts to
compete in the new economy, to meet the challenges of global competition and social change, and to incorporate
technological advances and changes in work design. Employee development is key to ensuring that employees
have the competencies necessary to serve customers and create new products and customer solutions”.

1.2 Defining Important Concepts in Training and Development

Below are key concepts defined that are relevant to training and development.
According to Noe et al. (2015: 406), development can be defined as:
• “The acquisition of knowledge, skills, and behaviours that improve an employee’s ability to meet changes
in job requirements and in client and customer demands”
• “Formal education, job experiences, relationships, and assessment of personality and abilities that help
employees prepare for the future”

According to the training can be defined as:

• “A process whereby people acquire capabilities to aid in the achievement of organisational goals”
(Wärnich et al., 2015: 342)
• “A specific intervention to enhance performance in a particular activity (Swanepoel et al., 2014: 565)

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 Introduction to Training and Development

• “The planned acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities to carry out a specific task or job in a vocational
setting” (Erasmus et al., 2012: 20 cited in Swanepoel et al., 2014: 565)

Training is categorised as either general training or specific training:

• General Training focuses on skills that can be utilised in most workplaces, e.g.: Improving communication
skills
• Specific Training emphasises the skills that are suited for the employees’ current workplace, e.g.: the
performance management system used at the workplace

Learning is defined as:

• “The acquisition of knowledge, understanding, values, skills, competencies and experience. Learning is
a permanent change in behaviour or attitude, as a result of the acquisition of knowledge, a skill or
disposition” (Wärnich, 2015: 342).

Education, according to Wärnich (2015: 342), can be defined as:

• “Any activity directed at providing the knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in the
normal course of life”
• “Education is concerned with the development of sound reasoning processes to enhance one’s ability to
understand and interpret knowledge. Education in essence creates a general basis that prepares the
individual for life without any specific job-related skills being developed”

Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 35 - 37) define Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Attitudes (KSA’s) as:
• “Knowledge is an organised body of facts, principles, procedures, and information acquired over time”
• With regards to skills, “knowledge is a prerequisite for learning skills. A person must know ‘what’ to do
and ‘when’ to do it. A skill is a proficiency at being able to do something rather than just knowing how to
do it”
• “Attitudes are employee beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behaviour”

Competencies according to Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 37) can be defined as:
“A set of KSAs that enables a person to be successful at a number of similar tasks.”

ACTIVITY
Distinguish between “training” and “development”.

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Introduction to Training and Development

1.3 What is the Difference between Training and Development?

“Training has become increasingly vital to the success of modern organisations…organisations often compete on
competencies – the core sets of knowledge and expertise that give them an edge over their competitors. Training
plays a central role in nurturing and strengthening these competencies and in this way has become the backbone
of strategy implementation” (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 282).

1Table 1.1 Details the key features of “training” and “development”, and highlights the difference
between these two terms.

Training refers to: Development refers to:

• “The planned or systematic efforts made by • “The formal education, job experiences,
an employer to facilitate the employees’ relationships, and assessment of personality and
learning of the knowledge, skills and abilities that help employees prepare for the
behaviour required to perform their jobs, that future” (Holland & De Cieri, 2006 cited in Nel et al,
is, their job-related competencies” (Holland & 2008: 446)
De Cieri, 2006 cited in Nel et al, 2008: 446)

• Training focuses on improving employees’ • Development focuses on developing employees’

performance in their current jobs (Nel et al, competencies which will enable them to perform in
2008: 446) future job roles (Nel et al, 2008: 446)

• An example of training would be facilitating a • An example of development would be selecting

two-day workshop to train call-centre staff on two call centre staff that have potential and
how to use the new information system that enrolling them on a one-year supervisory
has been installed development programme. In addition, these two
staff would be provided with the opportunity to
perform in an “acting” supervisor position when
the team’s supervisor is away

As can be seen by the comparison that is presented by the above table, training tends to have a more short-term
orientation and is focused on ensuring that employees have the necessary competencies to effectively perform
their existing jobs. Development, on the other hand, has a more medium-term orientation and focuses on ensuring
that the organisation has a pipeline of necessary skills to meet future requirements.

THINK POINT
Discuss the difference between training and development and education

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 Introduction to Training and Development

1.4 What is the Difference between Training, Development and Education?

2Table 1.2 below highlights the differences between training, development and education.
Education Training Development
Focus Learning focused on a future Learning related to present Learning experiences
job jobs
Approach Change in knowledge Provided by employers to Employer to employees
employee Employee to employee
Employer to client
Aims ▪ Help individuals in ▪ Planned learning ▪ Long-term learning
qualifying for (Acquisition of intervention
advancement knowledge and skills) ▪ Stimulating new ideas/
▪ Initiated by individuals ▪ Short-term learning insights through
rather than organisations intervention planned learning
▪ Primary emphasis on ▪ Focus on the creativity
career preparation and experience of the
individual
Outcome Intermediate learning Change in skills Not always job-related
intervention change in attitudes or
values
(Table adapted from: Wärnich et al., 2015: 342)

Therefore, “training and development can be defined as “the aspects and processes that are involved in planning,
designing, developing, implementing and evaluating learning interventions in organisations” (Wärnich et al., 2015:
343).
Kumba Iron Ore
Kumba’s wide variety of training initiatives is informed by the Mining Charter as well as our own programmes,
including legislative training such as health and safety, learnerships, leaderships, mentorships, portable skills,
career progression plans for HSDAs [historically disadvantaged South Africans], bursaries, study assistance, ABET
and [the] professionals in training programmes.

In 2012, Kumba employees received 81 hours of training (2011: 80 hours) on average per employee, with R224,2m
of total training expenditure (2011: R134,8m), equivalent to 5,8 per cent of the total wage bill (2011: 4,4 per cent).
Of this, 89 per cent was for HSDAs (2011: 83 per cent) and 33, 5 per cent for women (2011: 31 percent).

Training was also conducted for employees nearing the end of their careers through normal or medical retirement,
as well as portable skills training (that is, skills that may be used outside the individual’s current employ). A total of
299 people received portable skills training in 2012.
(Kumba Iron Ore Limited, 2013: 50 cited in Swanepoel, 2014: 569).

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Introduction to Training and Development

1.5 The Purpose of Training & Development

Wärnich et al (2015: 343) identifies seven purposes of Training & Development. These purposes indicate how
training and development can be linked to different organisational and HRM functions. The purposes of training
and development are:
• Improving performance: The performance management appraisal will identify those employees who are
underperforming. Should an employee’s underperformance be due to a lack of skills, targeted training may be
used to rectify this?

• Update skills: Organisations often need to upgrade their technology in order to remain competitive.
Technology upgrades result in the need for employees to be upskilled

• Enhancing effective people management: Wärnich et al (2015: 343) points out that “rapidly changing
technical, legal and social environments have affected the way managers perform their jobs and management
personnel who fail to adapt to these changes become obsolete and ineffective.” It is therefore imperative that
managers continually seek to update their skills so that they may continue to make impactful contributions to
the organisation

• Address/solve organisational problems: Organisational problems and challenges present in many forms.
Training programmes can be helpful in providing employees and managers with the necessary skills to
address these problems (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)

• Orientate new employees: Orientation programmes are implemented to socialise newly recruited employees
into the organisation. Orientation training focuses on assisting the employee to understand the culture and
integrate into the organisation. This in turn enables newly recruited employees to start performing in their jobs,
and facilitates their retention

• Prepare for promotion & managerial succession: Training and development are central to the
implementation of organisational succession plans, which are in turn important for retention as well as
attraction and motivation (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)

• Satisfy personal growth needs: Many managers and professional employees have a need for achievement,
which may be satisfied through challenging training and development interventions (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343).
This in turn promotes employee satisfaction and retention

ACTIVITY
Identify companies in South Africa that place an emphasis on training and
development in the workplace

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 Introduction to Training and Development

1.6 Training and Development in the Twenty-First Century

It is important to understand the three vital issues of the twenty-first century in relation to training and development:
Quality-improvement programmes: These types of programmes have been implemented because of the
increase in customer demands for quality as well as to increase organisational competitiveness in the global market
and economy.
“Training and development in leadership, team building, goal-setting, problem-solving, decision-making and
computer modelling is often part of a quality improvement or total quality management (TQM) programme”
(Wärnich et al., 2015: 344).
Technological change-related programmes: There is a rapid acceleration of technological advancement which
requires employees and employers to be constantly receive training and development to update skills and
knowledge in relation to technological change.
Customer service programmes: These types of programmes are suitable for organisations that are identified as
service-oriented.
“Financial, banking, insurance and other such industries have been placing increased emphasis on service to the
customer as a possible competitive advantage in their industries” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 345).
Team Building Sizzles, Then Fizzles
The director of a city utilities department felt that creating employee problem-solving teams would improve the
quality of operations and the efficiency of the department. All employees were provided the opportunity to
participate in team-building and problem-solving training. About 60 percent of the employees, including the director
and his management group, signed up for the training. Three-hour training sessions took place once a week for
ten weeks. Working on a common process within their department, employees were grouped into teams for three
weeks of team-building training and seven weeks of problem-solving training.

At the beginning of the problem-solving training, each teams identified a problem in its area of operation. Each
team then worked through the problem as they progressed through each step of the training. The team members
were delighted to be learning new skills while working on a real problem. By the end of training, each group actually
solved, or made significant progress toward solving, the problem it was working on. Evaluations taken at the
conclusion of training indicated that trainees enjoyed the training and understood the steps, tools, and techniques
of team building and problem-solving. The director was pleased with the results and submitted a report
documenting the successes of the training to the city manager.

Follow-up evaluation conducted six months later showed only one team still in operation. The other teams fell apart
for various reasons, such as excessive workloads, little recognition being given when problems were solved, non-
trained employees resisting making changes in work processes, or teams being ridiculed by those who had not
participated in training. Clearly, the training did not achieve the desired outcomes. If the director had understood
the system and what was and was not rewarding, a more successful outcome could have been achieved. By using the
analysis phase of the Training Process Model, the relevant aspects of the system would have been identified and adjustments
to either the system or the training could have been made. (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 6)

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management 20

Introduction to Training and Development

1.7 Summary
This chapter introduced you to the key concepts utilised in training and development and indicated the differences
between each. At the same time, the chapter highlighted the purpose of training and development at the workplace
and indicated the various twenty-first century issues to keep in mind when in relation to training and development.
The next chapter focuses on approaching training and development and the use of a needs assessment process
before embarking on interventions in training and development.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Define “knowledge, skills and attitudes”.

2. Explain the purpose for training and development in the workplace.

3. Tabulate the differences between education, training and development.

4. Explain the three vital issues of the twenty-first century relating to training
and development.

21 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management

 Introduction to Training and Development

Unit
2: Approaching Training and
Development

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Introduction to Training and Development

Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES:

2.1 Introduction • Introduces the content areas of the unit

2.2 A Systems Approach to Training and • Explain a systems approach to training and development.
Development
• Explain reason and benefits for using the systems approach

2.3 Training Needs Analysis (TNA) • Describe a training needs analysis and its framework

2.4 Why conduct a Training Needs • Outline the importance of conducting a training needs analysis
Analysis
• Explain the reasons for conducting training needs analysis

2.5 Participants of a Needs Assessment • Determine who participates in training needs analysis

• Discuss the roles of different managers in conducting training

needs analysis

2.6 Training Needs Analysis Framework • Apply the training needs analysis framework

• Discuss the training needs analysis framework

2.7 Methods Used in Needs Assessment • Understand the methods for conducting training needs
analysis

• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the training

needs analysis methods

2.8 TNA Output • Discuss the training needs analysis outputs

• Evaluate the success of training needs analysis

2.9 Summary • Summarises the content areas of the unit

23 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management

 Introduction to Training and Development

Prescribed and Recommended Textbooks/Readings

Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.

Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management 24

Introduction to Training and Development

Developing a Training Package at Westcan

Chris is a human resources (HR) manager at Westcan Hydraulics, and Irven, the VP of HR, is her boss. One
morning Irven called Chris into his office. “I just saw an old training film called Meetings Bloody Meetings starring
John Cleese,” he said. “It deals with effective ways of running meetings.” Irven, a competent and well-liked
engineer, had been promoted to VP of HR three months earlier. Although he had no HR expertise, he had been
an effective production manager, and the president of the company had hoped that Irven would provide a measure
of credibility to the HR department. In the past, employees saw the HR department as one that forced its silly ideas
on the rest of the company with little understanding of how to make those ideas work.

“Well,” said Chris, “I…”

“Oh, yes,” Irven interjected, “I talked to a few managers this morning and they were enthusiastic about it. It’s the
first time I have ever seen managers enthusiastic about any type of training. Do we have such a training package
available?”

“No, I do not believe so,” Chris replied.

“Well,” said Irven, “we need a one-day training session. It must be interesting, useful, and generalisable to all
managers. Okay?” With that, Irven stood up, signalling that the meeting was over.

Chris went to work designing the training. She began by going to the local university and viewing the meetings film
her boss had seen. After examining some books that dealt with meetings, she decided that she had a good idea
of what made meetings effective. She then called Larry, a friend at Satellite Systems, to see what he had.

He faxed over a copy of a lecture he had given on the dos and don’ts of an effective meeting. It was nicely broken
down into three parts: pre-meeting, meeting and post-meeting. That information and a simulated meeting (to
provide hands-on practice) could make up the one-day training program. Chris had never written a simulation and
needed help. She put in a call to Karen, a subordinate who was fresh out of university and had majored in HR.
Karen would surely be able to help develop a simulation, Chris thought. (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 96)

2.1 Introduction
In order to embark on training and development, it is important to understand if the problem being faced is a training
or non-training related issue. This chapter will introduce you to a systems approach to training and development,
emphasising the significance of conducting a training needs analysis and highlighting the influence of a needs
analysis on the organisation, job and individual.

25 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management

 Introduction to Training and Development

2.2 A Systems Approach to Training and Development

Training and development should be seen in a holistic manner, by emphasising that it can occur as a system,
made up of different and distinct interrelated components / phases (See diagram 2.1).
In order for the system to work effectively, it is necessary for both the HR department and the line managers to
work collaboratively.

According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 346), the following indicates the division of HR responsibility in training and
development:
HR Unit
• Prepares training and development material
• Coordinates training and development efforts
• Conducts or arranges for off-the-job training and development
• Coordinates career plans and employee development efforts
• Provides input and expertise for organisational development

Managers
• Provide technical information
• Monitor training and development needs
• Conduct and monitor continuing on-the-job training and development
• Continually discuss employees’ growth and future potential
• Participate in organisational change efforts

(Adapted from Wärnich et al., 2015: 346).

Since training and development is a complex system, linking training and development initiatives to the overall
business objectives, mission and vision is important. This is referred to as strategic training and development.
Wärnich et al. (2015: 346) refers to strategic training and development as, “a more holistic and forward-looking
approach to training and development that should help individuals anticipate what knowledge and skills will be
required to achieve the organisation’s strategic objectives”

Strategic training and development focuses on:

• The improvement/ development of capabilities that are linked to the overall organisational strategic plan
• Adaptation to change is encouraged
• Continuous learning in the organisation is supported and promoted
• The development and sharing of new information and knowledge through the organisation and the use of
communication (Wärnich et al., 2015: 346)

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Introduction to Training and Development

Figure 1Figure: 2.1 A systems approach to T&D adapted from Wärnich et al. (2015: 347)

2.3 Training Needs Analysis (TNA)

Utilising the systems approach to training and development, it is important to conduct a needs assessment. The
needs assessment is the first phase in the training and development systems model and focuses on identifying
problem areas in each level that require training and development. It should be noted that “not all training and
development situations require assessment at each level. However, organisations that face serious, widespread
human resource performance and skills-related challenges, as in the case in South Africa, would benefit from this
approach” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 348). A needs assessment comprises of three levels which indicates that a needs
assessment should be conducted on all three levels which are:
The three levels that make up a TNA are:
• Organisational analysis
• Operations analysis
• Individual analysis

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 Introduction to Training and Development

THINK POINT
Discuss the purpose of a training needs analysis.

“A training needs analysis is a systematic method for determining what caused performance to be less than
expected or required. Performance improvement is the focus of training” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 108). For
this phase to therefore be conducted, the actual organisational performance (AOP) should be less than the
expected organisational performance (EOP). If this occurs, then an organisational performance gap (OPG) results,
this can be referred to as the “trigger” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 108). When this happens, an analysis needs
to take place to identify the reasons for a gap existing. This could either be a training or non-training requirement.
See diagram 2.2 below.

Figure 2Figure:2.2 Analysis Phase adapted from Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 107

2.4 Why conduct a Training Needs Analysis

A TNA is vital to conduct as it would indicate whether performance can be improved or rectified through training.
Therefore, training professionals are to utilise a TNA to ensure that the right training is provided to the right
individuals in the organisation. According to Blanchard & Thacker (2013: 109), a TNA can accomplish the following:
• “Increase the chances that the time and money spent on training is spent wisely
• Determine the benchmark for evaluation of training
• Increase the motivation of participants
• Align the training activities with the company’s strategic plan” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 97)

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Introduction to Training and Development

Therefore, training needs analysis will ensure that money is not spent on a training program that is not required or
does not assist in solve or solves the performance challenges faced. The TNA will also allow for performance
levels to be benchmarked, identifying the impact of training on performance levels both before and after training
has taken place. This will also assist in saving costs and adding value in the organisation as a result of training.

According to Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 97):

“A good TNA ensures that only those who need the training attend and provides the data to show trainees why the
training will be useful to them. Consider the employees who do not need the training but are sent by their supervisor
anyway. Are they going to take the training seriously? Probably not. In fact, their lack of interest might be distracting
to those who need and want the training. Worse, they might cause other trainees not to take the training seriously.
Using a TNA also ensures that your training focuses on KSAs the trainees really need. The needs analysis allows
the trainer to begin by explaining how the training will be useful. If trainees see the training as relevant, they are
more likely to be interested in attending and maintain interest during the training”.

Therefore, the information gathered during the TNA allows for the individuals to understand and see that the
training they are provided with is necessary and relevant. The knowledge, skill or ability gap identified during the
analysis will indicate the individuals that are required to attend the training.

According to Noe (2010: 104), there are numerous causes and outcomes of a needs assessment.
Figure 2.3 illustrates these:

Figure 3Figure:2.3 Causes and Outcomes of a Needs Assessment adapted from Noe, 2013: 115.

2.5 Participants of a Needs Assessment

According to Noe (2013: 105), traditionally, trainers were the key components of involvement in this process.
However, since the needs assessment focuses on identifying if a performance gap is caused due to a training
need or a non-training need, it is important for numerous participants such as managers, employees and trainers
to be involved.

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 Introduction to Training and Development

Different stakeholders are therefore able to ask different types of questions or hold different concerns. Table 2.1
below reflects these concerns as identified by Noe (2013: 116):
3Table 2.1 Key Concerns of Upper-Level and Mid-Level Managers and Trainers adapted from Noe (2013:
116)
Upper-Level Managers Mid-Level Managers Trainers
Organisational Is training important to Do I want to spend Do I have the budget to
Analysis achieve our business money on training? How buy training services?
objectives? How does much? How will training Will managers support
training support our and development help training?
business strategy? meet business my
business goals?
Person Analysis What functions or Who should be trained? How will I identify which
business units need Managers? employees need
training? What do Professionals? Core training?
employees need to do to employees?
accomplish our business
objectives?
Task Analysis Does the company have For what jobs can For what tasks should
people with the training make the biggest employees be trained?
knowledge, skills, and difference in product What knowledge, skills,
abilities or competencies quality or customer ability, or other
needed to compete in service? characteristics are
the marketplace? necessary?

2.6 Training Needs Analysis Framework

Each level of analysis during a Needs Assessment will now be further explained.

2.6.1 Organisational Analysis

This level focuses on analysing the key components of the entire organisation. According to Wärnich et al (2015:
348), “organisational analysis involves analysing organisation-wide performance criteria (e.g. accidents and
injuries, absenteeism, turnover, productivity, quality, labour and operating costs, sexual harassment charges,
employment equity problems, etc.).”

The purpose of an organisational analysis is to identify the key problem areas in the organisation that would require
a need for training and development to be conducted.

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Introduction to Training and Development

According to Nancy Gordon, a TNA analyst at Ameritech (cited in Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 103), about 85
percent of all requests for training turned out to be related to issues that could not be addressed by training. They
were, instead, incongruences in the organisational environment that inhibited or prevented the appropriate work
behaviours”.

Therefore, an organisational analysis should place emphasis on its strategies, resources, internal environment –
workflow processes, policies, structure, job design, etc. (Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 103).

Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 115), point out that an organisational analysis should provide information regarding
the following aspects:
• The organisation’s mission and strategies
• With regards to the objectives, the resources and its allocations
• Component(s) in the internal environment posing a challenge
• “The effect of any of the above on developing, providing, and transferring the KSAs to the job if training
is the chosen solution to the organisational performance gap.” (Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 104)

2.6.2 Operations Analysis (Task Analysis)

This level can also be referred to as job/ task analysis. Therefore, the focus of this analysis is on the performance
level of the job, identifying how a job should be performed. The information and data collected during this level will
provide for interventions to be created that will improve the level of performance through focusing on the right way
in performing a job/ task (Wärnich et al., 2015: 348).

In order to obtain information about the job, numerous sources/ documents can be utilised. These are: job
descriptions, job specifications, performance standards, asking questions about the job.

According to Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 118):

“When an organisational performance gap is identified, an operational analysis is conducted in conjunction with
the organisational analysis to fully understand the nature of the organisational performance gap. The operational
analysis determines exactly what is required of employees for them to be effective. The typical technique for
obtaining the task and KSA data that are required to meet expected job performance standards is the job analysis.
The most frequently used process includes questioning employees doing the job and their supervisors”.

2.6.3 Individual/ Person Analysis

At this level, the focus is placed on the employee to identify the training and development needs of an employee.
Therefore, emphasis is placed on identifying which employee requires training and development and what KSAs
are required or needs to be improved (Wärnich et al., 2015: 348).

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 Introduction to Training and Development

Therefore, individual analysis will ensure that the correct individuals receive training and development and that the
interventions utilised will close the organisational performance gap, aligning the actual performance to the
expected/ desired organisational performance.

According to Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 119):

“The operational analysis determines the tasks (or competencies) and KSAs necessary to reach or exceed
expected performance. A person analysis will identify those incumbents who are not meeting the performance
requirements and will determine why. Here, each employee is examined to determine who does not have the
necessary KSAs to meet performance expectations”.

Whilst management and employee interviews are a more common way of obtaining information for individual
analysis, there are also additional ways in which data can be obtained for individual analysis. These are:
• Advisory committees
• Assessment centres
• Attitude surveys
• Group discussions
• Questionnaires
• Skills test
• Observations of behaviour
• Performance appraisals
• Performance documents
• Exit interviews (Wärnich et al., 2015: 348 – 349)

2.7 Methods Used in Needs Assessment

There are numerous methods that can be utilised during a needs assessment. Table 2.2 below indicates the
various methods, highlighting its advantages and disadvantages.

4Table 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs Assessment adapted from Noe (2013).

Technique Advantages Disadvantages

Observation ▪ Generates data relevant to work ▪ Needs skilled observers

environment
▪ Employees’ behaviour may be affected by
▪ Minimises interruption of work being observed

Questionnaires ▪ Inexpensive ▪ Requires time

▪ Can collect data from a large ▪ Possible low return rates, inappropriate
number of persons responses

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Introduction to Training and Development

▪ Data easily summarised ▪ Lacks detail

▪ Only provides information directly related

to questions asked

Interviews ▪ Good at uncovering details of ▪ Time consuming

training needs, as well as causes
▪ Difficult to analyse
of and solutions to problems
▪ Needs skilled interviewers
▪ Can explore unanticipated issues
▪ Can be threatening to SMEs
that come up
▪ Difficult to schedule
▪ Questions can be modified
▪ SMEs provide only information they think
you want to hear

Focus Groups and ▪ Useful with complex or ▪ Time consuming to organise

Collaboration controversial issues that one
▪ Group members provide only information
Tools person may be unable or
they think you want to hear
unwilling to explore

▪ Questions can be modified to

explore unanticipated issues

Documentation ▪ Good source of information on ▪ You may be unable to understand

(technical, procedure technical language
manuals, records)
▪ Objective ▪ Material may be obsolete

▪ Good source of task information

for new jobs and jobs in the
process of being created

Online ▪ Objective ▪ May threaten employees

Technology
▪ Minimises interruption of work ▪ Manager may use information to punish
(software)
rather than train
▪ Requires limited human
involvement ▪ Limited to jobs requiring interaction with
customers via computer or phone

Historical Data ▪ Provides data related to ▪ Available data may be inaccurate,

Reviews performance and practices incomplete, or not fully represent
performance

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 Introduction to Training and Development

THINK POINT
Looking back at the extract at the beginning of the chapter “Developing a Training
Package at Westcan”, provide your thoughts on the process utilised to develop
training for conducting effective meetings. Ensure that you align your thoughts to
the content discussed in this chapter

2.8 TNA Output

As stated previously, the result of a TNA would either be a training or non-training requirement/ need. This output
would be identified after the gathered data is analysed.
A non-training need would indicate that training is not the best solution to utilise to deal with the performance
challenged the organisation is faced with. Therefore, the organisational performance gap is not a result of a lack
of training but can arise due to the following:
• Reward/ punishment incongruences
• Inadequate or inappropriate feedback
• Obstacles in the system (Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 127)

If there is a non-training need where KSAs pose a problem and training is still not regarded as the best possible
solution, the organisation can make use of job aids, practicing of tasks or changing the job.

If the output does indicate that the performance gap is a result of a lack of KSAs and training is the solution, then
the KSAs should be used to create the training objectives.

As Robert Brinkerhoff (p.304), an internationally recognised expert in training effectiveness said (cited in Blanchard
and Thacker, 2010: 130),

“The reality is that these non-training factors are the principle determinants [for transfer of training], if they are not
aligned and integrated they will easily overwhelm the very best training [inhibit transfer] … Best estimates are that
80 percent or more of the eventual impact of training is determined by performance systems factors [non-training
needs].”

Where Do You Start When You Have a Performance Gap?

Students in a training and development class decided that for their class project, they would like to determine why
some professors are interesting and informative, whereas others are not. The needs analysis of this performance
discrepancy (PD) would help determine whether the issue is training or something else.

They examined the PD using operational analysis (expected performance) and person analysis (actual
performance). One way of obtaining expected performance data is to observe the job. The group of students had

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Introduction to Training and Development

observed the job (lecturing) of professors for two years, and also using data from other students they interviewed,
they developed a list of behaviours that they believed made lectures interesting and informative.

For person analysis (actual performance), the students used observation and performance data. Using the
observation method, the students identified six professors who were considered as having a performance
discrepancy. These data were compared with OTHER performance data (published student surveys) about the
professors’ teaching skills, which verified the observations. An attempt to verify this information further was made
by asking the dean to provide student (customer) complaints about professor over the past two years. The dean
declined to provide such information.

The organisational analysis was then conducted. Because of the nature of discrepancy (only business school
professors were identified), the organisational analysis focused primarily on the business school. Examining the
university-wide mission and other documents was not necessary. Questions about reward/ punishment
incongruence, inadequate feedback, and obstacles in the system were examined.

This was done through an interview with the dean of the business school. Questions related to adequate feedback
were as follows: (1) Are there other performance ratings of professors? (2) Do the professors receive feedback on
their performance? The dean’s answer was that the only measures of their teaching performance are student
surveys and any unsolicited complaints from students. Regarding feedback, the professors receive the student
evaluations along with a ranking f themselves and all other faculty members based on these data. Any student
complaints would also be made available to the professor. The dean noted that the same professors tended to be
rated low each year but again declined to provide specifics. A question related to reward/ punishment incongruence
was as follow: What happens to those who are rated high and low? The answer was nothing; there are no extrinsic
rewards or punishment for being a good or poor teacher. Finally, in response to a question about obstacles in the
system, the dean emphasised the pressure for publications. “Publish or perish” were the words he used.
Promotions, tenure, travel, and other rewards were all provided to those who were publishing on a regular basis.
These were the overall findings of the needs assessment.
(Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 135).

2.9 Summary
This chapter focused on approaching training and development by utilising a systems approach. In doing so, it is
necessary for an organisation to conduct a training needs analysis. This analysis is conducted as a result of an
organisational performance gap. If this exists, which is indicated by the expected / desired performance not being
aligned to the current performance, then a needs analysis should be conducted. The needs analysis will identify if
the performance gap be overcome by a training or non-training need. There are three levels that make up a needs
analysis, an organisational level, an operational level and an individual or person level. Analysis at each level will
provide information that will assist the organisation or training professional in identifying the reason for a
performance gap to exist.

35 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management

 Introduction to Training and Development

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the significance of conducting a training needs analysis.

2. With the aid of a diagram, describe the training needs process.

3. Explain what is meant by a systems approach to training.

4. Outline the division of HR responsibility in training and development.

ACTIVITY

ACTIVITY: Determining Training Needs at Union Pacific Railroad

Union Pacific Railroad is the largest railroad in North America, operating in the
western two-thirds of the United States. The railroad serves 23 states, linking every
major West Coast and Gulf Coast port, and provides service to the East through its
four major gateways in Chicago, Memphis, St. Louis, and New Orleans. Additionally,
Union Pacific operates key North/ South corridors, connects with the Canadian and
Mexican rail systems, and is the only railroads to serve all six gateways to Mexico.
The railroad transports a large number of products, including chemical, coal, food
and food products, forest products, grain and grain products, metals and minerals,
and automobiles and parts. Union Pacific has been ranked first among railroads in
Fortune magazine’s published list of “America’s Most Admired Companies.”

In an attempt to improve its 70 percent rate of timeliness and accuracy of shipping to

customers, Union Pacific plans to install computers and satellites on the railroad
engines, which would give conductors a better ability to communicate and locate
railcars that need to be delivered.

Question:

Making use of the knowledge gained in this section, discuss how a training needs
assessment should be conducted in order to identify the training method that would
be suitable for conductors at Union Pacific to utilise the new system put in place.

Adapted from Goldwasser (2001: 88) cited in Noe (2010: 135

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management 36

Introduction to Training and Development

Unit
3: Training and Development
Design and Delivery

37 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management

 Introduction to Training and Development

Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES:

3.1 Introduction • Introduces content areas of the unit

3.2 Introducing Training Design • Describe the key components of training design

• Explain the key components on the design phase of training

and development

3.3 Organisational Constraints • Understand organisational challenges to training and

development

3.4 Training and Development • Understand the goals of training and development
Objectives
• Outline the objectives of training and development

3.5 Learning • Understand they types of learning outcomes

• Discuss different theories of learning

• Explain different learning styles

• Determine the employee readiness to learning

3.6 Introducing Training and • Understand how to select and prepare the training site
Development Delivery
• Outline the approaches to training delivery

3.7 On-The-Job Training (OJT) & • Define on-the-job training

Development
• Discuss the on-the-job and off-the-job training and
development methods

• State the advantages and disadvantages of on-the-job training

3.8 Away-From-The-Job Training and • Understand the away-from-the- job training

Development
• Discuss different types of away-from-the-job training

• State the advantages and disadvantages of away-from-the-job

training

3.9 Selecting Training & Development • Apply the best training and development methods
Methods Appropriate for the
• Outline the guidelines for selecting the best training and
Training Need
development methods

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Introduction to Training and Development

3.10 Transfer of Training • Explain the transfer of training and discuss the training plan
and implementation

• Identify methods of assessing the transfer of skills into

employee

3.11 A Training Plan and • Apply training plan

Implementation
• Explain the managers responsibility for training

3.12 Summary • Summarises the content areas of the unit

Prescribed and Recommended Textbooks/Readings

Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.

Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156

39 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Human Resource Management

 Introduction to Training and Development

3.1 Introduction
Training Leads to Clean Cars, Satisfied Customers and Engaged Employees at Mike’s Carwash Inc.
Mike’s Carwash, based in Indianapolis, Indiana, is a privately owned chain of car washes that has 37 locations in
Indiana and Ohio with 650 employees. Opened in 1948, the first Mike’s was called “Mike’s Minit Man Carwash”,
named after the type of equipment originally used. Mike’s has a reputation for great and speedy service and
continues to expand to new locations. Mike’s Carwashes are automated and feature equipment systems and
technology developed by Mike’s employees. Mike’s credits some of its success to the family’s business smarts but
believes that most of its success comes from its hiring and training practices. Mike’s original founders, Joe and Ed
Dahm, were known to tell employees that the company was truly in the people business but it just happened to
wash cars.

Customer satisfaction is very important to Mike’s with the emphasis placed on repeat business by serving
customers so they will come back again. The biggest challenge that Mike’s faces is providing a consistent enjoyable
customer experience. Mike’s is constantly trying to improve the customer experience through innovation and new
ideas. If a new idea works it is implemented in all locations. Mike’s believes that the only way to provide a consistent
customer experience is through finding great employees, retaining them, and helping them develop. The company
website explains that it is “notoriously picky” when it comes to hiring. For every 50 people Mike’s considered hiring,
just one is hired. Mike’s feels that it is easy to teach the mechanics of how to perform a job, but it is much more
difficult to teach someone to care about customers. Also, because about half of promotions to managerial positions
come from current employees, Mike’s is looking for employees who intend to stay with the company. As a result,
the hiring process focuses on identifying employees who have a positive attitude a desire to work with people, a
willingness to go out their way to please customers, and leadership qualities. To identify new employees with these
characteristics, job applicants participate in multiple interviews, pre-employment testing, thorough reference
checks, criminal background checks, and drug testing.

Mike’s retains and engages its employees through a number of HR practices. Each employee has a development
plan and receives performance appraisals twice each year. New employee training involves familiarising them with
best practices and how to help customers in different situations that they will encounter at the car wash. Before
employees wait on their first customer they receive two days of orientation and participate in workshops that all
focus on customer service, how to treat customers, how to recover from service errors and mistakes, and how to
deal with difficult customers. Mike’s also provides training to help to help employees advance in the company. The
career path from hourly associate to supervisor to shift manager to assistant manager is well-defined.

Movement on the career path is possible through good performance and completing internal certifications that
include up to 12 weeks of training and three exams requiring passing grades of at least 80%. Employee
engagement and satisfaction is measured by semi-annual surveys as well as information gathered from employees
who are leaving Mike’s. Employees play an important role in the choice and design of training and development

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activities. A 15- to 20-person team consisting of members who have been nominated by their store manager serve
a one-year term as subject matter experts in helping to develop new and modify existing training programs. Team
members also are the first trainees in new programs, providing feedback about needed changes and feedback on
program effectiveness.

In addition to its regular training programs for new employees and certification programs for advancement, Mike’s
has developed programs to meet emerging business needs. The economic recession resulted in a decrease in the
volume of customers Mike’s served as well as revenue. As a result, Mike’s recognised the need to increase the
spending of its customers by making sure that employees made them aware of value-added services such as
underbody washes, tire treatments, and clear coat. To do this, Mike’s developed an online training module and
trained managers to encourage employees to complete the training and practice using the selling skills at monthly
employee meetings. Mike’s recognises the important role that managers paly in helping employees learn. At Mike’s
managers need to actively support and help deliver training. They are held accountable for training and developing
employees in order to advance and succeed. In this program, managers were taught how to identify weaknesses
in employees’ service recommendation techniques and use weekly coaching sessions to enhance them. Managers
were also encouraged to observe and document employees making service recommendations to customers and
to provide them with feedback. The results of this program were positive: overall revenue, revenue per customer,
customer satisfaction, and mystery shopper scores all increased.

Another business issue that Mike’s uses training to resolve is how to maintain a consistent corporate culture across
its 37 locations. To address this challenge, Mike’s created “In the Loop,” a weekly video communication that is
shown on a computer terminal in each location. Each 10-munite segment is used to deliver training content,
recognise employee and store performance, communicate to employees, and share best practices. Regularly on
the video the CEO shares a letter from a satisfied customer and discusses the specific behaviours that the
customer experienced that exemplifies Mike’s customer service values. Since the development of the video Mike’s
has seen an increase of more than 100% in the number of positive customer letters, comment cards, and website
contacts.
Adapted from Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright, 2012: 269 – 270)

This section will focus on the design of training upon completion of the training needs analysis. Aspects of learning
theories and motivation to assist in the design of training will be explained. Once the training has been designed,
the training development delivery will be described, focusing on different training methods, either on-the-job or off-
the-job.

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3.2 Introducing Training Design

Once the training needs analysis has been conducted and upon completion it has been identified that training
would be the best possible solution to overcome the issue at hand, then it is necessary for the training professional
to embark on the next phase of the training and development process which is designing the training.

According to Blanchard and Thacker (2014: 163 - 164), the design phase of training is a “process of identifying the
set of specifications that will be used in the development phase for creating the training modules”. This will therefore
focus on key issues such as the reason why training is taking place, the participants of the training session,
identifying the training objectives and methods to be utilised, the training location and the underlying principles to
assist in the facilitation and transfer of training.

For example, Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 164) state:

“Suppose that an HRD department completed a training needs assessment that identified that supervisors need
training in effective communication skills. The next decisions to be made include the following:
• What will the training achieve?
• What methods of training will be used?
• How much time will be allotted for the training?
• How many trainees will be trained at the same time?
• Whether this training will be conducted on company time or overtime?
• Whether this training will be voluntary or mandatory?
• Where to locate the training?”

Figure 3.1 shows of the design phase that indicates that key components of this process.

Figure 4Figure:3.1 Design Phase adapted from Blanchard and Thacker, 2013: 162

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3.3 Organisational Constraints

There are a number of constraints that influence the training and development process. However, suggestions or
ways to overcome these constraints should be identified to assist in conducting an effective training and
development process in the organisation. According to Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 156), a training professional
should keep in mind constraints that are organisational/ environmental. These can range from the strategic plan of
the organisation to the training budget to the diverse trainee population.

For example: Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 157) states: “Once the objectives of training are determined, it is
necessary to estimate the amount of time it will take to design and develop the training for delivery. The more
accurate the estimate is, the more accurate the costing will be, and the more credibility the department will have
with its clients. The length of the training program (how long it actually takes to deliver the training) is a good guide
for estimating the length of time to prepare”.

In addition, trainee population would indicate different levels of KSAs, creating diversity in the training session.
This can pose a challenge in training to meet all the needs and demands of trainees. At the same time, trainees
hold different assumptions and views of the training content, techniques and methods utilised, creating a difficult
situation for the trainer.

Thus, Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 160) states that:

“While organisational constraints influence most aspects of the training process, they can have a real impact on
the development of the training objectives. It would be wonderful if we could always deliver the perfect training to
satisfy the training needs. Unfortunately, we face constraints on what we are able to do, thus the objectives we set
for training must be realistic, reflecting what is achievable. The budget available, the nature of the employees
needing training, and so on, will place limits on what can be achieved. Once you have a general understanding of
what can be achieved, you will need to refine that into clear objective statements.”

3.4 Training and Development Objectives

Once the training needs analysis has been conducted and a training requirement has been indicated by the
analysed data, it is now necessary to formulate training and development objectives. The training and development
objectives will indicate what the trainee would be competent and able to do upon completion of the training,
therefore indicating the KSAs each trainee would attain at the end of the training session (Wärnich et al, 2015).

According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 350), formulated objectives will benefit training and development in the following
ways: Training and development objectives:
• Helps to identify the suitable and appropriate methods by focusing on the employee performance areas
that need to change

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• Makes clear the trainer and trainee expectations

• Creates a foundation on which the training and development session can be evaluated

In addition, it is stated that training and development objectives should contain:

1. A statement of outcome behaviour which indicates what the trainee would be able to do at the end of the
training and development session/ course,
2. A description of the different conditions under which the expected behaviour is to take place,
3. And lastly, the minimum level of achievement that would indicate that the trainee has achieved the
requirements of the training and development session/ course (Wärnich et al., 2015: 350).

3.5 Learning
The organisation is now required to begin the training design phase. It is important that the organisation designs
suitable and relevant training that can amount to outcomes which benefit the organisation holistically. When
designing training and development, it is important to take into consideration the different principles of learning.
This means that the training professional needs to keep in mind the various types of learning styles that trainees
may possess. This also indicates that “adult learning” is distinguished and understood from the learning of a child.

3.5.1 Employee Readiness for Learning

In designing the training intervention, it is important that consideration is given to the targeted employees’ readiness
and motivation to learn. Readiness for learning refers to whether:
• Employees have the personal characteristics (e.g. ability, attitudes, beliefs and motivation) necessary to learn
through participating in the training intervention, and to apply what they learn to their jobs
• The work environment will support employees’ learning and will not impede their attempts to apply what they
have learnt to their jobs (Noe et al, 2008: 279)

While managers are not usually trainers, they are important in influencing employees’ motivation for learning.
Motivation is the desire of the employee to participate in and learn from the training intervention (Noe et al, 2008:
279). Research has shown that employee motivation to learn is to a large degree dependent on the extent to which
the learning intervention is going to provide for knowledge gain, behaviour change and skill acquisition.

It is important that managers and HR practitioners ensure that employees’ motivation to learn is as high as possible
through ensuring employees’ beliefs of self-efficacy, creating an understanding of the benefits of the training,
linking training interventions to employee training needs and career interests, ensuring a supportive work
environment and ensuring that employees have basic skills necessary to perform effectively on the programme.

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3.5.2 Learning Differences

In order to design training, it is important to understand the underlying influences of learning, keeping in mind the
various learning approaches and differences.

According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 351), the there are various learning principles that underpin adult learning.
These are:

Motivation – Training may be seen as a burden to certain employees, taking up time away from their jobs. It is
therefore vital that employees are motivated to engage in training through seeing the use of training and developing
in achieving both individual and organisational goals. Employees may also be included in the planning process to
create an interactive and engaged process.

Participation – Trainers should encourage active and interactive training and development sessions that allow for
discussions and debate to take place. This allows for the trainee to have direct involvement in training and
development.

Feedback – providing information on the trainee’s progress during the training and development session and
showing a linkage between the objectives set out in the training and development process and the progress of the
trainee allows for reduced anxiety and increased improvements.
Organisation – Allow for a flow and integration of information and knowledge presented, eliminating ambiguous
and irrelevant information.

“For example, I organising a course about the operation and maintenance of a large printing press, the safety
precautions that must be taken should be presented first. Next, the major parts of the machine and the functions
of each should be explained. Then, a competent operator could be observed running the machine, followed by
hands-on experience with several uncomplicated tasks and so on. The final portion of training and development
may involve preventive maintenance and minor repairs. In this example, each part of the training and
development flows into the next, without inconsistencies or gaps” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 351).

Repetition – Trainees can be asked to repeat information or behaviours provided to them to refresh their
memories.

Application – The trainee is required to engage in transfer-of-learning/ training upon completion of the training
and development. However, this can pose many challenges. Wärnich et al. (2015: 352), propose various ways in
which transfer-of-learning can take place:
• “Maximise the similarity between training and development and the job
• Provide as much experience as possible with the task being taught
• Provide for a variety of examples when teaching concepts or skills

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• Label or identify important features of a task

• Make sure that general principles are understood
• Make sure that the training and development is rewarded on the job
• Design the training and so that the training and development participants can see its applicability
• Use questions to guide training and development participants’ attention”

At the same time, it is important to note that when facilitation of learning is taking place, the trainer should keep in
mind the differences that exist between individuals. Differences could exist in the following:

Learning Styles – Each individual has a different style and way of learning. For example, some learners prefer to
learning through the use of facts and engage in problem solving whilst others may prefer exploration and a practical
approach. On the other hand, some may learn using a visual approach whereas others would prefer utilisation of
verbal learning. Trainers should therefore be equipped with identifying the different types of learners and their
approaches.

Motivation – The motivating factors for each learner would differ therefore either contributing to positive
perceptions or negative perceptions of training. Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 172), state that:

“Those who come to a training program with positive expectations are more successful. Trainees who agree with
such statements as
• “Even if I fail, this training will be a valuable experience
• I will get more from this training than most people
• I have a better chance of passing this training than most others
• If I have trouble during training, I will try harder
Are more likely to meet the objectives than those who do not. Those with positive expectations are more
motivated. If such expectations were determined during the needs assessment, an intervention could take place
for those with unfavourable expectations.”

3.5.3 Learning Theories

“Learning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes, these
capabilities are related to a specific learning outcome” (Noe, 2010: 140). Table 3.1 below indicates the different
learning outcomes and capabilities.

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5Table 3.1 Learning Outcomes adapted from Noe (2013)

Type of Learning Outcome Description of Capability Example

Verbal information State, tell, or describe previously State three reasons for following
stored information. company safety procedures.

Intellectual skills Apply generalisable concepts and Design and code a computer
rules to solve problems and program that meets customer
generate novel products. requirements.

Motor skills Execute a physical action with Shoot a gun and consistently hit a
precision and timing. small moving target.

Attitudes Choose a personal course of action. Choose to respond to all incoming

mail within 24 hours.

Cognitive strategies Manage one’s own thinking and Use three different strategies
learning processes. selectively to diagnose engine
malfunctions.

In addition to these outcomes, there are various ways in which a person may learn. It is however important to also
keep in mind the trainee’s motivation and readiness to learn.

Theories that focus on learning are:

Reinforcement theory: this theory focuses on motivation that stems from experiences due to certain behaviours.
In other words, “people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviours because of past outcomes that have
resulted from those behaviours.” If the outcome was positive, then the behaviour may be repeated resulting in a
positive reinforcement. However, if negative reinforcement takes place then this means that there was an
undesirable or unpleasant outcome that has resulted from the individuals’ behaviour, which may result in the
individual not performing that behaviour again:

“For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding noises unless the operator holds levers in
a certain position. The operator will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises.

“” The process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behaviour is known as extinction.
Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after behaviour, leading to a decrease in that behaviour.”
“For example, if a manager yells at employees when they are late, they may avoid the yelling by being on time (but
they may also call in sick, quit, to trick the boss into not noticing when they arrive late).” (Noe, 2010: 141 – 142).

Social Learning Theory: This theory states that people are able to learn through the use of observation of other
individuals, also known as models. These individuals or models are considered to have detailed knowledge and

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are seen to be reliable / credible. This theory also indicates that if the model demonstrates rewarding skills or
behaviour, then these behaviours can be repeated or demonstrated by the observer/ learner.
“According to social learning theory, learning new skills or behaviours comes from (1) directly experiencing the
consequences of using that behaviour or skill, or (2) the process of observing others and seeing the
consequences of their behaviour” (Noe, 2010: 143).

Goal Setting Theory: Here behaviour is seen as a result of a person’s goals and intentions, therefore implying
that goals have a significant influence on behaviour.

“Goals influence a person’s behaviour by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and
motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Research suggests that specific challenging
goals result in better performance than vague, unchallenging goals.” (Noe, 2010: 145).

Need Theory: People place value on different outcomes therefore emphasising that “a need is a deficiency that a
person is experiencing at any point in time and a need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the
deficiency” (Noe, 2010: 146). An individual’s need would motivate them to act in a way that would fulfil any
limitations or deficiencies.

Expectancy Theory: According to Noe (2010: 147), “in the expectancy theory, a belief (expectation) that
performing a given behaviour (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome (e.g.,
being able to perform your job) is called instrumentality. Valence is the value that a person places on an outcome
(e.g., how important it is to perform better on the job)”. Therefore, expectancies are an individual’s beliefs between
performing a particular behaviour in relation to actually performing it optimally (2013: 160). Figure 3.2 further
illustrates the key components of the expectancy theory.

Expectancy Valence
Instrumentality
Effort →
X Performance → X Value of = EFFORT
Performance Outcome
Outcome

5Figure:3.2 Expectancy Theory of Motivation adapted from Noe (2013).

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3.5.4 Implications of the Learning Process

The trainer would provide instruction which focuses on how he / she is able to manipulate that environment to
assist the learner to learn. However, in order to ensure that proper instruction is provided, the following features
should exist:
• Employees need to know why they should learn
• Employees need meaningful training content
• Employees need opportunities to practice
• Employees need to commit training content to memory
• Employees need feedback
• Employees learn through observation, experience and social interaction
• Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged (Noe, 2010: 154 – 164)

3.5.5 Selecting and Preparing the Training Site

This refers to the location or room where the training will take place. It is vital for the training site to be easily
accessible, comfortable, free from any disturbances and spacious.

At the same time, seating arrangements should be arranged in a way that is suitable and applicable for the type of
training to be conducted.

The effectiveness of any learning intervention is to a large degree dependent on the competence of the trainer.
Trainers should also be carefully selected; either being sourced internally or externally. Trainers should possess
the knowledge and expertise to effectively and efficiently conduct the training.
The following are the key competencies and characteristics which a trainer should possess:
• Knowledge of the Subject: Trainers should not only have a comprehensive knowledge of the subject matter
which they are facilitating, but they should also be able to apply their knowledge (Snell & Bohlander, 2007:
295)
• Enthusiasm: This shows the learners that the trainer is passionate about his/her area of expertise. An
enthusiastic climate promotes learner interest
• Adaptability: Trainers need to be adequately skilled to accommodate the different learning styles of learners.
For example, certain learners may learn faster while others may learn slower, and the trainer should be able
to accommodate both of these learning styles within a workshop
• Sincerity: Trainers need to be sincere and genuine. They should demonstrate tact and patience in dealing
with learners’ concerns
• Sense of Humour: Trainers should be able to make learning fun – a humorous anecdote can be used to
convey an important learning point (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 295)

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• Provide Clear Instructions: Learning is more effective and efficient when instructions given to the learners
are easily understandable
• Provide Individual Assistance
In addition, according to Wärnich et al. (2015: 374), training and development professionals should also acquire
four sets of skills. These are:
• Power skills enable the professional to influence people he / she will come into contact with / interact with.
• Relationship skills that will assist in creating a supportive and assistive relationship, ensuring
communication and empathy is present
• Technical skills that focuses on the knowledge that the professional possesses – “pertaining to an
employee-specific discipline. Training and development professionals must maintain state-of-the-art
knowledge not only of adult learning but also of related topics, such as productivity improvement and
organisational change processes (Wärnich et al., 2015: 374)
• Entrepreneurial skills that focus on problem solving and taking risks that are calculated – this is further
related to the strategic relationship between the organisations overall business goals and the objectives of
training and development (Wärnich et al., 2015: 374)

3.6 Introducing Training and Development Delivery

This section addresses the “Delivery of Training and Development” which forms Phase 3 of the Training Cycle.
The approaches to training delivery which will be explored in this section include:
• On-The-Job Training & Development
• Away-From-The-Job Training & Development
• Selecting Training & Development Methods Appropriate for the Training Need

3.7 On-The-Job Training (OJT) & Development

On-the-job training (OJT) refers to “new and inexperienced employees learning through observing peers or
managers performing the job and trying to imitate their behaviour” (Noe et al, 2008: 294).
OJT proves to be very useful in:
• Training newly hired employees
• Upskilling existing employees in new technologies
• Cross-training employees within a work unit
• Orienting promoted employees or transferred employees to their new jobs (Noe et al, 2008: 294)

There are various forms of OJT which range from job rotation to internships to coaching and mentoring. It is a form
of training and development which is relevant to all levels of employees, from operators and administrative staff to
all levels of management. OJT is especially beneficial for upper levels of management whose first choice of learning
intervention is often executive coaching.

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3.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of On-The-Job Training and Development

6Table: 3.2 The advantages and disadvantages of OJT are detailed in the table below (Grobler et al, 2006:
312).
On-The-Job Training and Development
Advantages Disadvantages
The trainer (experienced employee / supervisor)
The learner is involved in doing the actual work (which
may not be motivated to train and develop the
is better than doing a simulated task).
learner.
While the trainer may be an expert at the job,
An experienced employee / supervisor guides the
he/she may not have the ability to effectively train
learner through the tasks.
others.
No special training facilities are required as the learning The trainer may not have the time to train and could
takes place in the actual workplace. ‘rush’ the training process.
The learning intervention is relatively inexpensive and
easy to schedule. While the learner is learning on-the-job,
The learning intervention builds a cooperative working performance will initially be low, resources may be
relationship between the learner and the experienced inefficiently used and costly errors may be made.
employee / supervisor.

3.7.2 Methods for On-The-Job Training and Development

An overview of frequently used OJT Methods is provided in Figure 5.1 below.

On-The-Job Training & Development Methods

Figure 6Figure 3.3 On-The-Job Training Methods

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Details of each of the commonly implemented OJT methods are provided below:
1 Job Rotation
Job rotation provides the learner with a variety of work experience and in so doing broadens the learner’s
knowledge and skills base (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 306). It involves the systematic transfer of the learner from
job to job with the learner remaining in one particular job for two weeks to six months (Kleynhans et al, 2006: 125).
Job rotation is a very useful method for inducting a newly graduated learner into an organisation (Nel et al, 2008:
465). While this OJT method ensures that learners gain practical experience quickly, it needs to be continuously
guided and monitored in order for it to succeed.

The hotel industry frequently uses job rotation to train learners and new employees, providing them with exposure
to all work streams from housekeeping, to catering, to finance (Kleynhans et al, 2006: 125).

2 Job Enlargement & Enrichment

Enlarging and enriching job responsibilities is a very useful OJT method for existing employees, particularly those
in front-line and management positions. Grobler et al (2006: 313) points out that “by giving an employee added job
duties and increasing the autonomy and responsibilities associated with the job, the firm allows an employee to
learn a lot about the job, department and organisation.”

While providing for learning and development, job enlargement and enrichment can also provide for enhanced
employee motivation and job satisfaction (Grobler, 2006: 313).

3 Internships, Apprenticeships & Learnerships

Internships, apprenticeships and learnerships take place both on-the-job and off-the-job where the learner is
exposed to workplace experience after and/or during a period of formal, institution-based learning:
• An internship often takes the form of ‘vacation work’ during a learner’s studies towards a formal qualification,
or ‘graduate workplace experience’ on completion of a learner’s studies. The purpose of the internship is to
expose the learner to the dynamics of the workplace

• An apprenticeship is a “work-study training method with both on-the-job training and classroom training” (Noe
et al, 2008: 296). The majority of apprenticeships are in the skilled trades such as bricklaying, electrical work,
plumbing and carpentry. The apprenticeship clearly defines the period of time on-the-job which must be
devoted to the development of a specific skill. The training that is provided to the apprentice at the worksite
involves modelling, practice, feedback and evaluation (Noe et al, 2008: 297)

• A learnership is specific to the South African context. It is similar to an apprenticeship but is not restricted to
trades (as the apprenticeship is) and encompasses most occupations, including those at a professional level.
The learnership requires that a tri-partite learnership agreement between employer, learner and training
institution be signed (Kleynhans et al, 2006:126)

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4 Coaching
Coaching may be described as “planned one-to-one instruction” where the coach “sets a good example of what is
to be done, answers questions, and generally offers counsel to the trainee” (Nel et al, 2008:465). Coaches assist
employees with setting development goals, achieving these goals and providing constructive feedback (Grobler et
al, 2006: 313)

Executive coaching is a development intervention often selected by individuals holding top management level
positions as it enables them to receive focused training which has direct relevance to their day-to-day work.

While coaching can be a very effective method in facilitating the development of competence, if an appropriate
relationship is not established between the coach and learner then the coaching intervention will fail (Grobler et al,
2006: 314).

5 Mentoring
A mentor is usually “an experienced manager who provides guidance to a junior manager or professional and
facilitates his or her personal development” (Nel et al, 2008:314).

While informal mentoring arrangements always emerge within organisations, formal mentoring interventions may
be set up by organisations as part of their orientation and affirmative action strategy (Nel et al, 2008: 467).
Research has shown that informal mentoring arrangements, where there is genuine commitment from both the
mentor and protégé, are more successful than formal mentoring arrangements.

6 Committee Assignments
Managers tend to spend alot of their time on committees which are set up to “solve problems, plan for the future
and discuss and act on issues critical to the organisation” (Grobler et al, 2006: 314). These committees provide
learning opportunities, especially for newly appointed managers and junior managers. For example, a committe
may ask a newly appointed HR manager to investigate and make recommendations regarding the upgrading of
the HR information management system. While working on this assignment the HR manager would gain valuable
insights into the workings of the organisation.

3.8 Away-From-The-Job Training and Development

Away-from-the-job training and development “includes any form of training performed away from the employee’s
immediate work area” (Grobler et al, 2006: 314). These interventions usually take the form of:
• In-house programmes which are conducted by the organisation’s internal training specialist and / or
external training consultants, using the organisation’s training facilities
• Off-site programmes which are held at a venue away from the organisation’s premises such as an
educational institution or professional organisation (Grobler, 2006: 315)

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3.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Away-From-The-Job Training and Development

Away-From-The-Job Training and Development
Advantages Disadvantages
The interventions tend to be more cost effective as
Away-from the job training results in an immediate
groups of employees are trained (rather than individual
decrease in productivity (however, productivity
employees).
should increase in the short term – medium term as
Trainers tend to be more competent than on-the-job a result of the training)
trainers as training is their core job responsibility.

Away-from-the-job training involves more planning and Away-from-the-job training presents challenges for
organisation than on-the-job training. the transfer of learning. In being removed from the
The learner is able to learn in a pleasant environment, workplace for the training, the learners may
away from the pressures and interruptions of the experience difficulty in translating what they have
workplace (Grobler et al, 2006: 320). learnt into improved job performance.
Off-site training providers make training and
development cost effective and accessible to small and
medium organisations that do not have their own
training facilities.

7Figure 3.4 The advantages and disadvantages of away-from-the-job training and development are
detailed in the table below (Grobler et al, 2006: 320).

3.8.2 Methods for Away-From-The-Job Training and Development

An overview of methods utilised in away-from-the-job training and development is provided in the Diagram 3.4.
The methods range from lectures to simulations to wilderness training and behaviour modelling.

THINK POINT

Explain the type of job training and development that you would prefer

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Away-From-The-Job Training & Development Methods

8Figure 3.5 Away-from-the-job Training and Development Methods

Details of each of the most commonly implemented away-from-the-job training and development methods
are provided below:

1 Lecture
The lecture is a frequently used training method. It is a one-sided, input-driven method of training which involves
the trainer or lecturer presenting information to a large group of learners (Kleynhans et al, 2006: 126).

The lecture is advantageous in that it is cost effective and flexible and can be used to convey a large amount of
information. Its key disadvantage is that it does not provide for interaction between learners and can limit active
participation during the learning process (which is central to the adult learner). To overcome this disadvantage, it
is important to combine the lecture with other training methods which provide for active learner participation. For
example, a lecture on management principles could be interspersed with role play, group activities and discussions.

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2 Conference / Discussion
The conference / discussion method provides a forum for problem solving and innovation through engagement
with other learners, which is essential for adult learning (Grobler et al, 2006: 315).

The two-way conversation achieved through the conference / discussion method provides learners “with immediate
feedback on their questions and ideas and heightens the motivation for the learner” (Grobler et al, 2006: 315).

3 Simulation
A simulation is a training method that “represents a real life situation, allowing trainees to see the outcomes of their
decisions in an artificial environment” (Noe et al, 2008: 297). Simulations may be used to develop a learner’s
competence in a range of learning fields, from production and process skills to management and interpersonal
skills. It is a frequently used methodology in training call centre agents where learners develop competence in a
simulated environment which replicates a real call centre. Learners answer simulated calls, and the simulator
provides them with feedback about errors which they made during the calls. The simulator also monitors each
learner’s progress and alerts the trainer if a particular learner is falling behind (Noe et al, 2008: 298).

4 Technology Based Systems (E-learning)

There are four main forms of technology-based training, which is also known as e-learning:
• CD-ROM approaches
• Web based training
• Video conferencing
• Mobile learning or m-learning

CD-ROM approaches often use off-the-shelf training CDs which may contain a wealth of information, but may not
be sufficiently customised to the needs of a group of learners.

Web based training uses the internet and company based intranets to overcome time and location based barriers
to training. Web-based training is delivered “using public or private computer networks and [is] displayed by a web-
browser” (Stone cited in Nel et al, 2008: 470).

The advantages of web-based training are that it provides learners with greater access to training opportunities
and gives learners control over the pace of their own learning. However, the disadvantages include bandwidth and
virus problems as well as challenges and costs in developing and revising such training programmes (Nel et al,
2008: 471).

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Video conferencing is also popular as an organisational communication and training tool. Video conferencing can
make traditional classroom based training more cost efficient as it enables learners in locations other than where
the classroom based training is taking place to participate in the training (Grobler et al, 2006: 316).

‘M-learning’ means ‘mobile-learning’ and involves learning through using a mobile device such as a Smartphone,
MP3 player, Kindle or iPad. Brink (2011: 27) asserts that “for the past few years, m-learning has been on the cusp
of becoming a mainstream practice in the training profession.... now, with new technologies and the wide availability
of mobile devices – particularly those that are web-enabled – m-learning will soon realise its full potential.”

5 Case Study
Case studies are very useful in classroom based training, and are extensively used as a key management training
and assessment methodology. Case studies enable learners to “learn how to analyse (take apart) and synthesise
(put together) facts, to become conscious of the many variables on which management decisions are based, and,
in general, to improve their decision making skills” (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 307).
It is most appropriate to use a case study in learning situations where:
• Competence in analytical thinking, problem solving and decision making need to be developed
• Active participation is desirable (such as in the case of adult learning)
• The process of learning (e.g. questioning, interpreting, etc.) is just as important as the content of the training
• Learners may be grouped into teams for the purposes of analysing the case study (Snell & Bohlander, 2007:
307)

6 Role Play
If implemented correctly, role play can be an effective and versatile training method which can be applied in many
learning situations. Role play involves “assuming the attitudes and behaviour – that is, playing the role – of
others...by acting out another’s position, participants in the role playing can improve their ability to understand and
cope with others” (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 310). For role play to be effective, it needs to be carefully planned.
Role play is used widely in the training of managers and supervisors, as well as the training of health care
professionals (such as psychologists, social workers, etc.).

7 Management Games
Management games are frequently used as a training method in management development programmes. These
games give learners the task of making decisions which will affect a hypothetical organisation (Snell & Bohlander,
2007: 308). A key advantage of the management games is the high level of participation and application that it
provides for, which are essential for effective adult learning.

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Examples of management games include:

• Lufthansa Airlines has developed a management game which makes learners aware of the high levels of
competition within today’s airline industry. Learners are required to work in teams and compete with other
teams in running a fictitious airline company. Teams of learners are involved in managing routing, airline
schedules, costs, profits, etc (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 309)

• Motorola developed a game called ‘EEO: It’s Your Job’ which develops learners’ understanding of equal
employment opportunity and is implemented as part of the organisation’s affirmative action strategy (Snell &
Bohlander, 2007: 309)

8 In-Basket Exercise
The in-basket exercise is frequently used in developing the anlaytical and problem solving skills of lower level
managers. Learners are given an ‘in-basket’ which comprises a series of hypothetical problems that a manager
will typically deal with on a day-to-day basis (Grobler et al, 2006: 317). Examples of the inbasket tasks include:
• An email from a valuable employee with critical skills, who indicates dissatisfaction with her remuneration and
requests a 10% increase
• A letter from the HR manager indicating that he was unable to find suitably qualified candidates for three key
positions within your department
• An email complaint from an irate and dissatisfied customer, complaining about the poor level of service
offered by your department’s call centre

9 Assessment Centre
The assessment centre is a diagnostic training technique which “requires managers to participate in activities
designed to identify their job-related strengths and weaknesses” (Grobler et al, 2006: 317). The assessment centre
is most frequently used as a selection tool to identify suitably qualified candidates for management positions,
however, it is also used as a development intervention.

An assessment centre, which takes place over two to three days, would involve teams of learners in performing a
series of exercises (including in-basket exercises, role plays, group discussions, interviews, etc.). Trainers observe
the learners’ participation in the exercises and on completion of the exercises learners are provided with
comprehensive feedback regarding their performance and their developmental needs (Grobler et la 2006: 317).

10 Membership of Professional Organisations

Membership of professional organisations can provide for ongoing informal development, where learners stay
abreast with recent developments in their field (Grobler et al, 2006: 317). Professional organisations provide
learners with the opportunity to network through regular meetings, exchange ideas and discuss mutual challenges.

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11 Wilderness Training
Wilderness training, also known as adventure training, seeks to develop teamwork and leadership skills through
structured outdoor activities (Noe et al, 2008: 305). Wilderness training ranges from strenuous, challenging
physical activities such as mountain climbing or abseiling to less strenuous activities such as climbing walls and
going through obstacle courses. For wilderness training to succeed, it is important that it is carefully linked to the
training needs and required learning outcomes. It is also important that after each exercise, a skilled trainer
facilitates a discussion about key learning points which the exercise demonstrated.

12 Behaviour Modelling
Behaviour modelling combines a number of different training methods and therefore supports multiple principles
of learning (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 310).
It involves four key components:
• Learning Points: At the beginning of the behaviour modelling session, the learning outcomes will be
highlighted, clearly informing learners about the purpose of the session
• Modelling: Learners view a DVD in which a model employee is shown demonstrating model behaviour
appropriate for a particular situation (e.g. a manager providing constructive feedback to an employee on his
performance)
• Practice & Role Play: Learners then practice and role play the behaviour that was modelled in the DVD. Much
time is spent on this skills practice component of the behaviour modelling session
• Feedback & Reinforcement: As the learners’ behaviour increasingly mirrors that of the modelled behaviour so
learners will receive positive reinforcement from the trainer as well his/her fellow learners

Research into behaviour modelling has shown it to be effective, particularly with respect to military training, helping
managers better interact with their employees, increasing productivity and introducing change (Snell & Bohlander,
2007: 311).

3.9 Selecting Training & Development Methods Appropriate for the Training Need
Given the wide range of training methods, HR practitioners may find it challenging in selecting the most appropriate
technique. The following guidelines should assist in ensuring that the training and development method chosen is
appropriate:
• Consider the learning outcomes which the training is required to achieve: It is likely that the learning
outcomes for a programme include practical skills, cognitive skills, attitudes and knowledge. The training
methods chosen must address all aspects of the learning outcomes (Noe et al, 2008: 308). For example, a chef
needs both theoretical knowledge about ingredients as well as the practical skill to bake the cake, and therefore
training methods chosen in this instance should ensure both the knowledge component and the practical
component of the learning outcome is achieved

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• Consider the extent to which the selected training method:

o Facilitates learning and development of competence: For learning to occur, the training method should
promote an understanding of learning outcomes, training content should be meaningful, and learners should
have the opportunity to practice their newly developed skills and receive feedback. Interacting and observing
others is also important for adult learning
o Facilitates transfer of training to the workplace: It is important that the selected training methods not only
provide for the learning, but facilitate the application of the learner’s newly developed competence on the job
(Noe et al, 2008: 308)
o Will be affordable: Two types of costs are involved in learning interventions: development costs which involve
the costs associated with creating or buying the programme, and administrative costs which include costs
related to implementing the programme (e.g. trainer’s fees, training facility costs, learning materials). The
training budget available for a learning intervention can influence the type of training method chosen (for
example, e-learning methods have much higher development costs than face-to-face methods). Noe et al
(2008:309) advises that “if you have a limited budget for developing new training methods, use structured on-
the-job training – a relatively inexpensive yet hands-on method.... if you have a larger budget, you might want
to consider hands-on methods that facilitate transfer for training such as simulation.”
o Will fit with the workplace culture: Grobler et al (2006: 320) points out that “it is impossible to escape job
duties when on the property of some employers...an effective transfer climate is one in which the environment
– including leadership, rewards and punishments – assists rather than hinders training and development
efforts.”
o Will be effective: Certain training methods have proven to be more effective in specific situations. For example,
on-the-job training methods (e.g. coaching, internships, job rotation, etc.) are more effective than away-from-
the-job training methods in ensuring transfer of training to the workplace and application of newly developed
competence on the job. Another example is e-learning which, when compared with face-to-face training
methods, is much more cost effective in terms of eliminating travel and accommodation costs (Noe et al, 2008:
309)

3.10 Transfer of Training

Transfer of Training” refers to “the effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job” (Snell
& Bohlander, 2007: 313). To ensure that transfer of training is optimal it is important that trainers, HR practitioners
and managers give attention to the following:
• Feature Identical Elements: This requires that conditions in the training are as close as possible to those
on the job. For example, the training may involve a practical exercise where the learners have to use the
same equipment that they would use back on the job
• Focus on General Principles: Rather than focus on the learning of rote behaviour, trainers should focus on
ensuring that learners understand the general principles underpinning particular skills, so that when their work
environment changes they are still able to apply the skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)

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• Establish a Climate for Transfer: Frequently employees do not apply newly learnt skills back on the job
because the workplace environment does not support the application of the new skills. Managers therefore
need to effect the necessary changes to the work environment to ensure that it supports, reinforces and
rewards the employees for the application of their new skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)

In addition to ensuring that there is a likelihood of transfer of training, the following should be evident:
• Supervisor support
• Peer support
• Trainer support
• Existent rewards system
• A supportive climate and continuous learning culture (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010)

3.11 A Training Plan and Implementation

Once the training needs have been identified, the objectives developed and the training method selected, a training
and development plan should be created. This plan will assist in the schedule for the training and highlight the
programs and interventions to be utilised. At the same time, implementing training and development can connect
stakeholders such as participants and trainers to the training material and resources (Wärnich et al., 2015: 367).

3.12 Summary
This chapter focused on the design and delivery of training and development, focusing on each of its key
components. The next chapter will provide a detailed explanation on the evaluation of training and development.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between “on-the-job” and off-the-job” training methods

2. Discuss the different theories that focus on learning

3. Explain what is meant by transfer of training

4. Provide a detailed description of training design, illustrating a diagram

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Unit
4: Training and Development
Evaluation

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES:

4.1 Introduction • Introduce content areas of the unit

4.2 Reasons for Evaluating Training • Understand reasons for evaluating training

4.3 Criteria for Evaluating Training • Identify and describe the evaluating criteria for training

4.4 Summary • Summarises content areas of the unit

Prescribed and Recommended Textbooks/Readings

Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.

Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156

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4.1 Introduction
This section addresses the fourth phase of the training process, “Evaluation of Training and Development”. As with
any HRM process, it is important that the impact and effectiveness of a training intervention is evaluated so that
areas of weakness in the intervention may be identified and improved.
The following issues are examined in this section
• Reasons for Evaluating Training
• Criteria for Evaluating Training

4.2 Reasons for Evaluating Training

Reviewing and reflecting on the results of a training or development intervention enable an HR Practitioner to
determine the impact and the effectiveness of the intervention.

Many organisations invest considerable amounts of money in training and development initiatives to facilitate the
implementation of the company’s strategy and to gain competitive advantage. The reasons for evaluating the
training implemented would therefore include:
• To determine a training intervention’s strengths and weaknesses
• To identify whether the training intervention’s content, structure and administration contributes to learning
and application of new skills
• To identify which learners benefited the most from the training intervention, and which learners benefited the
least (Noe et al, 2008: 310)
• To gather market-related data through asking the learners why they attended the training intervention and
whether they would recommend it to their colleagues
• To identify the financial costs and benefits of the programme (Noe et al, 2008: 310)
• To compare the costs and benefits of the training intervention with other potential training interventions
• To compare the costs and benefits of the training interventions with the costs and benefits of other
organisational development interventions (e.g. job redesign), which may be used as an alternative to training
(Noe et al, 2008: 310)

THINK POINT
Discuss what criteria you would add to a training evaluation.

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4.3 Criteria for Evaluating Training

There are four key criteria, or levels, for the evaluation of training. These are shown in Figure 4.1 below.

Criteria for Evaluating Training

9Figure 4.1 Criteria for the Evaluation of Training

Although these evaluation criteria were developed by Donald Kirkpatrick over 50 years ago, they are still very
relevant today. However, while all four criteria are still relevant, Kirkpatrick (2010: 16) has found that “training
professionals are effective in evaluating Level 1: Reaction and Level 2: Learning, but not Level 3: Behaviour or
Level 4: Results.

This is because they don’t think it is necessary or don’t know how to do it. It is necessary. In today’s tough business
climate, it is imperative that learning professionals link learning initiatives to business goals and prove their value
in this new workplace.” (Kirkpatrick, 2010: 16).

4.3.1 Criterion / Level 1: Reaction

Assessing learners’ reactions is one of the simplest ways of assessing the impact of a training intervention.
Reactions provide an indication of the effectiveness of the training in that a satisfied learner is more likely to apply
the principles learnt in the workplace than a dissatisfied learner (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312). The evaluation of
learner reactions, which is also known as a ‘Level Evaluation’ usually takes the form of a one-page questionnaire
which learners complete immediately following the completion of the training programme.

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4.3.2 Criterion / Level 2: Learning

While Level 1 (Reactions) focuses on evaluating what learners think about the training, it is also important that a
Level 2 evaluation is conducted. A Level 2 evaluation seeks to determine the degree to which the learners acquired
the “intended knowledge, skills and attitude based on their participation in the learning event” (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2009: 21).
Level 2 evaluations of learning may be structured as follows:
• A Pre-Test and a Post-Test, in which an assessment of the learners’ knowledge is conducted prior to the
training programme, and then again after the learning programme. This is done to measure the extent of
improvement in the learners’ knowledge and skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312)

• Use of a Control Group, in which a group of employees who did not undergo the training are subjected to
the same assessment as the group of employees who did receive the training. Using a control group shows
whether the improvements in knowledge and skills are due to the training and not some other factor (such as
changes in the job). (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312)

4.3.3 Criterion / Level 3: Behaviour

Research shows that “much of what is learned in a training programme never gets used back on the job” (Snell &
Bohlander, 2007: 312). Evaluations of learner reactions and learning may well be high, but for various reasons,
learners may experience challenges in applying what they have learnt in the workplace.

A Level 3 Evaluation of how training has impacted job behaviour may be conducted through using observation of
the learner on the job, interviews with the learner’s manager and review of the learner’s post-training performance
appraisal.

4.3.4 Criterion / Level 4: Results or Return on Investment

Training is ultimately meant to contribute to the implementation of an organisation’s strategy and the achievement
of sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, it is important that HR practitioners and trainers are able to prove
the extent to which investment in training positively impacts on the organisation’s bottom line, and this can be
achieved through a Return on Investment (ROI) evaluation. A company’s ROI refers to the “benefits derived from
training relative to the costs incurred...the benefits can include higher revenues generated, increased productivity,
improved quality, lower costs and more satisfied customers, higher job satisfaction and lower employee turnover.”
(Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313).
In determining the benefits of a training programme, an ROI evaluation would need to focus on finding data to
answer questions such as:
• How much has the training programme contributed to profits?
• How much has the quality of our product improved because of the training programme?

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• How has productivity improved?

• How has turnaround time to the customer improved?
• To what extent have customer complaints been reduced?
• To what extent have business processes been improved? (Drewstone, 2011: 38)

To answer these questions, the HR practitioner would need to use various types of data such as financial data,
sales data, production data and HR data.

The benefits brought about by the training need to be assessed in relation to the direct and indirect costs of the
training programme. The formula ROI = Results/Training Costs is used to determine the ultimate impact of the
training programme. If the ROI is greater than 1 then the benefits of the training outweigh the costs of the training.
If, however, the ROI is less than one then the costs of the training are greater than the benefits of the training (Snell
& Bohlander, 2007: 314).

4.4 Summary
This section focused on the Evaluation of Training and Development. The reasons for evaluating training were
explored, as were the four levels of training evaluation. While many companies focus only on the evaluation of
learner reaction (level 1) and learning (level 2), it is important that behaviour (level 3) and results / ROI (level 4)
are given equal attention if the overall impact of a training programme is to be accurately understood.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Provide reasons for evaluating training

2. Explain, in detail, the criteria for evaluating training and development

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Unit
5: Training and Development
Legislation

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES:

5.1 Introduction • Introduces the topics areas of the unit

5.2 National Qualifications Framework • Explain the goals of the HRD strategy
(NQF) Act 67 of 2008 • Outline the principles of the NSDS
• Describe a Workplace Skills Plan
• Explain the objectives of the National Qualifications
Framework

5.3 Skills Development Act (SDA) • Understand the skills Development Act
• Explain the objectives of the Skills Development Act

5.4 Sector Education and Training • Discuss the different legislations, frameworks and bodies
Authorities (SETAs) related to training and development in South Africa
• List different SETAs
• Develop a Workplace skills plan
• State the contents of the workplace skills plan

5.5 Summary • Summarises the content areas of the unit

Prescribed and Recommended Textbooks/Readings

Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human Resource
Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire: Cengage Learning EMEA.

Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du Plessis, M.,
Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021) Human Resources
Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa, Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.

Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training in the
Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal of Training and
Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156

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5.1 Introduction
Often we think of training and development in terms of the workplace, however it is pivotal for workplace training
and development to be thought of in a strategic manner, utilising a holistic approach by considering national
influences and implications in relation to training and development. Different countries have different approaches
to legislation around Training and Development. For example, South Africa has a basketful of legislation which
aims to bring about social and economic redress through improvements in the quality of education and training,
and ensuring that training and development is relevant for the workplace.
This section will focus specifically on legislation which impacts training and development in South Africa. The
following legislation governs training and development in South Africa:
• National Qualifications Framework Act, No. 67 of 2008
• The Skills Development Act, No. 97 of 1998
• The Skills Development Levies Act, No. 9 of 1999
• Role of Sector Education and Training Authorities SETAs in training and development
• Role of the Workplace Skills Plan (WSP)

Before expanding on the above training and development legislation, it is important to keep in mind that these
legislations are aligned to the Human Resource Development (HRD) Strategy for South Africa (2010 – 2030) and
the National Skills Development Strategy.

The goals of the HRD Strategy are to:

• Urgently and substantively reduce the related scourges of poverty and unemployment in South Africa
• Promote justice and social cohesion through improved equity in the provision and outcomes of education
and skills development programmes
• Substantially improve national economic growth and development through improved competitiveness of
the South African economy (Wärnich et al., 2015: 378)

The principles of the NSDS are as follows:

• Support economic growth for employment creation and poverty eradication
• Promote productive citizenship for all by aligning skills development with national strategies for growth
and development
• Accelerate broad-based black economic empowerment and employment equity (85 per cent black, 54
per cent women and 4 per cent people living with disabilities, including youth in all categories)
• Support, monitor and evaluate the delivery and quality assurance systems necessary for the
implementation of the NSDS
• Advance the culture of excellence in skills development and lifelong learning (Wärnich et al., 2015: 379)

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5.2 National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008

The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act 67 of 2008 replaced the South African Qualifications Authority
Act No 58 of 1995 following the conclusion of a review process in 2008.

The NQF Act provides for the existence of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) the purpose of which
is to oversee the implementation of the NQF (RSA, 2008b).

The objectives of the National Qualifications Framework “are designed to contribute to the full personal
development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large” (RSA, 2008). The
specific objectives of the NQF are:
• “to create an integrated national framework for learning achievements
• Facilitate access to, and mobility and progression within education, training and career paths
• Enhance the quality of education and training
• Accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities”
(RSA, 2008b)

When originally put in place, the NQF comprised eight levels. However, the NQF Act of 2008 indicated that the
NQF would be reformulated to comprise ten levels. Table 5.1 depicts the original eight levels of the NQF as well
as the revised ten levels of the NQF.

THINK POINT
Decipher which NQF level you are at and which NQF level do you aspire to be at?

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7 Table 5.1 The NQF – Showing Original 8 Levels and Revised 10 Levels

THE NQF:
ORIGINAL 8 LEVEL & REVISED 10 LEVEL
ORIGINAL REVISED
BAND NQF NQF QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATES INSTITUTIONS
(8 Level) (10 Level)
Post-Doctoral Research Degrees
10 Doctorates
8 Tertiary / Research / Professional Instructions
9 Masters Degrees
Honours Degree
7 8 Professional Qualifications
Higher Education & Training
(HET) 6 7 National First Degrees
Universities / Technikons / Colleges / Private / Professional Institutions /
Workplace / etc.
6 Diplomas and Advanced Certificates
5
5 Higher Certificates and Advanced National (vocational) Certificates

Std 10 / Grade 12, N3 / NCS

4 4 National Senior Certificate and National (vocational) Certificates.
Formal high
Technical / Community
Further Education & Training Std 9 / Grade 11, N2 / NIC schools / Industry Training Boards / Unions /
3 3 / Police / Nursing /
(FET) National (vocational) Certificates. Private / Workplace, etc.
Private colleges
State schools
Std 8 / Grade 10
2 2 Further Education and Training Certificates.

Senior Phase, Std 7 / Grade 9 ABET Level 4

Intermediate Phase ABET Level 3

Formal Occupation / Work-
NGOs / churches / Night schools/
schools based training /
General Education & Training ABET Level 2 ABET programmes / Private
1 1 Foundation Phase (Urban / Upliftment programmes
providers/ Industry training boards /
(GET) Rural / Farm / / Community
Unions/ Workplace, etc.
Special) programmes
Pre-School ABET Level 1

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The NQF Act also provides for the existence of sector-based Quality Councils, which are responsible for the
development and quality assurance of qualifications on the NQF. There are three Quality Councils for the three
main sectors:
• Umalusi is the Quality Council for the General and Further Education and Training Bands and focuses on
schools and FET colleges
• The Council on Higher Education (CHE) is the Quality Council for Higher Education and focuses on
universities and universities of technology
• The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations is the Quality Council for occupations and deals with skills
development and workplace learning (RSA, 2008b)

5.3 Skills Development Act (SDA)

So as to address the lack of skills for the workplace, and to incentivise organisations to train and develop
employees, the following Skills Development legislation has been put in place:
• Skills Development Act No. 97 of 1998
• Skills Development Levies Act No. 9 of 1999
• Skills Development Amendment Act No. 37 of 2008

The Skills Development legislation seeks to “develop the skills of the South African workforce and thereby increase
the quality of working life for workers, improve the productivity of the workplace, and promote self-employment and
delivery of social services” (Nel et al, 2008: 432). The act specifically seeks to encourage employers to use the
workplace as an active learning environment and to provide opportunities for new entrants into the labour market
to acquire work experience.

The Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) requires that organisations pay a Skills Development levy amounting
to 1% of payroll. Organisations may recover a large percentage of this levy by:
• Appointing a Skills Development Facilitator
• Preparing and submitting an annual Workplace Skills Plan as well as an annual Training Report to the
organisation’s relevant Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) (Nel et al, 2008: 432 – 434)
• Implementing training and development initiatives which support the SETA’s Sector Skills Plans, such as
implementing learnerships for Black employees so as to promote transformation in the workplace

A National Skills Development Strategy is published by the Department of Higher Education and Training every
five years. In 2011, the third National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III) was published and identifies some
of the key areas of focus to be:
• The improved performance of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)
• Implementing skills development projects that address:
o the new economic growth path
o the Industrial Policy Action Plan

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o rural development
o skills to support the green economy
o skills in education and health; and
o institutions focused on fighting crime and corruption
The Department of Higher Education and Training is to carefully monitor the implementation of NSDS III to ensure
its success.

5.4 Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)

“SETAs are bodies regulated by the SDA to assist communities, enterprises, industries and individuals to formulate
and implement training plans linked to strategic objectives” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 384). The role of a SETA is to
develop and implement a sector skills plan, promote learning programmes, support the development of learning
materials to enhance learning facilitation, to register for learning programmes and to liaise with relevant
stakeholders for required grants (Wärnich et al., 2015: 386).

5.5.1 The Role of the Workplace Skills Plan (WSP)

This refers to a plan that is approved by the SETA which provides information on the various training and
development requirements of the organisation for the year (Wärnich et al., 2015: 387).
In terms of the SDA and SDLA, organisations must develop and submit their WSP.
Wärnich et al. (2015:387) states that:
• “The WSP should flow from the strategic human resource training and development plan
• Its aim is to develop the capacity of employees in an enterprise to achieve the business goals
• The needs analysis process is therefore an essential ingredient for a meaningful WSP
• In addition, one of the steps in the compilation of a WSP is the requirement for a skills audit – an
investigation undertaken to determine the actual skills of the current workforce in order to define the
skills gaps and real skills requirements of the enterprise”

5.5 Summary
This chapter focused on the link between a national strategy and the training and development goals of an
organisation, emphasising relevant legislation, bodies and frameworks.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the goals of the HRD strategy.

2. Outline the principles of the NSDS.

3. Describe the Skills Development Act.

4. Explain the role of the workplace skills plan.

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Answers to Revision Questions

Unit 1

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Define “knowledge, skills and attitudes”.

Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 35 - 37) define Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Attitudes (KSA’s) as:
• “Knowledge is an organised body of facts, principles, procedures, and information acquired over time”
• With regards to skills, “knowledge is a prerequisite for learning skills. A person must know ‘what’ to do and
‘when’ to do it. A skill is a proficiency at being able to do something rather than just knowing how to do it”
• “Attitudes are employee beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behaviour”

REVISION QUESTIONS

2. Explain the purpose for training and development in the workplace.

Wärnich et al (2015: 343) identifies seven purposes of Training & Development. These purposes indicate how
training and development can be linked to different organisational and HRM functions. The purposes of training
and development are:
• Improving performance: The performance management appraisal will identify those employees who are
underperforming. Should an employee’s underperformance be due to a lack of skills, targeted training may
be used to rectify this underperformance
• Update skills: Organisations often need to upgrade their technology in order to remain competitive.
Technology upgrades result in the need for employees to be upskilled
• Enhancing effective people management: Wärnich et al (2015: 343) points out that “rapidly changing
technical, legal and social environments have affected the way managers perform their jobs and
management personnel who fail to adapt to these changes become obsolete and ineffective.” It is therefore
imperative that managers continually seek to update their skills so that they may continue to make impactful
contributions to the organisation
• Address/solve organisational problems: Organisational problems and challenges present in many forms.
Training programmes can be helpful in providing employees and managers with the necessary skills to
address these problems (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)

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• Orientate new employees: Orientation programmes are implemented to socialise newly recruited
employees into the organisation. Orientation training focuses on assisting the employee to understand the
culture and integrate into the organisation. This in turn enables newly recruited employees to start
performing in their jobs, and facilitates their retention
• Prepare for promotion & managerial succession: Training and development are essential for the
implementation of organisational succession plans, which are in turn important for retention as well as
attraction and motivation (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)
• Satisfy personal growth needs: Many managers and professional employees have a need for
achievement, which may be satisfied through challenging training and development interventions (Wärnich
et al, 2015: 343). This in turn promotes employee satisfaction and retention

REVISION QUESTIONS

3. Tabulate the differences between education, training and development.

Education Training Development

Focus Learning focused on a future job Learning related to present Learning experiences
jobs
Approach Change in knowledge Provided by employers to Employer to employees
employee Employee to employee
Employer to client
Aims • Help individuals in qualifying • Planned learning • Long-term learning
for advancement (Acquisition of intervention
• Initiated by individuals rather knowledge and skills) • Stimulating new ideas/
than organisations • Short-term learning insights through
• Primary emphasis on career intervention planned learning
preparation • Focus on the creativity
and experience of the
individual
Outcome Intermediate learning intervention Change in skills Not always job-related change
in attitudes or values

REVISION QUESTIONS
4. Explain the three vital issues of the twenty-first century relating to training
and development

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Quality-improvement programmes: These types of programmes have been implemented because of the
increase in customer demands for quality as well as to increase organisational competitiveness in the global market
and economy.
“Training and development in leadership, team building, goal-setting, problem-solving, decision-making and
computer modelling is often part of a quality improvement or total quality management (TQM) programme”
(Wärnich et al., 2015: 344).

Technological change-related programmes: There is a rapid acceleration of technological advancement which

requires employees and employers to be constantly receive training and development to update skills and
knowledge in relation to technological change.

Customer service programmes: These types of programmes are suitable for organisations that are identified as
service-oriented.
“Financial, banking, insurance and other such industries have been placing increased emphasis on service to the
customer as a possible competitive advantage in their industries” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 345).

Unit 2

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the significance of conducting a training needs analysis

A TNA is vital to conduct as it would indicate whether performance can be improved or rectified through training.
Therefore, training professionals are to utilise a TNA to ensure that the right training is provided to the right
individuals in the organisation. According to Blanchard & Thacker (2013: 109) a TNA can accomplish the following:
• “Increase the chances that the time and money spent on training is spent wisely
• Determine the benchmark for evaluation of training
• Increase the motivation of participants
• Align the training activities with the company’s strategic plan” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 97)

Therefore, training needs analysis will ensure that money is not spent on a training program that is not required or
does not assist in solve or solves the performance challenges faced. The TNA will also allow for performance
levels to be benchmarked, identifying the impact of training on performance levels both before and after training
has taken place. This will also assist in saving costs and adding value in the organisation as a result of training.

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According to Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 97):

“A good TNA ensures that only those who need the training attend and provides the data to show trainees why the
training will be useful to them. Consider the employees who do not need the training but are sent by their supervisor
anyway. Are they going to take the training seriously? Probably not. In fact, their lack of interest might be distracting
to those who need and want the training. Worse, they might cause other trainees not to take the training seriously.
Using a TNA also ensures that your training focuses on KSAs the trainees really need. The needs analysis allows
the trainer to begin by explaining how the training will be useful. If trainees see the training as relevant, they are
more likely to be interested in attending and maintain interest during the training”.

REVISION QUESTIONS

2. With the aid of a diagram, describe the training needs process.

Each should be discussed further

3. Explain what is meant by a systems approach to training

Training and development should be seen in a holistic manner, by emphasising that it can occur as a system,
made up of different and distinct interrelated components/ phases (See diagram 2.1).
In order for the system to work effectively, it is necessary for both the HR department and the line managers to
work collaboratively.

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According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 346), the following indicates the division of HR responsibility in training and
development:
HR Unit
• Prepares training and development material
• Coordinates training and development efforts
• Conducts or arranges for off-the-job training and development
• Coordinates career plans and employee development efforts
• Provides input and expertise for organisational development

Managers
• Provide technical information
• Monitor training and development needs
• Conduct and monitor continuing on-the-job training and development
• Continually discuss employees’ growth and future potential
• Participate in organisational change efforts

REVISION QUESTIONS

4. Outline the division of HR responsibility in training and development.

According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 346), the following indicates the division of HR responsibility in training and
development:
HR Unit
• Prepares training and development material
• Coordinates training and development efforts
• Conducts or arranges for off-the-job training and development
• Coordinates career plans and employee development efforts

Provides input and expertise for organisational development

Unit 3

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between “on-the-job” and away-from-the-job” training methods.

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On-the-job training (OJT) refers to “new and inexperienced employees learning through observing peers or
managers performing the job and trying to imitate their behaviour” (Noe et al, 2008: 294).
OJT proves to be very useful in:
• Training newly hired employees
• Upskilling existing employees in new technologies
• Cross-training employees within a work unit
• Orienting promoted employees or transferred employees to their new jobs (Noe et al, 2008: 294)

Away-from-the-job training and development “includes any form of training performed away from the employee’s
immediate work area” (Grobler et al, 2006: 314).

REVISION QUESTIONS

2. Discuss the different theories that focus on learning.

Theories that focus on learning are:

Reinforcement theory: this theory focuses on motivation that stems from experiences due to certain behaviours.
In other words, “people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviours because of past outcomes that have
resulted from those behaviours.” If the outcome was positive, then the behaviour may be repeated resulting in a
positive reinforcement. However, if negative reinforcement takes place then this means that there was an
undesirable or unpleasant outcome that has resulted from the individuals’ behaviour, which may result in the
individual not performing that behaviour again:

“For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding noises unless the operator holds levers in
a certain position. The operator will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises.

The process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behaviour is known as extinction.
Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behaviour, leading to a decrease in that behaviour.
For example, if a manager yells at employees when they are late, they may avoid the yelling by being on time (but
they may also call in sick, quit, to trick the boss into not noticing when they arrive late).” (Noe, 2010: 141 – 142).

Social Learning Theory: this theory states that people are able to learn through the use of observation of other
individuals, also known as models. These individuals or models are considered to be have detailed knowledge and
are seen to be reliable/ credible. This theory also indicates that if the model demonstrates rewarding skills or
behaviour, then these behaviours can be repeated or demonstrated by the observer/ learner.

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“According to social learning theory, learning new skills or behaviours comes from (1) directly experiencing the
consequences of using that behaviour or skill, or (2) the process of observing others and seeing the consequences
of their behaviour” (Noe, 2010: 143).

Goal Setting Theory: Here behaviour is seen as a result of a person’s goals and intentions, therefore implying
that goals have a significant influence on behaviour.

“Goals influence a person’s behaviour by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating
the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Research suggests that specific challenging goals result in
better performance than vague, unchallenging goals.” (Noe, 2010: 145).

Need Theory: People place value on different outcomes therefore emphasising that “a need is a deficiency that a
person is experiencing at any point in time and a need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the
deficiency” (Noe, 2010: 146).

Expectancy Theory: According to Noe (2010: 147), “in the expectancy theory, a belief that performing a given
behaviour (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome (e.g., being able to perform
your job) is called instrumentality. Valence is the value that a person places on an outcome (e.g., how important it
is to perform better on the job)”. Figure 3.2 further illustrates the key components of the expectancy theory.

REVISION QUESTIONS

3. Explain what is meant by transfer of training.

Transfer of Training” refers to “the effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job” (Snell
& Bohlander, 2007: 313). To ensure that transfer of training is optimal it is important that trainers, HR practitioners
and managers give attention to the following:
• Feature Identical Elements: This requires that conditions in the training are as close as possible to those on
the job. For example, the training may involve a practical exercise where the learners have to use the same
equipment that they would use back on the job
• Focus on General Principles: Rather than focus on the learning of rote behaviour, trainers should focus on
ensuring that learners understand the general principles underpinning particular skills, so that when their work
environment changes they are still able to apply the skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)
• Establish a Climate for Transfer: Frequently employees do not apply newly learnt skills back on the job
because the workplace environment does not support the application of the new skills. Managers therefore
need to effect the necessary changes to the work environment to ensure that it supports, reinforces and rewards
the employees for the application of their new skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)

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REVISION QUESTIONS

4. Provide a detailed description of training design, illustrating a diagram.

Once the training needs analysis has been conducted and upon completion it has been identified that training
would be the best possible solution to overcome the issue at hand, then it is necessary for the training professional
to embark on the next phase of the training and development process which is designing the training.

According to Blanchard and Thacker (2014: 163 - 164), the design phase of training is a process of identifying the
set of specifications that will be used in the development phase for creating the training modules”. This will therefore
focus on key issues such as the reason why training is taking place, the participants of the training session,
identifying the training objectives and methods to be utilised, the training location and the underlying principles to
assist in the facilitation and transfer of training.

For example, Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 164) state:

“Suppose that an HRD department completed a training needs assessment that identified that supervisors need
training in effective communication skills. The next decisions to be made include the following:
• What will the training achieve?
• What methods of training will be used?
• How much time will be allotted for the training?
• How many trainees will be trained at the same time?
• Whether this training will be conducted on company time or overtime?
• Whether this training will be voluntary or mandatory?
• Where to locate the training?”

Students should provide a more detailed description of the process.

Unit 4

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Provide reasons for evaluating training

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• To determine a training intervention’s strengths and weaknesses

• To identify whether the training intervention’s content, structure and administration contributes to learning
and application of new skills
• To identify which learners benefited the most from the training intervention, and which learners benefited the
least (Noe et al, 2008: 310)
• To gather market related data through asking the learners why they attended the training intervention and
whether they would recommend it to their colleagues
• To identify the financial costs and benefits of the programme (Noe et al, 2008: 310)
• To compare the costs and benefits of the training intervention with other potential training interventions
• To compare the costs and benefits of the training interventions with the costs and benefits of other
organisational development interventions (e.g. job redesign) which may be used as an alternative to training
(Noe et al, 2008: 310)

REVISION QUESTIONS

2. Explain, in detail, the criteria for evaluating training and development.

Criteria for Evaluating Training

There are four key criteria, or levels, for the evaluation of training. These are shown in Figure 4.1 below.

Criteria for Evaluating Training

Figure 10Diagram 4.1 Criteria for the Evaluation of Training

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Although these evaluation criteria were developed by Donald Kirkpatrick over 50 years ago, they are still very
relevant today. However, while all four criteria are still relevant, Kirkpatrick (2010: 16) has found that “training
professionals are effective in evaluating Level 1: Reaction and Level 2: Learning, but not Level 3: Behaviour or
Level 4: Results. This is because they don’t think it is necessary or don’t know how to do it. It is necessary. In
today’s tough business climate, it is imperative that learning professionals link learning initiatives to business goals
and prove their value in this new workplace.” (Kirkpatrick, 2010: 16).

Criterion / Level 1: Reaction

Assessing learners’ reactions is one of the simplest ways of assessing the impact of a training intervention.
Reactions provide an indication of the effectiveness of the training in that a satisfied learner is more likely to apply
the principles learnt in the workplace than a dissatisfied learner (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312). The evaluation of
learner reactions, which is also known as a ‘Level Evaluation’ usually takes the form of a one-page questionnaire
which learners complete immediately following the completion of the training programme.

Criterion / Level 2: Learning

While Level 1 (Reactions) focuses on evaluating what learners think about the training, it is also important that a
Level 2 evaluation is conducted. A Level 2 evaluation seeks to determine the degree to which the learners acquired
the “intended knowledge, skills and attitude based on their participation in the learning event” (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2009: 21).

Level 2 evaluations of learning may be structured as follows:

• A Pre-Test and a Post-Test, in which an assessment of the learners’ knowledge is conducted prior to
the training programme, and then again after the learning programme. This is done to measure the extent
of improvement in the learners’ knowledge and skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312)
• Use of a Control Group, in which a group of employees who did not undergo the training are subjected
to the same assessment as the group of employees who did receive the training. Using a control group
shows whether the improvements in knowledge and skills are due to the training and not some other
factor (such as changes in the job). (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312)

Criterion / Level 3: Behaviour

Research shows that “much of what is learned in a training programme never gets used back on the job” (Snell &
Bohlander, 2007: 312). Evaluations of learner reactions and learning may well be high, but for various reasons,
learners may experience challenges in applying what they have learnt in the workplace.

A Level 3 Evaluation of how training has impacted job behaviour may be conducted through using observation of
the learner on the job, interviews with the learner’s manager and review of the learner’s post-training performance
appraisal.

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Criterion / Level 4: Results or Return on Investment

Training is ultimately meant to contribute to the implementation of an organisation’s strategy and the achievement
of sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, it is important that HR practitioners and trainers are able to prove
the extent to which investment in training positively impacts on the organisation’s bottom line, and this can be
achieved through a Return on Investment (ROI) evaluation. A company’s ROI refers to the “benefits derived from
training relative to the costs incurred...the benefits can include higher revenues generated, increased productivity,
improved quality, lower costs and more satisfied customers, higher job satisfaction and lower employee turnover.”
(Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313).

In determining the benefits of a training programme, an ROI evaluation would need to focus on finding data to
answer questions such as:
• How much has the training programme contributed to profits?
• How much has the quality of our product improved because of the training programme?
• How has productivity improved?

Unit 5

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the goals of the HRD strategy

The goals of the HRD Strategy are to:

• Urgently and substantively reduce the related scourges of poverty and unemployment in South Africa
• Promote justice and social cohesion through improved equity in the provision and outcomes of education and
skills development programmes
• Substantially improve national economic growth and development through improved competitiveness of the
South African economy (Wärnich et al., 2015: 378)

REVISION QUESTIONS

2. Outline the principles of the NSDS

The principles of the NSDS are as follows:

• Support economic growth for employment creation and poverty eradication
• Promote productive citizenship for all by aligning skills development with national strategies for growth and
development

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• Accelerate broad-based black economic empowerment and employment equity (85 per cent black, 54 per
cent women and 4 per cent people living with disabilities, including youth in all categories)
• Support, monitor and evaluate the delivery and quality assurance systems necessary for the implementation
of the NSDS
• Advance the culture of excellence in skills development and lifelong learning (Wärnich et al., 2015: 379)

REVISION QUESTIONS

3. Describe the Skills Development Act.

Skills Development Act (SDA)

So as to address the lack of skills for the workplace, and to incentivise organisations to train and develop
employees, the following Skills Development legislation has been put in place:
• Skills Development Act No. 97 of 1998
• Skills Development Levies Act No. 9 of 1999
• Skills Development Amendment Act No. 37 of 2008

The Skills Development legislation seeks to “develop the skills of the South African workforce and thereby increase
the quality of working life for workers, improve the productivity of the workplace, and promote self-employment and
delivery of social services” (Nel et al, 2008: 432). The act specifically seeks to encourage employers to use the
workplace as an active learning environment and to provide opportunities for new entrants into the labour market
to acquire work experience.

The Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) requires that organisations pay a Skills Development levy amounting
to 1% of payroll. Organisations may recover a large percentage of this levy by:
• Appointing a Skills Development Facilitator
• Preparing and submitting an annual Workplace Skills Plan as well as an annual Training Report to the
organisation’s relevant Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) (Nel et al, 2008: 432 – 434)
• Implementing training and development initiatives which support the SETA’s Sector Skills Plans, such as
implementing learnerships for Black employees so as to promote transformation in the workplace

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A National Skills Development Strategy is published by the Department of Higher Education and Training every
five years. In 2011, the third National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III) was published and identifies some
of the key areas of focus to be:
• The improved performance of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)
• Implementing skills development projects that address:
o the new economic growth path
o the Industrial Policy Action Plan
o rural development
o skills to support the green economy
o skills in education and health; and
o institutions focused on fighting crime and corruption

The Department of Higher Education and Training is to carefully monitor the implementation of NSDS III to ensure
its success.

REVISION QUESTIONS

4. Explain the role of the workplace skills plan.

This refers to a plan that is approved by the SETA which provides information on the various training and
development requirements of the organisation for the year (Wärnich et al., 2015: 387).
In terms of the SDA and SDLA, organisations must develop and submit their WSP.

Wärnich et al. (2015:387) states that “the WSP should flow from the strategic human resource training and
development plan. Its aim is to develop the capacity of employees in an enterprise to achieve the business goals.
The needs analysis process is therefore an essential ingredient for a meaningful WSP. In addition, one of the
steps in the compilation of a WSP is the requirement for a skills audit – an investigation undertaken to determine
the actual skills of the current workforce in order to define the skills gaps and real skills requirements of the
enterprise”.

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