HCHRM - Introduction to Training and Development
HCHRM - Introduction to Training and Development
INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING
AND DEVELOPMENT
Module Guide
Copyright© 2023
MANCOSA
All rights reserved, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying machines, without the
written permission of the publisher. Please report all errors and omissions to the following email address:
[email protected]
Higher Certificate
in Human Resource Management
INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Preface.................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................................... 88
i
Introduction to Training and Development
List of Content
List of Figures
Figure: 2.1 A systems approach to T&D adapted from Wärnich et al. (2015: 347) ........................................... 27
Figure:2.2 Analysis Phase adapted from Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 107 ...................................................... 28
Figure:2.3 Causes and Outcomes of a Needs Assessment adapted from Noe, 2013: 115. ............................. 29
Figure:3.1 Design Phase adapted from Blanchard and Thacker, 2013: 162 .................................................... 42
Figure 3.3 The advantages and disadvantages of away-from-the-job training and development are detailed in
the table below (Grobler et al, 2006: 320)......................................................................................................... 54
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Details the key features of “training” and “development”, and highlights the difference between
these two terms. ................................................................................................................................. 17
Table 1.2 below highlights the differences between training, development and education............................... 18
Table 2.1 Key Concerns of Upper-Level and Mid-Level Managers and Trainers adapted from Noe (2013: 116)
........................................................................................................................................................... 30
Table 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs Assessment adapted from Noe (2013). ......................... 32
Table: 3.2 The advantages and disadvantages of OJT are detailed in the table below (Grobler et al, 2006:
312). ................................................................................................................................................ 51
Table 5.1 The NQF – Showing Original 8 Levels and Revised 10 Levels ........................................................ 72
Preface
A. Welcome
Dear Student
It is a great pleasure to welcome you to Introduction to Training and Development (ITD5). To make sure that
you share our passion about this area of study, we encourage you to read this overview thoroughly. Refer to it as
often as you need to, since it will certainly make studying this module a lot easier. The intention of this module is
to develop both your confidence and proficiency in this module.
The field of Training and Development is extremely dynamic and challenging. The learning content, activities and
self- study questions contained in this guide will therefore provide you with opportunities to explore the latest
developments in this field and help you to discover the field of Training and Development as it is practiced today.
This is a distance-learning module. Since you do not have a tutor standing next to you while you study, you need
to apply self-discipline. You will have the opportunity to collaborate with each other via social media tools. Your
study skills will include self-direction and responsibility. However, you will gain a lot from the experience! These
study skills will contribute to your life skills, which will help you to succeed in all areas of life.
MANCOSA does not own or purport to own, unless explicitly stated otherwise, any intellectual property rights in or
to multimedia used or provided in this module guide. Such multimedia is copyrighted by the respective creators
thereto and used by MANCOSA for educational purposes only. Should you wish to use copyrighted material from
this guide for purposes of your own that extend beyond fair dealing/use, you must obtain permission from the
copyright owner.
B. Module Overview
• The module is a 20 credit module at NQF level 5.
Course Overview
The broad areas covered by this module include:
• Introduction to Training and Development
• Approaching Training and Development
• Training and Development Design and Delivery
• Training and Development Evaluation
• Training and Development Legislation
General
At a Certificate level students are expected to understand basic concepts, relating these concepts to relevant
theories and models. At the same time this allows for the student to be exposed to a practical workplace
environment.
Resource List
If it is at all possible, try to access the websites, journals and other sources of pertinent information such as
newspapers, newsletters, etc. A Resource list is attached at the back of the manual. Please feel free to update
this.
• Define the contemporary human resource • Contemporary human resource management concepts
management concepts are explored to understand human resource
management
• Plan, manage and coordinate human • Human resource activities are examined to determine
resource activities for an organisation how it is managed and coordinated for an organisation
• Apply human resource techniques when • Human resource techniques are identified to understand
selecting and recruiting employees how it is applied when selecting and recruiting
employees
• Implement human resource management • Human resource management principles are explained
principles to ensure development of to understand how it can be implemented for the
employees and ensure maintenance of development of employees
good working relationships
• Principles of Human resource management are
examined to ensure the maintenance of good working
relationships
• Explain the human resource principles • Human resource principles are discussed to determine
related to employee benefits its relation to employee benefits compensation and
compensation and retention retention
• Understand and apply Health and Safety • Health and safety regulations are identified to
regulations within the work environment understand how it is applied within the work environment
• Determine and apply rewards and • Rewards and incentives are explored to understand how
incentives it is applied to an employee’s performance in the
workplace
• Analyse, adhere, use, meet the legislative • Legislative requirements and business policies and
requirements and the business policies procedures are evaluated to understand how it is applied
and procedures in the human resources in human resources management activities
management activities
• Conduct employee and organisation • Employee and organisation training needs analysis is
training needs analysis to take appropriate examined to take appropriate action in an organisation
action
• Identify the major purposes of training • The purpose of training and development is examined to
and development explore its differences in human resource management
• Explain how to conduct a training needs • Training needs assessment is explained to understand
assessment how it is conducted
• Identify different training and • Training and development techniques are described to
development techniques explore its impact in human resource management
• Explain the importance of relevant • Legislation is identified to understand its role and
legislation importance in training and development
• Describe the link between training and • Training and development is examined to understand its
development and the other HRM link to other HRM functions
functions
Learning time
Types of learning activities
%
Syndicate groups 0
Independent self-study of standard texts and references (study guides, books, journal 60
articles)
Other: Online 5
TOTAL 100
The purpose of the Module Guide is to allow you the opportunity to integrate the theoretical concepts from the
prescribed textbook and recommended readings. We suggest that you briefly skim read through the entire guide
to get an overview of its contents. At the beginning of each Unit, you will find a list of Learning Outcomes and
Associated Assessment Criteria. This outlines the main points that you should understand when you have
completed the Unit/s. Do not attempt to read and study everything at once. Each study session should be 90
minutes without a break
This module should be studied using the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings and the relevant
sections of this Module Guide. You must read about the topic that you intend to study in the appropriate section
before you start reading the textbook in detail. Ensure that you make your own notes as you work through both the
textbook and this module. In the event that you do not have the prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings,
you must make use of any other source that deals with the sections in this module. If you want to do further reading,
and want to obtain publications that were used as source documents when we wrote this guide, you should look
at the reference list and the bibliography at the end of the Module Guide. In addition, at the end of each Unit there
may be link to the PowerPoint presentation and other useful reading.
H. Study Material
The study material for this module includes tutorial letters, programme handbook, this Module Guide, a list of
prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings which may be supplemented by additional readings.
Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O.,
Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021) Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training in the Workplace: Exploring its
Scope and Outcomes", European Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156
J. Special Features
In the Module Guide, you will find the following icons together with a description. These are designed to help you
study. It is imperative that you work through them as they also provide guidelines for examination purposes.
LEARNING The Learning Outcomes indicate aspects of the particular Unit you have
OUTCOMES to master.
A Think Point asks you to stop and think about an issue. Sometimes
THINK POINT you are asked to apply a concept to your own experience or to think of
an example.
You may come across Activities that ask you to carry out specific tasks.
In most cases, there are no right or wrong answers to these activities.
ACTIVITY
The purpose of the activities is to give you an opportunity to apply what
you have learned.
At this point, you should read the references supplied. If you are unable
READINGS to acquire the suggested readings, then you are welcome to consult
any current source that deals with the subject.
PRACTICAL
Practical Application or Examples will be discussed to enhance
APPLICATION OR
understanding of this module.
EXAMPLES
You may come across Knowledge Check Questions at the end of each
KNOWLEDGE
Unit in the form of Knowledge Check Questions (KCQ’s) that will test
CHECK
your knowledge. You should refer to the Module Guide or your
QUESTIONS
textbook(s) for the answers.
You may come across Revision Questions that test your understanding
REVISION
of what you have learned so far. These may be attempted with the aid
QUESTIONS
of your textbooks, journal articles and Module Guide.
Unit
1: Introduction to Training and
Development
1.3 What is the Difference between Training • Describe the differences between each key concepts
and Development?
1.4 What is the Difference between Training, • Understand the difference between key concepts in
Development and Education? training
• Discuss the reason behind training, development and
education
1.5 The Purpose of Training & Development • Explain the purpose of training and development
1.6 Training and Development in the Twenty- • Understand the training and development in the twenty-
First Century first century
Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156
1.1 Introduction
Management Development and Key Transition Points in Careers
GKN is a global engineering group with headquarters in Reddicth, United Kingdom, which can trace its origins
back to the 18th Century. It now produces and supplies systems, components and services to the automotive and
aerospace industries, including parts for Airbus and Boeing jets. The company employs 40,000 people in more
than 35 countries. Amongst its strategic objectives are:
To achieve market leadership by developing technology and delivering exceptional customer service.
To be the employer of choice with a high performance culture, motivated people and outstanding leaders.
Management development is seen as key to achieving these objectives. For a number of years GKN has been
putting in place a talent management strategy covering employees at all levels of the organisation. This strategy
focuses on the key transition points in the careers of the employees. At these points it assesses managers, for
example, against the roles they aspire to fill, and works with them to create development plans that will meet the
needs of the business. Two key examples of these transition points are early career graduates and senior
executives about to move into new roles.
The International Graduate Programme is an intensive and personalised fast-track program aimed at nurturing the
company’s future global leaders. It gives engineering graduates joining the company an introduction to GKN and
allows them to explore their own interests and set their own goals within the company.
The starting point of the programme is to help the graduates explore their individual aspirations and skills. They
then embark on three 6 month placements across the businesses, including at least one international assignment.
This gives them the opportunity to develop language skills, work in different cultures and develop an understanding
of global business. They then move into the career-managed phase of the program, spending around 18 months
in each of the two permanent roles. The exact nature of these will depend on their own individual skills, interests
and passions, with the aim of developing their own career paths and leading to a significant management role.
Throughout the program the graduates are given the opportunity to test and grow their technical and management
skills across different businesses within the group, experiencing different countries and cultures. They are
supported to develop their skills by working on real projects, solving real problems and tackling real change issues.
For senior executives, transitions could involve a change in role, geography or business situation. They needed to
be able to ‘hit the ground running’, to formulate a new vision and get buy-in from the staff involved.
A new approach was developed with the help of a consulting company, Kiddy and Partners. This involved a
coaching-based program that also included an element of assessment, involving simulation-based approaches to
assessment that helped to define what managers need to be good at, to measure competence and potential, and
to advise on how to act on the results.
A key feature of the program was its collaborative approach, with each executive’s program being developed
specifically for them in conjunction with GKN’s HR function, the executive line managers and the consultant.
The program was first tried on a pilot basis. Whilst some executives were at first doubtful about its use at this stage
of their careers, the fact they were in a role transition and therefore outside of their comfort zone helped to gain
acceptance. Feedback from the pilots was positive, with individual participants suggesting they got most value
from this type of executive development.
Whilst the individual executives valued the coaching, key stakeholders also identified visible changes in the
approach and performance of those who had taken part in the program. For example, one individual who had
previously focused on his own part of the organisation moved to developing collective agendas and networks
across the group. From an organisational point of view, information from the program feeds into the executive
succession planning process by providing an objective view of the individuals making up this key group.
(James, 2011 cited in Noe et al., 2012: 395 – 396).
It is evident that in order to compete in this rapidly changing business environment, it becomes necessary to
compete and add value to gain a competitive advantage in the business world. Developing and harnessing the
talent and potential in an organisation contributes to the competitiveness of the business.
According to Noe et al. (2015: 406), “employee development is a necessary component of a company’s efforts to
compete in the new economy, to meet the challenges of global competition and social change, and to incorporate
technological advances and changes in work design. Employee development is key to ensuring that employees
have the competencies necessary to serve customers and create new products and customer solutions”.
• “The planned acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities to carry out a specific task or job in a vocational
setting” (Erasmus et al., 2012: 20 cited in Swanepoel et al., 2014: 565)
Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 35 - 37) define Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Attitudes (KSA’s) as:
• “Knowledge is an organised body of facts, principles, procedures, and information acquired over time”
• With regards to skills, “knowledge is a prerequisite for learning skills. A person must know ‘what’ to do
and ‘when’ to do it. A skill is a proficiency at being able to do something rather than just knowing how to
do it”
• “Attitudes are employee beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behaviour”
Competencies according to Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 37) can be defined as:
“A set of KSAs that enables a person to be successful at a number of similar tasks.”
ACTIVITY
Distinguish between “training” and “development”.
1Table 1.1 Details the key features of “training” and “development”, and highlights the difference
between these two terms.
• “The planned or systematic efforts made by • “The formal education, job experiences,
an employer to facilitate the employees’ relationships, and assessment of personality and
learning of the knowledge, skills and abilities that help employees prepare for the
behaviour required to perform their jobs, that future” (Holland & De Cieri, 2006 cited in Nel et al,
is, their job-related competencies” (Holland & 2008: 446)
De Cieri, 2006 cited in Nel et al, 2008: 446)
As can be seen by the comparison that is presented by the above table, training tends to have a more short-term
orientation and is focused on ensuring that employees have the necessary competencies to effectively perform
their existing jobs. Development, on the other hand, has a more medium-term orientation and focuses on ensuring
that the organisation has a pipeline of necessary skills to meet future requirements.
THINK POINT
Discuss the difference between training and development and education
Therefore, “training and development can be defined as “the aspects and processes that are involved in planning,
designing, developing, implementing and evaluating learning interventions in organisations” (Wärnich et al., 2015:
343).
Kumba Iron Ore
Kumba’s wide variety of training initiatives is informed by the Mining Charter as well as our own programmes,
including legislative training such as health and safety, learnerships, leaderships, mentorships, portable skills,
career progression plans for HSDAs [historically disadvantaged South Africans], bursaries, study assistance, ABET
and [the] professionals in training programmes.
In 2012, Kumba employees received 81 hours of training (2011: 80 hours) on average per employee, with R224,2m
of total training expenditure (2011: R134,8m), equivalent to 5,8 per cent of the total wage bill (2011: 4,4 per cent).
Of this, 89 per cent was for HSDAs (2011: 83 per cent) and 33, 5 per cent for women (2011: 31 percent).
Training was also conducted for employees nearing the end of their careers through normal or medical retirement,
as well as portable skills training (that is, skills that may be used outside the individual’s current employ). A total of
299 people received portable skills training in 2012.
(Kumba Iron Ore Limited, 2013: 50 cited in Swanepoel, 2014: 569).
• Update skills: Organisations often need to upgrade their technology in order to remain competitive.
Technology upgrades result in the need for employees to be upskilled
• Enhancing effective people management: Wärnich et al (2015: 343) points out that “rapidly changing
technical, legal and social environments have affected the way managers perform their jobs and management
personnel who fail to adapt to these changes become obsolete and ineffective.” It is therefore imperative that
managers continually seek to update their skills so that they may continue to make impactful contributions to
the organisation
• Address/solve organisational problems: Organisational problems and challenges present in many forms.
Training programmes can be helpful in providing employees and managers with the necessary skills to
address these problems (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)
• Orientate new employees: Orientation programmes are implemented to socialise newly recruited employees
into the organisation. Orientation training focuses on assisting the employee to understand the culture and
integrate into the organisation. This in turn enables newly recruited employees to start performing in their jobs,
and facilitates their retention
• Prepare for promotion & managerial succession: Training and development are central to the
implementation of organisational succession plans, which are in turn important for retention as well as
attraction and motivation (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)
• Satisfy personal growth needs: Many managers and professional employees have a need for achievement,
which may be satisfied through challenging training and development interventions (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343).
This in turn promotes employee satisfaction and retention
ACTIVITY
Identify companies in South Africa that place an emphasis on training and
development in the workplace
At the beginning of the problem-solving training, each teams identified a problem in its area of operation. Each
team then worked through the problem as they progressed through each step of the training. The team members
were delighted to be learning new skills while working on a real problem. By the end of training, each group actually
solved, or made significant progress toward solving, the problem it was working on. Evaluations taken at the
conclusion of training indicated that trainees enjoyed the training and understood the steps, tools, and techniques
of team building and problem-solving. The director was pleased with the results and submitted a report
documenting the successes of the training to the city manager.
Follow-up evaluation conducted six months later showed only one team still in operation. The other teams fell apart
for various reasons, such as excessive workloads, little recognition being given when problems were solved, non-
trained employees resisting making changes in work processes, or teams being ridiculed by those who had not
participated in training. Clearly, the training did not achieve the desired outcomes. If the director had understood
the system and what was and was not rewarding, a more successful outcome could have been achieved. By using the
analysis phase of the Training Process Model, the relevant aspects of the system would have been identified and adjustments
to either the system or the training could have been made. (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 6)
1.7 Summary
This chapter introduced you to the key concepts utilised in training and development and indicated the differences
between each. At the same time, the chapter highlighted the purpose of training and development at the workplace
and indicated the various twenty-first century issues to keep in mind when in relation to training and development.
The next chapter focuses on approaching training and development and the use of a needs assessment process
before embarking on interventions in training and development.
REVISION QUESTIONS
4. Explain the three vital issues of the twenty-first century relating to training
and development.
Unit
2: Approaching Training and
Development
2.2 A Systems Approach to Training and • Explain a systems approach to training and development.
Development
• Explain reason and benefits for using the systems approach
2.3 Training Needs Analysis (TNA) • Describe a training needs analysis and its framework
2.4 Why conduct a Training Needs • Outline the importance of conducting a training needs analysis
Analysis
• Explain the reasons for conducting training needs analysis
2.5 Participants of a Needs Assessment • Determine who participates in training needs analysis
2.6 Training Needs Analysis Framework • Apply the training needs analysis framework
2.7 Methods Used in Needs Assessment • Understand the methods for conducting training needs
analysis
Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156
“Oh, yes,” Irven interjected, “I talked to a few managers this morning and they were enthusiastic about it. It’s the
first time I have ever seen managers enthusiastic about any type of training. Do we have such a training package
available?”
“Well,” said Irven, “we need a one-day training session. It must be interesting, useful, and generalisable to all
managers. Okay?” With that, Irven stood up, signalling that the meeting was over.
Chris went to work designing the training. She began by going to the local university and viewing the meetings film
her boss had seen. After examining some books that dealt with meetings, she decided that she had a good idea
of what made meetings effective. She then called Larry, a friend at Satellite Systems, to see what he had.
He faxed over a copy of a lecture he had given on the dos and don’ts of an effective meeting. It was nicely broken
down into three parts: pre-meeting, meeting and post-meeting. That information and a simulated meeting (to
provide hands-on practice) could make up the one-day training program. Chris had never written a simulation and
needed help. She put in a call to Karen, a subordinate who was fresh out of university and had majored in HR.
Karen would surely be able to help develop a simulation, Chris thought. (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 96)
2.1 Introduction
In order to embark on training and development, it is important to understand if the problem being faced is a training
or non-training related issue. This chapter will introduce you to a systems approach to training and development,
emphasising the significance of conducting a training needs analysis and highlighting the influence of a needs
analysis on the organisation, job and individual.
According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 346), the following indicates the division of HR responsibility in training and
development:
HR Unit
• Prepares training and development material
• Coordinates training and development efforts
• Conducts or arranges for off-the-job training and development
• Coordinates career plans and employee development efforts
• Provides input and expertise for organisational development
Managers
• Provide technical information
• Monitor training and development needs
• Conduct and monitor continuing on-the-job training and development
• Continually discuss employees’ growth and future potential
• Participate in organisational change efforts
Figure 1Figure: 2.1 A systems approach to T&D adapted from Wärnich et al. (2015: 347)
THINK POINT
Discuss the purpose of a training needs analysis.
“A training needs analysis is a systematic method for determining what caused performance to be less than
expected or required. Performance improvement is the focus of training” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 108). For
this phase to therefore be conducted, the actual organisational performance (AOP) should be less than the
expected organisational performance (EOP). If this occurs, then an organisational performance gap (OPG) results,
this can be referred to as the “trigger” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 108). When this happens, an analysis needs
to take place to identify the reasons for a gap existing. This could either be a training or non-training requirement.
See diagram 2.2 below.
Figure 2Figure:2.2 Analysis Phase adapted from Blanchard & Thacker, 2013: 107
Therefore, training needs analysis will ensure that money is not spent on a training program that is not required or
does not assist in solve or solves the performance challenges faced. The TNA will also allow for performance
levels to be benchmarked, identifying the impact of training on performance levels both before and after training
has taken place. This will also assist in saving costs and adding value in the organisation as a result of training.
Therefore, the information gathered during the TNA allows for the individuals to understand and see that the
training they are provided with is necessary and relevant. The knowledge, skill or ability gap identified during the
analysis will indicate the individuals that are required to attend the training.
According to Noe (2010: 104), there are numerous causes and outcomes of a needs assessment.
Figure 2.3 illustrates these:
Figure 3Figure:2.3 Causes and Outcomes of a Needs Assessment adapted from Noe, 2013: 115.
Different stakeholders are therefore able to ask different types of questions or hold different concerns. Table 2.1
below reflects these concerns as identified by Noe (2013: 116):
3Table 2.1 Key Concerns of Upper-Level and Mid-Level Managers and Trainers adapted from Noe (2013:
116)
Upper-Level Managers Mid-Level Managers Trainers
Organisational Is training important to Do I want to spend Do I have the budget to
Analysis achieve our business money on training? How buy training services?
objectives? How does much? How will training Will managers support
training support our and development help training?
business strategy? meet business my
business goals?
Person Analysis What functions or Who should be trained? How will I identify which
business units need Managers? employees need
training? What do Professionals? Core training?
employees need to do to employees?
accomplish our business
objectives?
Task Analysis Does the company have For what jobs can For what tasks should
people with the training make the biggest employees be trained?
knowledge, skills, and difference in product What knowledge, skills,
abilities or competencies quality or customer ability, or other
needed to compete in service? characteristics are
the marketplace? necessary?
The purpose of an organisational analysis is to identify the key problem areas in the organisation that would require
a need for training and development to be conducted.
According to Nancy Gordon, a TNA analyst at Ameritech (cited in Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 103), about 85
percent of all requests for training turned out to be related to issues that could not be addressed by training. They
were, instead, incongruences in the organisational environment that inhibited or prevented the appropriate work
behaviours”.
Therefore, an organisational analysis should place emphasis on its strategies, resources, internal environment –
workflow processes, policies, structure, job design, etc. (Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 103).
Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 115), point out that an organisational analysis should provide information regarding
the following aspects:
• The organisation’s mission and strategies
• With regards to the objectives, the resources and its allocations
• Component(s) in the internal environment posing a challenge
• “The effect of any of the above on developing, providing, and transferring the KSAs to the job if training
is the chosen solution to the organisational performance gap.” (Blanchard and Thacker, 2010: 104)
In order to obtain information about the job, numerous sources/ documents can be utilised. These are: job
descriptions, job specifications, performance standards, asking questions about the job.
Therefore, individual analysis will ensure that the correct individuals receive training and development and that the
interventions utilised will close the organisational performance gap, aligning the actual performance to the
expected/ desired organisational performance.
Whilst management and employee interviews are a more common way of obtaining information for individual
analysis, there are also additional ways in which data can be obtained for individual analysis. These are:
• Advisory committees
• Assessment centres
• Attitude surveys
• Group discussions
• Questionnaires
• Skills test
• Observations of behaviour
• Performance appraisals
• Performance documents
• Exit interviews (Wärnich et al., 2015: 348 – 349)
4Table 2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Needs Assessment adapted from Noe (2013).
▪ Can collect data from a large ▪ Possible low return rates, inappropriate
number of persons responses
THINK POINT
Looking back at the extract at the beginning of the chapter “Developing a Training
Package at Westcan”, provide your thoughts on the process utilised to develop
training for conducting effective meetings. Ensure that you align your thoughts to
the content discussed in this chapter
If there is a non-training need where KSAs pose a problem and training is still not regarded as the best possible
solution, the organisation can make use of job aids, practicing of tasks or changing the job.
If the output does indicate that the performance gap is a result of a lack of KSAs and training is the solution, then
the KSAs should be used to create the training objectives.
As Robert Brinkerhoff (p.304), an internationally recognised expert in training effectiveness said (cited in Blanchard
and Thacker, 2010: 130),
“The reality is that these non-training factors are the principle determinants [for transfer of training], if they are not
aligned and integrated they will easily overwhelm the very best training [inhibit transfer] … Best estimates are that
80 percent or more of the eventual impact of training is determined by performance systems factors [non-training
needs].”
They examined the PD using operational analysis (expected performance) and person analysis (actual
performance). One way of obtaining expected performance data is to observe the job. The group of students had
observed the job (lecturing) of professors for two years, and also using data from other students they interviewed,
they developed a list of behaviours that they believed made lectures interesting and informative.
For person analysis (actual performance), the students used observation and performance data. Using the
observation method, the students identified six professors who were considered as having a performance
discrepancy. These data were compared with OTHER performance data (published student surveys) about the
professors’ teaching skills, which verified the observations. An attempt to verify this information further was made
by asking the dean to provide student (customer) complaints about professor over the past two years. The dean
declined to provide such information.
The organisational analysis was then conducted. Because of the nature of discrepancy (only business school
professors were identified), the organisational analysis focused primarily on the business school. Examining the
university-wide mission and other documents was not necessary. Questions about reward/ punishment
incongruence, inadequate feedback, and obstacles in the system were examined.
This was done through an interview with the dean of the business school. Questions related to adequate feedback
were as follows: (1) Are there other performance ratings of professors? (2) Do the professors receive feedback on
their performance? The dean’s answer was that the only measures of their teaching performance are student
surveys and any unsolicited complaints from students. Regarding feedback, the professors receive the student
evaluations along with a ranking f themselves and all other faculty members based on these data. Any student
complaints would also be made available to the professor. The dean noted that the same professors tended to be
rated low each year but again declined to provide specifics. A question related to reward/ punishment incongruence
was as follow: What happens to those who are rated high and low? The answer was nothing; there are no extrinsic
rewards or punishment for being a good or poor teacher. Finally, in response to a question about obstacles in the
system, the dean emphasised the pressure for publications. “Publish or perish” were the words he used.
Promotions, tenure, travel, and other rewards were all provided to those who were publishing on a regular basis.
These were the overall findings of the needs assessment.
(Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 135).
2.9 Summary
This chapter focused on approaching training and development by utilising a systems approach. In doing so, it is
necessary for an organisation to conduct a training needs analysis. This analysis is conducted as a result of an
organisational performance gap. If this exists, which is indicated by the expected / desired performance not being
aligned to the current performance, then a needs analysis should be conducted. The needs analysis will identify if
the performance gap be overcome by a training or non-training need. There are three levels that make up a needs
analysis, an organisational level, an operational level and an individual or person level. Analysis at each level will
provide information that will assist the organisation or training professional in identifying the reason for a
performance gap to exist.
REVISION QUESTIONS
ACTIVITY
Union Pacific Railroad is the largest railroad in North America, operating in the
western two-thirds of the United States. The railroad serves 23 states, linking every
major West Coast and Gulf Coast port, and provides service to the East through its
four major gateways in Chicago, Memphis, St. Louis, and New Orleans. Additionally,
Union Pacific operates key North/ South corridors, connects with the Canadian and
Mexican rail systems, and is the only railroads to serve all six gateways to Mexico.
The railroad transports a large number of products, including chemical, coal, food
and food products, forest products, grain and grain products, metals and minerals,
and automobiles and parts. Union Pacific has been ranked first among railroads in
Fortune magazine’s published list of “America’s Most Admired Companies.”
Question:
Making use of the knowledge gained in this section, discuss how a training needs
assessment should be conducted in order to identify the training method that would
be suitable for conductors at Union Pacific to utilise the new system put in place.
Unit
3: Training and Development
Design and Delivery
3.2 Introducing Training Design • Describe the key components of training design
3.4 Training and Development • Understand the goals of training and development
Objectives
• Outline the objectives of training and development
3.6 Introducing Training and • Understand how to select and prepare the training site
Development Delivery
• Outline the approaches to training delivery
3.9 Selecting Training & Development • Apply the best training and development methods
Methods Appropriate for the
• Outline the guidelines for selecting the best training and
Training Need
development methods
3.10 Transfer of Training • Explain the transfer of training and discuss the training plan
and implementation
Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156
3.1 Introduction
Training Leads to Clean Cars, Satisfied Customers and Engaged Employees at Mike’s Carwash Inc.
Mike’s Carwash, based in Indianapolis, Indiana, is a privately owned chain of car washes that has 37 locations in
Indiana and Ohio with 650 employees. Opened in 1948, the first Mike’s was called “Mike’s Minit Man Carwash”,
named after the type of equipment originally used. Mike’s has a reputation for great and speedy service and
continues to expand to new locations. Mike’s Carwashes are automated and feature equipment systems and
technology developed by Mike’s employees. Mike’s credits some of its success to the family’s business smarts but
believes that most of its success comes from its hiring and training practices. Mike’s original founders, Joe and Ed
Dahm, were known to tell employees that the company was truly in the people business but it just happened to
wash cars.
Customer satisfaction is very important to Mike’s with the emphasis placed on repeat business by serving
customers so they will come back again. The biggest challenge that Mike’s faces is providing a consistent enjoyable
customer experience. Mike’s is constantly trying to improve the customer experience through innovation and new
ideas. If a new idea works it is implemented in all locations. Mike’s believes that the only way to provide a consistent
customer experience is through finding great employees, retaining them, and helping them develop. The company
website explains that it is “notoriously picky” when it comes to hiring. For every 50 people Mike’s considered hiring,
just one is hired. Mike’s feels that it is easy to teach the mechanics of how to perform a job, but it is much more
difficult to teach someone to care about customers. Also, because about half of promotions to managerial positions
come from current employees, Mike’s is looking for employees who intend to stay with the company. As a result,
the hiring process focuses on identifying employees who have a positive attitude a desire to work with people, a
willingness to go out their way to please customers, and leadership qualities. To identify new employees with these
characteristics, job applicants participate in multiple interviews, pre-employment testing, thorough reference
checks, criminal background checks, and drug testing.
Mike’s retains and engages its employees through a number of HR practices. Each employee has a development
plan and receives performance appraisals twice each year. New employee training involves familiarising them with
best practices and how to help customers in different situations that they will encounter at the car wash. Before
employees wait on their first customer they receive two days of orientation and participate in workshops that all
focus on customer service, how to treat customers, how to recover from service errors and mistakes, and how to
deal with difficult customers. Mike’s also provides training to help to help employees advance in the company. The
career path from hourly associate to supervisor to shift manager to assistant manager is well-defined.
Movement on the career path is possible through good performance and completing internal certifications that
include up to 12 weeks of training and three exams requiring passing grades of at least 80%. Employee
engagement and satisfaction is measured by semi-annual surveys as well as information gathered from employees
who are leaving Mike’s. Employees play an important role in the choice and design of training and development
activities. A 15- to 20-person team consisting of members who have been nominated by their store manager serve
a one-year term as subject matter experts in helping to develop new and modify existing training programs. Team
members also are the first trainees in new programs, providing feedback about needed changes and feedback on
program effectiveness.
In addition to its regular training programs for new employees and certification programs for advancement, Mike’s
has developed programs to meet emerging business needs. The economic recession resulted in a decrease in the
volume of customers Mike’s served as well as revenue. As a result, Mike’s recognised the need to increase the
spending of its customers by making sure that employees made them aware of value-added services such as
underbody washes, tire treatments, and clear coat. To do this, Mike’s developed an online training module and
trained managers to encourage employees to complete the training and practice using the selling skills at monthly
employee meetings. Mike’s recognises the important role that managers paly in helping employees learn. At Mike’s
managers need to actively support and help deliver training. They are held accountable for training and developing
employees in order to advance and succeed. In this program, managers were taught how to identify weaknesses
in employees’ service recommendation techniques and use weekly coaching sessions to enhance them. Managers
were also encouraged to observe and document employees making service recommendations to customers and
to provide them with feedback. The results of this program were positive: overall revenue, revenue per customer,
customer satisfaction, and mystery shopper scores all increased.
Another business issue that Mike’s uses training to resolve is how to maintain a consistent corporate culture across
its 37 locations. To address this challenge, Mike’s created “In the Loop,” a weekly video communication that is
shown on a computer terminal in each location. Each 10-munite segment is used to deliver training content,
recognise employee and store performance, communicate to employees, and share best practices. Regularly on
the video the CEO shares a letter from a satisfied customer and discusses the specific behaviours that the
customer experienced that exemplifies Mike’s customer service values. Since the development of the video Mike’s
has seen an increase of more than 100% in the number of positive customer letters, comment cards, and website
contacts.
Adapted from Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Wright, 2012: 269 – 270)
This section will focus on the design of training upon completion of the training needs analysis. Aspects of learning
theories and motivation to assist in the design of training will be explained. Once the training has been designed,
the training development delivery will be described, focusing on different training methods, either on-the-job or off-
the-job.
According to Blanchard and Thacker (2014: 163 - 164), the design phase of training is a “process of identifying the
set of specifications that will be used in the development phase for creating the training modules”. This will therefore
focus on key issues such as the reason why training is taking place, the participants of the training session,
identifying the training objectives and methods to be utilised, the training location and the underlying principles to
assist in the facilitation and transfer of training.
Figure 3.1 shows of the design phase that indicates that key components of this process.
Figure 4Figure:3.1 Design Phase adapted from Blanchard and Thacker, 2013: 162
For example: Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 157) states: “Once the objectives of training are determined, it is
necessary to estimate the amount of time it will take to design and develop the training for delivery. The more
accurate the estimate is, the more accurate the costing will be, and the more credibility the department will have
with its clients. The length of the training program (how long it actually takes to deliver the training) is a good guide
for estimating the length of time to prepare”.
In addition, trainee population would indicate different levels of KSAs, creating diversity in the training session.
This can pose a challenge in training to meet all the needs and demands of trainees. At the same time, trainees
hold different assumptions and views of the training content, techniques and methods utilised, creating a difficult
situation for the trainer.
According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 350), formulated objectives will benefit training and development in the following
ways: Training and development objectives:
• Helps to identify the suitable and appropriate methods by focusing on the employee performance areas
that need to change
3.5 Learning
The organisation is now required to begin the training design phase. It is important that the organisation designs
suitable and relevant training that can amount to outcomes which benefit the organisation holistically. When
designing training and development, it is important to take into consideration the different principles of learning.
This means that the training professional needs to keep in mind the various types of learning styles that trainees
may possess. This also indicates that “adult learning” is distinguished and understood from the learning of a child.
While managers are not usually trainers, they are important in influencing employees’ motivation for learning.
Motivation is the desire of the employee to participate in and learn from the training intervention (Noe et al, 2008:
279). Research has shown that employee motivation to learn is to a large degree dependent on the extent to which
the learning intervention is going to provide for knowledge gain, behaviour change and skill acquisition.
It is important that managers and HR practitioners ensure that employees’ motivation to learn is as high as possible
through ensuring employees’ beliefs of self-efficacy, creating an understanding of the benefits of the training,
linking training interventions to employee training needs and career interests, ensuring a supportive work
environment and ensuring that employees have basic skills necessary to perform effectively on the programme.
According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 351), the there are various learning principles that underpin adult learning.
These are:
Motivation – Training may be seen as a burden to certain employees, taking up time away from their jobs. It is
therefore vital that employees are motivated to engage in training through seeing the use of training and developing
in achieving both individual and organisational goals. Employees may also be included in the planning process to
create an interactive and engaged process.
Participation – Trainers should encourage active and interactive training and development sessions that allow for
discussions and debate to take place. This allows for the trainee to have direct involvement in training and
development.
Feedback – providing information on the trainee’s progress during the training and development session and
showing a linkage between the objectives set out in the training and development process and the progress of the
trainee allows for reduced anxiety and increased improvements.
Organisation – Allow for a flow and integration of information and knowledge presented, eliminating ambiguous
and irrelevant information.
“For example, I organising a course about the operation and maintenance of a large printing press, the safety
precautions that must be taken should be presented first. Next, the major parts of the machine and the functions
of each should be explained. Then, a competent operator could be observed running the machine, followed by
hands-on experience with several uncomplicated tasks and so on. The final portion of training and development
may involve preventive maintenance and minor repairs. In this example, each part of the training and
development flows into the next, without inconsistencies or gaps” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 351).
Repetition – Trainees can be asked to repeat information or behaviours provided to them to refresh their
memories.
Application – The trainee is required to engage in transfer-of-learning/ training upon completion of the training
and development. However, this can pose many challenges. Wärnich et al. (2015: 352), propose various ways in
which transfer-of-learning can take place:
• “Maximise the similarity between training and development and the job
• Provide as much experience as possible with the task being taught
• Provide for a variety of examples when teaching concepts or skills
At the same time, it is important to note that when facilitation of learning is taking place, the trainer should keep in
mind the differences that exist between individuals. Differences could exist in the following:
Learning Styles – Each individual has a different style and way of learning. For example, some learners prefer to
learning through the use of facts and engage in problem solving whilst others may prefer exploration and a practical
approach. On the other hand, some may learn using a visual approach whereas others would prefer utilisation of
verbal learning. Trainers should therefore be equipped with identifying the different types of learners and their
approaches.
Motivation – The motivating factors for each learner would differ therefore either contributing to positive
perceptions or negative perceptions of training. Blanchard and Thacker (2010: 172), state that:
“Those who come to a training program with positive expectations are more successful. Trainees who agree with
such statements as
• “Even if I fail, this training will be a valuable experience
• I will get more from this training than most people
• I have a better chance of passing this training than most others
• If I have trouble during training, I will try harder
Are more likely to meet the objectives than those who do not. Those with positive expectations are more
motivated. If such expectations were determined during the needs assessment, an intervention could take place
for those with unfavourable expectations.”
Verbal information State, tell, or describe previously State three reasons for following
stored information. company safety procedures.
Intellectual skills Apply generalisable concepts and Design and code a computer
rules to solve problems and program that meets customer
generate novel products. requirements.
Motor skills Execute a physical action with Shoot a gun and consistently hit a
precision and timing. small moving target.
Cognitive strategies Manage one’s own thinking and Use three different strategies
learning processes. selectively to diagnose engine
malfunctions.
In addition to these outcomes, there are various ways in which a person may learn. It is however important to also
keep in mind the trainee’s motivation and readiness to learn.
“For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding noises unless the operator holds levers in
a certain position. The operator will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises.
“” The process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behaviour is known as extinction.
Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after behaviour, leading to a decrease in that behaviour.”
“For example, if a manager yells at employees when they are late, they may avoid the yelling by being on time (but
they may also call in sick, quit, to trick the boss into not noticing when they arrive late).” (Noe, 2010: 141 – 142).
Social Learning Theory: This theory states that people are able to learn through the use of observation of other
individuals, also known as models. These individuals or models are considered to have detailed knowledge and
are seen to be reliable / credible. This theory also indicates that if the model demonstrates rewarding skills or
behaviour, then these behaviours can be repeated or demonstrated by the observer/ learner.
“According to social learning theory, learning new skills or behaviours comes from (1) directly experiencing the
consequences of using that behaviour or skill, or (2) the process of observing others and seeing the
consequences of their behaviour” (Noe, 2010: 143).
Goal Setting Theory: Here behaviour is seen as a result of a person’s goals and intentions, therefore implying
that goals have a significant influence on behaviour.
“Goals influence a person’s behaviour by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and
motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Research suggests that specific challenging
goals result in better performance than vague, unchallenging goals.” (Noe, 2010: 145).
Need Theory: People place value on different outcomes therefore emphasising that “a need is a deficiency that a
person is experiencing at any point in time and a need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the
deficiency” (Noe, 2010: 146). An individual’s need would motivate them to act in a way that would fulfil any
limitations or deficiencies.
Expectancy Theory: According to Noe (2010: 147), “in the expectancy theory, a belief (expectation) that
performing a given behaviour (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome (e.g.,
being able to perform your job) is called instrumentality. Valence is the value that a person places on an outcome
(e.g., how important it is to perform better on the job)”. Therefore, expectancies are an individual’s beliefs between
performing a particular behaviour in relation to actually performing it optimally (2013: 160). Figure 3.2 further
illustrates the key components of the expectancy theory.
Expectancy Valence
Instrumentality
Effort →
X Performance → X Value of = EFFORT
Performance Outcome
Outcome
At the same time, seating arrangements should be arranged in a way that is suitable and applicable for the type of
training to be conducted.
The effectiveness of any learning intervention is to a large degree dependent on the competence of the trainer.
Trainers should also be carefully selected; either being sourced internally or externally. Trainers should possess
the knowledge and expertise to effectively and efficiently conduct the training.
The following are the key competencies and characteristics which a trainer should possess:
• Knowledge of the Subject: Trainers should not only have a comprehensive knowledge of the subject matter
which they are facilitating, but they should also be able to apply their knowledge (Snell & Bohlander, 2007:
295)
• Enthusiasm: This shows the learners that the trainer is passionate about his/her area of expertise. An
enthusiastic climate promotes learner interest
• Adaptability: Trainers need to be adequately skilled to accommodate the different learning styles of learners.
For example, certain learners may learn faster while others may learn slower, and the trainer should be able
to accommodate both of these learning styles within a workshop
• Sincerity: Trainers need to be sincere and genuine. They should demonstrate tact and patience in dealing
with learners’ concerns
• Sense of Humour: Trainers should be able to make learning fun – a humorous anecdote can be used to
convey an important learning point (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 295)
• Provide Clear Instructions: Learning is more effective and efficient when instructions given to the learners
are easily understandable
• Provide Individual Assistance
In addition, according to Wärnich et al. (2015: 374), training and development professionals should also acquire
four sets of skills. These are:
• Power skills enable the professional to influence people he / she will come into contact with / interact with.
• Relationship skills that will assist in creating a supportive and assistive relationship, ensuring
communication and empathy is present
• Technical skills that focuses on the knowledge that the professional possesses – “pertaining to an
employee-specific discipline. Training and development professionals must maintain state-of-the-art
knowledge not only of adult learning but also of related topics, such as productivity improvement and
organisational change processes (Wärnich et al., 2015: 374)
• Entrepreneurial skills that focus on problem solving and taking risks that are calculated – this is further
related to the strategic relationship between the organisations overall business goals and the objectives of
training and development (Wärnich et al., 2015: 374)
There are various forms of OJT which range from job rotation to internships to coaching and mentoring. It is a form
of training and development which is relevant to all levels of employees, from operators and administrative staff to
all levels of management. OJT is especially beneficial for upper levels of management whose first choice of learning
intervention is often executive coaching.
Details of each of the commonly implemented OJT methods are provided below:
1 Job Rotation
Job rotation provides the learner with a variety of work experience and in so doing broadens the learner’s
knowledge and skills base (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 306). It involves the systematic transfer of the learner from
job to job with the learner remaining in one particular job for two weeks to six months (Kleynhans et al, 2006: 125).
Job rotation is a very useful method for inducting a newly graduated learner into an organisation (Nel et al, 2008:
465). While this OJT method ensures that learners gain practical experience quickly, it needs to be continuously
guided and monitored in order for it to succeed.
The hotel industry frequently uses job rotation to train learners and new employees, providing them with exposure
to all work streams from housekeeping, to catering, to finance (Kleynhans et al, 2006: 125).
While providing for learning and development, job enlargement and enrichment can also provide for enhanced
employee motivation and job satisfaction (Grobler, 2006: 313).
• An apprenticeship is a “work-study training method with both on-the-job training and classroom training” (Noe
et al, 2008: 296). The majority of apprenticeships are in the skilled trades such as bricklaying, electrical work,
plumbing and carpentry. The apprenticeship clearly defines the period of time on-the-job which must be
devoted to the development of a specific skill. The training that is provided to the apprentice at the worksite
involves modelling, practice, feedback and evaluation (Noe et al, 2008: 297)
• A learnership is specific to the South African context. It is similar to an apprenticeship but is not restricted to
trades (as the apprenticeship is) and encompasses most occupations, including those at a professional level.
The learnership requires that a tri-partite learnership agreement between employer, learner and training
institution be signed (Kleynhans et al, 2006:126)
4 Coaching
Coaching may be described as “planned one-to-one instruction” where the coach “sets a good example of what is
to be done, answers questions, and generally offers counsel to the trainee” (Nel et al, 2008:465). Coaches assist
employees with setting development goals, achieving these goals and providing constructive feedback (Grobler et
al, 2006: 313)
Executive coaching is a development intervention often selected by individuals holding top management level
positions as it enables them to receive focused training which has direct relevance to their day-to-day work.
While coaching can be a very effective method in facilitating the development of competence, if an appropriate
relationship is not established between the coach and learner then the coaching intervention will fail (Grobler et al,
2006: 314).
5 Mentoring
A mentor is usually “an experienced manager who provides guidance to a junior manager or professional and
facilitates his or her personal development” (Nel et al, 2008:314).
While informal mentoring arrangements always emerge within organisations, formal mentoring interventions may
be set up by organisations as part of their orientation and affirmative action strategy (Nel et al, 2008: 467).
Research has shown that informal mentoring arrangements, where there is genuine commitment from both the
mentor and protégé, are more successful than formal mentoring arrangements.
6 Committee Assignments
Managers tend to spend alot of their time on committees which are set up to “solve problems, plan for the future
and discuss and act on issues critical to the organisation” (Grobler et al, 2006: 314). These committees provide
learning opportunities, especially for newly appointed managers and junior managers. For example, a committe
may ask a newly appointed HR manager to investigate and make recommendations regarding the upgrading of
the HR information management system. While working on this assignment the HR manager would gain valuable
insights into the workings of the organisation.
Away-from-the-job training involves more planning and Away-from-the-job training presents challenges for
organisation than on-the-job training. the transfer of learning. In being removed from the
The learner is able to learn in a pleasant environment, workplace for the training, the learners may
away from the pressures and interruptions of the experience difficulty in translating what they have
workplace (Grobler et al, 2006: 320). learnt into improved job performance.
Off-site training providers make training and
development cost effective and accessible to small and
medium organisations that do not have their own
training facilities.
7Figure 3.4 The advantages and disadvantages of away-from-the-job training and development are
detailed in the table below (Grobler et al, 2006: 320).
THINK POINT
Explain the type of job training and development that you would prefer
1 Lecture
The lecture is a frequently used training method. It is a one-sided, input-driven method of training which involves
the trainer or lecturer presenting information to a large group of learners (Kleynhans et al, 2006: 126).
The lecture is advantageous in that it is cost effective and flexible and can be used to convey a large amount of
information. Its key disadvantage is that it does not provide for interaction between learners and can limit active
participation during the learning process (which is central to the adult learner). To overcome this disadvantage, it
is important to combine the lecture with other training methods which provide for active learner participation. For
example, a lecture on management principles could be interspersed with role play, group activities and discussions.
2 Conference / Discussion
The conference / discussion method provides a forum for problem solving and innovation through engagement
with other learners, which is essential for adult learning (Grobler et al, 2006: 315).
The two-way conversation achieved through the conference / discussion method provides learners “with immediate
feedback on their questions and ideas and heightens the motivation for the learner” (Grobler et al, 2006: 315).
3 Simulation
A simulation is a training method that “represents a real life situation, allowing trainees to see the outcomes of their
decisions in an artificial environment” (Noe et al, 2008: 297). Simulations may be used to develop a learner’s
competence in a range of learning fields, from production and process skills to management and interpersonal
skills. It is a frequently used methodology in training call centre agents where learners develop competence in a
simulated environment which replicates a real call centre. Learners answer simulated calls, and the simulator
provides them with feedback about errors which they made during the calls. The simulator also monitors each
learner’s progress and alerts the trainer if a particular learner is falling behind (Noe et al, 2008: 298).
CD-ROM approaches often use off-the-shelf training CDs which may contain a wealth of information, but may not
be sufficiently customised to the needs of a group of learners.
Web based training uses the internet and company based intranets to overcome time and location based barriers
to training. Web-based training is delivered “using public or private computer networks and [is] displayed by a web-
browser” (Stone cited in Nel et al, 2008: 470).
The advantages of web-based training are that it provides learners with greater access to training opportunities
and gives learners control over the pace of their own learning. However, the disadvantages include bandwidth and
virus problems as well as challenges and costs in developing and revising such training programmes (Nel et al,
2008: 471).
Video conferencing is also popular as an organisational communication and training tool. Video conferencing can
make traditional classroom based training more cost efficient as it enables learners in locations other than where
the classroom based training is taking place to participate in the training (Grobler et al, 2006: 316).
‘M-learning’ means ‘mobile-learning’ and involves learning through using a mobile device such as a Smartphone,
MP3 player, Kindle or iPad. Brink (2011: 27) asserts that “for the past few years, m-learning has been on the cusp
of becoming a mainstream practice in the training profession.... now, with new technologies and the wide availability
of mobile devices – particularly those that are web-enabled – m-learning will soon realise its full potential.”
5 Case Study
Case studies are very useful in classroom based training, and are extensively used as a key management training
and assessment methodology. Case studies enable learners to “learn how to analyse (take apart) and synthesise
(put together) facts, to become conscious of the many variables on which management decisions are based, and,
in general, to improve their decision making skills” (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 307).
It is most appropriate to use a case study in learning situations where:
• Competence in analytical thinking, problem solving and decision making need to be developed
• Active participation is desirable (such as in the case of adult learning)
• The process of learning (e.g. questioning, interpreting, etc.) is just as important as the content of the training
• Learners may be grouped into teams for the purposes of analysing the case study (Snell & Bohlander, 2007:
307)
6 Role Play
If implemented correctly, role play can be an effective and versatile training method which can be applied in many
learning situations. Role play involves “assuming the attitudes and behaviour – that is, playing the role – of
others...by acting out another’s position, participants in the role playing can improve their ability to understand and
cope with others” (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 310). For role play to be effective, it needs to be carefully planned.
Role play is used widely in the training of managers and supervisors, as well as the training of health care
professionals (such as psychologists, social workers, etc.).
7 Management Games
Management games are frequently used as a training method in management development programmes. These
games give learners the task of making decisions which will affect a hypothetical organisation (Snell & Bohlander,
2007: 308). A key advantage of the management games is the high level of participation and application that it
provides for, which are essential for effective adult learning.
• Motorola developed a game called ‘EEO: It’s Your Job’ which develops learners’ understanding of equal
employment opportunity and is implemented as part of the organisation’s affirmative action strategy (Snell &
Bohlander, 2007: 309)
8 In-Basket Exercise
The in-basket exercise is frequently used in developing the anlaytical and problem solving skills of lower level
managers. Learners are given an ‘in-basket’ which comprises a series of hypothetical problems that a manager
will typically deal with on a day-to-day basis (Grobler et al, 2006: 317). Examples of the inbasket tasks include:
• An email from a valuable employee with critical skills, who indicates dissatisfaction with her remuneration and
requests a 10% increase
• A letter from the HR manager indicating that he was unable to find suitably qualified candidates for three key
positions within your department
• An email complaint from an irate and dissatisfied customer, complaining about the poor level of service
offered by your department’s call centre
9 Assessment Centre
The assessment centre is a diagnostic training technique which “requires managers to participate in activities
designed to identify their job-related strengths and weaknesses” (Grobler et al, 2006: 317). The assessment centre
is most frequently used as a selection tool to identify suitably qualified candidates for management positions,
however, it is also used as a development intervention.
An assessment centre, which takes place over two to three days, would involve teams of learners in performing a
series of exercises (including in-basket exercises, role plays, group discussions, interviews, etc.). Trainers observe
the learners’ participation in the exercises and on completion of the exercises learners are provided with
comprehensive feedback regarding their performance and their developmental needs (Grobler et la 2006: 317).
11 Wilderness Training
Wilderness training, also known as adventure training, seeks to develop teamwork and leadership skills through
structured outdoor activities (Noe et al, 2008: 305). Wilderness training ranges from strenuous, challenging
physical activities such as mountain climbing or abseiling to less strenuous activities such as climbing walls and
going through obstacle courses. For wilderness training to succeed, it is important that it is carefully linked to the
training needs and required learning outcomes. It is also important that after each exercise, a skilled trainer
facilitates a discussion about key learning points which the exercise demonstrated.
12 Behaviour Modelling
Behaviour modelling combines a number of different training methods and therefore supports multiple principles
of learning (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 310).
It involves four key components:
• Learning Points: At the beginning of the behaviour modelling session, the learning outcomes will be
highlighted, clearly informing learners about the purpose of the session
• Modelling: Learners view a DVD in which a model employee is shown demonstrating model behaviour
appropriate for a particular situation (e.g. a manager providing constructive feedback to an employee on his
performance)
• Practice & Role Play: Learners then practice and role play the behaviour that was modelled in the DVD. Much
time is spent on this skills practice component of the behaviour modelling session
• Feedback & Reinforcement: As the learners’ behaviour increasingly mirrors that of the modelled behaviour so
learners will receive positive reinforcement from the trainer as well his/her fellow learners
Research into behaviour modelling has shown it to be effective, particularly with respect to military training, helping
managers better interact with their employees, increasing productivity and introducing change (Snell & Bohlander,
2007: 311).
3.9 Selecting Training & Development Methods Appropriate for the Training Need
Given the wide range of training methods, HR practitioners may find it challenging in selecting the most appropriate
technique. The following guidelines should assist in ensuring that the training and development method chosen is
appropriate:
• Consider the learning outcomes which the training is required to achieve: It is likely that the learning
outcomes for a programme include practical skills, cognitive skills, attitudes and knowledge. The training
methods chosen must address all aspects of the learning outcomes (Noe et al, 2008: 308). For example, a chef
needs both theoretical knowledge about ingredients as well as the practical skill to bake the cake, and therefore
training methods chosen in this instance should ensure both the knowledge component and the practical
component of the learning outcome is achieved
• Establish a Climate for Transfer: Frequently employees do not apply newly learnt skills back on the job
because the workplace environment does not support the application of the new skills. Managers therefore
need to effect the necessary changes to the work environment to ensure that it supports, reinforces and
rewards the employees for the application of their new skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)
In addition to ensuring that there is a likelihood of transfer of training, the following should be evident:
• Supervisor support
• Peer support
• Trainer support
• Existent rewards system
• A supportive climate and continuous learning culture (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010)
3.12 Summary
This chapter focused on the design and delivery of training and development, focusing on each of its key
components. The next chapter will provide a detailed explanation on the evaluation of training and development.
REVISION QUESTIONS
Unit
4: Training and Development
Evaluation
4.2 Reasons for Evaluating Training • Understand reasons for evaluating training
4.3 Criteria for Evaluating Training • Identify and describe the evaluating criteria for training
Prescribed Textbook
• Wärnich, S., Carrell, M.R., Elbert, N.F. and Hatfield, R.D. (2022) Human
Resource Management in South Africa. Seventh Edition. Hampshire:
Cengage Learning EMEA.
Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du
Plessis, M., Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021)
Human Resources Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa,
Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training
in the Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal
of Training and Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156
4.1 Introduction
This section addresses the fourth phase of the training process, “Evaluation of Training and Development”. As with
any HRM process, it is important that the impact and effectiveness of a training intervention is evaluated so that
areas of weakness in the intervention may be identified and improved.
The following issues are examined in this section
• Reasons for Evaluating Training
• Criteria for Evaluating Training
Many organisations invest considerable amounts of money in training and development initiatives to facilitate the
implementation of the company’s strategy and to gain competitive advantage. The reasons for evaluating the
training implemented would therefore include:
• To determine a training intervention’s strengths and weaknesses
• To identify whether the training intervention’s content, structure and administration contributes to learning
and application of new skills
• To identify which learners benefited the most from the training intervention, and which learners benefited the
least (Noe et al, 2008: 310)
• To gather market-related data through asking the learners why they attended the training intervention and
whether they would recommend it to their colleagues
• To identify the financial costs and benefits of the programme (Noe et al, 2008: 310)
• To compare the costs and benefits of the training intervention with other potential training interventions
• To compare the costs and benefits of the training interventions with the costs and benefits of other
organisational development interventions (e.g. job redesign), which may be used as an alternative to training
(Noe et al, 2008: 310)
THINK POINT
Discuss what criteria you would add to a training evaluation.
Although these evaluation criteria were developed by Donald Kirkpatrick over 50 years ago, they are still very
relevant today. However, while all four criteria are still relevant, Kirkpatrick (2010: 16) has found that “training
professionals are effective in evaluating Level 1: Reaction and Level 2: Learning, but not Level 3: Behaviour or
Level 4: Results.
This is because they don’t think it is necessary or don’t know how to do it. It is necessary. In today’s tough business
climate, it is imperative that learning professionals link learning initiatives to business goals and prove their value
in this new workplace.” (Kirkpatrick, 2010: 16).
• Use of a Control Group, in which a group of employees who did not undergo the training are subjected to
the same assessment as the group of employees who did receive the training. Using a control group shows
whether the improvements in knowledge and skills are due to the training and not some other factor (such as
changes in the job). (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 312)
A Level 3 Evaluation of how training has impacted job behaviour may be conducted through using observation of
the learner on the job, interviews with the learner’s manager and review of the learner’s post-training performance
appraisal.
To answer these questions, the HR practitioner would need to use various types of data such as financial data,
sales data, production data and HR data.
The benefits brought about by the training need to be assessed in relation to the direct and indirect costs of the
training programme. The formula ROI = Results/Training Costs is used to determine the ultimate impact of the
training programme. If the ROI is greater than 1 then the benefits of the training outweigh the costs of the training.
If, however, the ROI is less than one then the costs of the training are greater than the benefits of the training (Snell
& Bohlander, 2007: 314).
4.4 Summary
This section focused on the Evaluation of Training and Development. The reasons for evaluating training were
explored, as were the four levels of training evaluation. While many companies focus only on the evaluation of
learner reaction (level 1) and learning (level 2), it is important that behaviour (level 3) and results / ROI (level 4)
are given equal attention if the overall impact of a training programme is to be accurately understood.
REVISION QUESTIONS
Unit
5: Training and Development
Legislation
5.2 National Qualifications Framework • Explain the goals of the HRD strategy
(NQF) Act 67 of 2008 • Outline the principles of the NSDS
• Describe a Workplace Skills Plan
• Explain the objectives of the National Qualifications
Framework
5.3 Skills Development Act (SDA) • Understand the skills Development Act
• Explain the objectives of the Skills Development Act
5.4 Sector Education and Training • Discuss the different legislations, frameworks and bodies
Authorities (SETAs) related to training and development in South Africa
• List different SETAs
• Develop a Workplace skills plan
• State the contents of the workplace skills plan
Recommended Readings
• Nel, W. P.S., Werner, A., Botha, C., Chinyamurindi, W., Dodd. N., Du Plessis, M.,
Mey, M., Ngalo, O., Poisat, P., Van Der Merwe, J. (2021) Human Resources
Management. Eleventh Edition. Southern Africa, Goodwood, Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
Journal Article
• Johnson, K.R., Park, S. and Chaudhuri, S. (2020) "Mindfulness Training in the
Workplace: Exploring its Scope and Outcomes", European Journal of Training and
Development, Vol. 44 No. 4/5, pp. 341-354.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2019-0156
5.1 Introduction
Often we think of training and development in terms of the workplace, however it is pivotal for workplace training
and development to be thought of in a strategic manner, utilising a holistic approach by considering national
influences and implications in relation to training and development. Different countries have different approaches
to legislation around Training and Development. For example, South Africa has a basketful of legislation which
aims to bring about social and economic redress through improvements in the quality of education and training,
and ensuring that training and development is relevant for the workplace.
This section will focus specifically on legislation which impacts training and development in South Africa. The
following legislation governs training and development in South Africa:
• National Qualifications Framework Act, No. 67 of 2008
• The Skills Development Act, No. 97 of 1998
• The Skills Development Levies Act, No. 9 of 1999
• Role of Sector Education and Training Authorities SETAs in training and development
• Role of the Workplace Skills Plan (WSP)
Before expanding on the above training and development legislation, it is important to keep in mind that these
legislations are aligned to the Human Resource Development (HRD) Strategy for South Africa (2010 – 2030) and
the National Skills Development Strategy.
The NQF Act provides for the existence of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) the purpose of which
is to oversee the implementation of the NQF (RSA, 2008b).
The objectives of the National Qualifications Framework “are designed to contribute to the full personal
development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large” (RSA, 2008). The
specific objectives of the NQF are:
• “to create an integrated national framework for learning achievements
• Facilitate access to, and mobility and progression within education, training and career paths
• Enhance the quality of education and training
• Accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities”
(RSA, 2008b)
When originally put in place, the NQF comprised eight levels. However, the NQF Act of 2008 indicated that the
NQF would be reformulated to comprise ten levels. Table 5.1 depicts the original eight levels of the NQF as well
as the revised ten levels of the NQF.
THINK POINT
Decipher which NQF level you are at and which NQF level do you aspire to be at?
7 Table 5.1 The NQF – Showing Original 8 Levels and Revised 10 Levels
THE NQF:
ORIGINAL 8 LEVEL & REVISED 10 LEVEL
ORIGINAL REVISED
BAND NQF NQF QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATES INSTITUTIONS
(8 Level) (10 Level)
Post-Doctoral Research Degrees
10 Doctorates
8 Tertiary / Research / Professional Instructions
9 Masters Degrees
Honours Degree
7 8 Professional Qualifications
Higher Education & Training
(HET) 6 7 National First Degrees
Universities / Technikons / Colleges / Private / Professional Institutions /
Workplace / etc.
6 Diplomas and Advanced Certificates
5
5 Higher Certificates and Advanced National (vocational) Certificates
The NQF Act also provides for the existence of sector-based Quality Councils, which are responsible for the
development and quality assurance of qualifications on the NQF. There are three Quality Councils for the three
main sectors:
• Umalusi is the Quality Council for the General and Further Education and Training Bands and focuses on
schools and FET colleges
• The Council on Higher Education (CHE) is the Quality Council for Higher Education and focuses on
universities and universities of technology
• The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations is the Quality Council for occupations and deals with skills
development and workplace learning (RSA, 2008b)
The Skills Development legislation seeks to “develop the skills of the South African workforce and thereby increase
the quality of working life for workers, improve the productivity of the workplace, and promote self-employment and
delivery of social services” (Nel et al, 2008: 432). The act specifically seeks to encourage employers to use the
workplace as an active learning environment and to provide opportunities for new entrants into the labour market
to acquire work experience.
The Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) requires that organisations pay a Skills Development levy amounting
to 1% of payroll. Organisations may recover a large percentage of this levy by:
• Appointing a Skills Development Facilitator
• Preparing and submitting an annual Workplace Skills Plan as well as an annual Training Report to the
organisation’s relevant Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) (Nel et al, 2008: 432 – 434)
• Implementing training and development initiatives which support the SETA’s Sector Skills Plans, such as
implementing learnerships for Black employees so as to promote transformation in the workplace
A National Skills Development Strategy is published by the Department of Higher Education and Training every
five years. In 2011, the third National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III) was published and identifies some
of the key areas of focus to be:
• The improved performance of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)
• Implementing skills development projects that address:
o the new economic growth path
o the Industrial Policy Action Plan
o rural development
o skills to support the green economy
o skills in education and health; and
o institutions focused on fighting crime and corruption
The Department of Higher Education and Training is to carefully monitor the implementation of NSDS III to ensure
its success.
5.5 Summary
This chapter focused on the link between a national strategy and the training and development goals of an
organisation, emphasising relevant legislation, bodies and frameworks.
REVISION QUESTIONS
Unit 1
REVISION QUESTIONS
Blanchard and Thacker (2013: 35 - 37) define Knowledge, Skills, Abilities and Attitudes (KSA’s) as:
• “Knowledge is an organised body of facts, principles, procedures, and information acquired over time”
• With regards to skills, “knowledge is a prerequisite for learning skills. A person must know ‘what’ to do and
‘when’ to do it. A skill is a proficiency at being able to do something rather than just knowing how to do it”
• “Attitudes are employee beliefs and opinions that support or inhibit behaviour”
REVISION QUESTIONS
Wärnich et al (2015: 343) identifies seven purposes of Training & Development. These purposes indicate how
training and development can be linked to different organisational and HRM functions. The purposes of training
and development are:
• Improving performance: The performance management appraisal will identify those employees who are
underperforming. Should an employee’s underperformance be due to a lack of skills, targeted training may
be used to rectify this underperformance
• Update skills: Organisations often need to upgrade their technology in order to remain competitive.
Technology upgrades result in the need for employees to be upskilled
• Enhancing effective people management: Wärnich et al (2015: 343) points out that “rapidly changing
technical, legal and social environments have affected the way managers perform their jobs and
management personnel who fail to adapt to these changes become obsolete and ineffective.” It is therefore
imperative that managers continually seek to update their skills so that they may continue to make impactful
contributions to the organisation
• Address/solve organisational problems: Organisational problems and challenges present in many forms.
Training programmes can be helpful in providing employees and managers with the necessary skills to
address these problems (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)
• Orientate new employees: Orientation programmes are implemented to socialise newly recruited
employees into the organisation. Orientation training focuses on assisting the employee to understand the
culture and integrate into the organisation. This in turn enables newly recruited employees to start
performing in their jobs, and facilitates their retention
• Prepare for promotion & managerial succession: Training and development are essential for the
implementation of organisational succession plans, which are in turn important for retention as well as
attraction and motivation (Wärnich et al, 2015: 343)
• Satisfy personal growth needs: Many managers and professional employees have a need for
achievement, which may be satisfied through challenging training and development interventions (Wärnich
et al, 2015: 343). This in turn promotes employee satisfaction and retention
REVISION QUESTIONS
REVISION QUESTIONS
4. Explain the three vital issues of the twenty-first century relating to training
and development
Quality-improvement programmes: These types of programmes have been implemented because of the
increase in customer demands for quality as well as to increase organisational competitiveness in the global market
and economy.
“Training and development in leadership, team building, goal-setting, problem-solving, decision-making and
computer modelling is often part of a quality improvement or total quality management (TQM) programme”
(Wärnich et al., 2015: 344).
Customer service programmes: These types of programmes are suitable for organisations that are identified as
service-oriented.
“Financial, banking, insurance and other such industries have been placing increased emphasis on service to the
customer as a possible competitive advantage in their industries” (Wärnich et al., 2015: 345).
Unit 2
REVISION QUESTIONS
A TNA is vital to conduct as it would indicate whether performance can be improved or rectified through training.
Therefore, training professionals are to utilise a TNA to ensure that the right training is provided to the right
individuals in the organisation. According to Blanchard & Thacker (2013: 109) a TNA can accomplish the following:
• “Increase the chances that the time and money spent on training is spent wisely
• Determine the benchmark for evaluation of training
• Increase the motivation of participants
• Align the training activities with the company’s strategic plan” (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010: 97)
Therefore, training needs analysis will ensure that money is not spent on a training program that is not required or
does not assist in solve or solves the performance challenges faced. The TNA will also allow for performance
levels to be benchmarked, identifying the impact of training on performance levels both before and after training
has taken place. This will also assist in saving costs and adding value in the organisation as a result of training.
REVISION QUESTIONS
Training and development should be seen in a holistic manner, by emphasising that it can occur as a system,
made up of different and distinct interrelated components/ phases (See diagram 2.1).
In order for the system to work effectively, it is necessary for both the HR department and the line managers to
work collaboratively.
According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 346), the following indicates the division of HR responsibility in training and
development:
HR Unit
• Prepares training and development material
• Coordinates training and development efforts
• Conducts or arranges for off-the-job training and development
• Coordinates career plans and employee development efforts
• Provides input and expertise for organisational development
Managers
• Provide technical information
• Monitor training and development needs
• Conduct and monitor continuing on-the-job training and development
• Continually discuss employees’ growth and future potential
• Participate in organisational change efforts
REVISION QUESTIONS
According to Wärnich et al. (2015: 346), the following indicates the division of HR responsibility in training and
development:
HR Unit
• Prepares training and development material
• Coordinates training and development efforts
• Conducts or arranges for off-the-job training and development
• Coordinates career plans and employee development efforts
Unit 3
REVISION QUESTIONS
On-the-job training (OJT) refers to “new and inexperienced employees learning through observing peers or
managers performing the job and trying to imitate their behaviour” (Noe et al, 2008: 294).
OJT proves to be very useful in:
• Training newly hired employees
• Upskilling existing employees in new technologies
• Cross-training employees within a work unit
• Orienting promoted employees or transferred employees to their new jobs (Noe et al, 2008: 294)
Away-from-the-job training and development “includes any form of training performed away from the employee’s
immediate work area” (Grobler et al, 2006: 314).
REVISION QUESTIONS
“For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding noises unless the operator holds levers in
a certain position. The operator will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises.
The process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behaviour is known as extinction.
Punishment is presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behaviour, leading to a decrease in that behaviour.
For example, if a manager yells at employees when they are late, they may avoid the yelling by being on time (but
they may also call in sick, quit, to trick the boss into not noticing when they arrive late).” (Noe, 2010: 141 – 142).
Social Learning Theory: this theory states that people are able to learn through the use of observation of other
individuals, also known as models. These individuals or models are considered to be have detailed knowledge and
are seen to be reliable/ credible. This theory also indicates that if the model demonstrates rewarding skills or
behaviour, then these behaviours can be repeated or demonstrated by the observer/ learner.
“According to social learning theory, learning new skills or behaviours comes from (1) directly experiencing the
consequences of using that behaviour or skill, or (2) the process of observing others and seeing the consequences
of their behaviour” (Noe, 2010: 143).
Goal Setting Theory: Here behaviour is seen as a result of a person’s goals and intentions, therefore implying
that goals have a significant influence on behaviour.
“Goals influence a person’s behaviour by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating
the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. Research suggests that specific challenging goals result in
better performance than vague, unchallenging goals.” (Noe, 2010: 145).
Need Theory: People place value on different outcomes therefore emphasising that “a need is a deficiency that a
person is experiencing at any point in time and a need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the
deficiency” (Noe, 2010: 146).
Expectancy Theory: According to Noe (2010: 147), “in the expectancy theory, a belief that performing a given
behaviour (e.g., attending a training program) is associated with a particular outcome (e.g., being able to perform
your job) is called instrumentality. Valence is the value that a person places on an outcome (e.g., how important it
is to perform better on the job)”. Figure 3.2 further illustrates the key components of the expectancy theory.
REVISION QUESTIONS
Transfer of Training” refers to “the effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job” (Snell
& Bohlander, 2007: 313). To ensure that transfer of training is optimal it is important that trainers, HR practitioners
and managers give attention to the following:
• Feature Identical Elements: This requires that conditions in the training are as close as possible to those on
the job. For example, the training may involve a practical exercise where the learners have to use the same
equipment that they would use back on the job
• Focus on General Principles: Rather than focus on the learning of rote behaviour, trainers should focus on
ensuring that learners understand the general principles underpinning particular skills, so that when their work
environment changes they are still able to apply the skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)
• Establish a Climate for Transfer: Frequently employees do not apply newly learnt skills back on the job
because the workplace environment does not support the application of the new skills. Managers therefore
need to effect the necessary changes to the work environment to ensure that it supports, reinforces and rewards
the employees for the application of their new skills (Snell & Bohlander, 2007: 313)
REVISION QUESTIONS
Once the training needs analysis has been conducted and upon completion it has been identified that training
would be the best possible solution to overcome the issue at hand, then it is necessary for the training professional
to embark on the next phase of the training and development process which is designing the training.
According to Blanchard and Thacker (2014: 163 - 164), the design phase of training is a process of identifying the
set of specifications that will be used in the development phase for creating the training modules”. This will therefore
focus on key issues such as the reason why training is taking place, the participants of the training session,
identifying the training objectives and methods to be utilised, the training location and the underlying principles to
assist in the facilitation and transfer of training.
Unit 4
REVISION QUESTIONS
REVISION QUESTIONS
Although these evaluation criteria were developed by Donald Kirkpatrick over 50 years ago, they are still very
relevant today. However, while all four criteria are still relevant, Kirkpatrick (2010: 16) has found that “training
professionals are effective in evaluating Level 1: Reaction and Level 2: Learning, but not Level 3: Behaviour or
Level 4: Results. This is because they don’t think it is necessary or don’t know how to do it. It is necessary. In
today’s tough business climate, it is imperative that learning professionals link learning initiatives to business goals
and prove their value in this new workplace.” (Kirkpatrick, 2010: 16).
A Level 3 Evaluation of how training has impacted job behaviour may be conducted through using observation of
the learner on the job, interviews with the learner’s manager and review of the learner’s post-training performance
appraisal.
In determining the benefits of a training programme, an ROI evaluation would need to focus on finding data to
answer questions such as:
• How much has the training programme contributed to profits?
• How much has the quality of our product improved because of the training programme?
• How has productivity improved?
Unit 5
REVISION QUESTIONS
REVISION QUESTIONS
• Accelerate broad-based black economic empowerment and employment equity (85 per cent black, 54 per
cent women and 4 per cent people living with disabilities, including youth in all categories)
• Support, monitor and evaluate the delivery and quality assurance systems necessary for the implementation
of the NSDS
• Advance the culture of excellence in skills development and lifelong learning (Wärnich et al., 2015: 379)
REVISION QUESTIONS
The Skills Development legislation seeks to “develop the skills of the South African workforce and thereby increase
the quality of working life for workers, improve the productivity of the workplace, and promote self-employment and
delivery of social services” (Nel et al, 2008: 432). The act specifically seeks to encourage employers to use the
workplace as an active learning environment and to provide opportunities for new entrants into the labour market
to acquire work experience.
The Skills Development Levies Act (SDLA) requires that organisations pay a Skills Development levy amounting
to 1% of payroll. Organisations may recover a large percentage of this levy by:
• Appointing a Skills Development Facilitator
• Preparing and submitting an annual Workplace Skills Plan as well as an annual Training Report to the
organisation’s relevant Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) (Nel et al, 2008: 432 – 434)
• Implementing training and development initiatives which support the SETA’s Sector Skills Plans, such as
implementing learnerships for Black employees so as to promote transformation in the workplace
A National Skills Development Strategy is published by the Department of Higher Education and Training every
five years. In 2011, the third National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III) was published and identifies some
of the key areas of focus to be:
• The improved performance of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs)
• Implementing skills development projects that address:
o the new economic growth path
o the Industrial Policy Action Plan
o rural development
o skills to support the green economy
o skills in education and health; and
o institutions focused on fighting crime and corruption
The Department of Higher Education and Training is to carefully monitor the implementation of NSDS III to ensure
its success.
REVISION QUESTIONS
This refers to a plan that is approved by the SETA which provides information on the various training and
development requirements of the organisation for the year (Wärnich et al., 2015: 387).
In terms of the SDA and SDLA, organisations must develop and submit their WSP.
Wärnich et al. (2015:387) states that “the WSP should flow from the strategic human resource training and
development plan. Its aim is to develop the capacity of employees in an enterprise to achieve the business goals.
The needs analysis process is therefore an essential ingredient for a meaningful WSP. In addition, one of the
steps in the compilation of a WSP is the requirement for a skills audit – an investigation undertaken to determine
the actual skills of the current workforce in order to define the skills gaps and real skills requirements of the
enterprise”.
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