Hindawi

Journal of Sensors
Volume 2022, Article ID 7707600, 8 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7707600

Research Article
Autonomous Braking System Using Linear Actuator

R. Vaibhav ,1 N. Amutha Prabha ,1 V. Indragandhi ,1 M. Bharathidasan ,1

S. Vasantharaj ,1 and J. Sam Alaric 2
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore City, India
2
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wollega University, Ethiopia

Correspondence should be addressed to J. Sam Alaric; [email protected]

Received 27 July 2022; Revised 21 October 2022; Accepted 5 November 2022; Published 22 November 2022

Academic Editor: Giovanni Pau

Copyright © 2022 R. Vaibhav et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The most frequent cause of vehicle accidents (car, bike, truck, etc.) is the unexpected existence of barriers while driving. An
automated braking system will assist and minimize such collisions and save the driver and other people’s lives and have a
substantial influence on driver safety and comfort. An autonomous braking system is a complicated mechatronic system that
incorporates a front-mounted ultrasonic wave emitter capable of creating and transmitting ultrasonic waves. In addition, a
front-mounted ultrasonic receiver is attached to gather ultrasonic wave signals that are reflected. The distance between the
impediment and the vehicle is determined by the reflected wave. Then, a microprocessor is utilized to control the vehicle’s
speed depending on the detected pulse information, which pushes the brake pedal and applies the vehicle’s brakes extremely
hard for safety. For work-energy at surprise condition for velocity 20 km/hr, the braking distance is 17.69 m, and for velocity
50 km/hr, the braking distance is 73.14.

1. Introduction system must make a choice [4]. As a result, we developed

an automated braking system in which the ultrasonic sensor
Technology related to self-driving cars has grown at an is replaced by a lidar sensor. The lidar sensor emits rapid
exponential rate during the last decade. The global market laser signals, sometimes up to 150,000 pulses per second,
for self-driving cars is estimated to be around 6.5 thousand and provides both the location and a three-dimensional
units in 2019, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) image of objects in front of the automobile [5]. The system
of 63.5 percent between 2020 and 2027 [1]. By 2027, the is controlled by the microcontroller (Arduino UNO), which
global market for autonomous vehicles is expected to reach in turn controls the linear actuator that applies the brake.
560 billion. Autonomous braking is a vital technology for Autonomous braking systems (ABS) must be precise in a
future safe-driving system development. Vehicles equipped wide range of conditions. False-alarm scenarios erode driver
with autonomous braking technology can detect an impend- confidence and can be dangerous [6]. Self-driving braking
ing collision with another vehicle, person, or barrier [2]. systems are now standard in the vast majority of automo-
When the system detects an impediment, it may initiate biles. These gadgets detect approaching collisions and take
one of the two modes of autonomous braking. corrective action to prevent them [7].
The first mode is collision avoidance. Collision avoid- These systems operate independently of the driver, using
ance automatic braking prevents accidents [3]; however, brakes to slow and stop the vehicle, preventing collisions, or
the driver is not notified before the system brakes. The reducing impact. We examine a car equipped with an ABS
second option is collision mitigation or collision warning. from the standpoint of systems-of-systems and develop
The sensors in a collision mitigation system identify the guidelines for the design of an ABS to avoid harmful emer-
probability of an accident but take no immediate action; gent behavior and increase the ABS’s safety [8]. The research
rather, the driver will get a warning signal or voice message. focuses on designing enhanced brakes for autonomous
Due to the absence of a driver in an autonomous car, the vehicles utilizing a DC intelligent servo motor torque
 9161, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/7707600, Wiley Online Library on [19/04/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 Journal of Sensors

controller [9]. The primary takeaway from this workpiece is et al. [16] shows that when an impending collision is
that vision sensors and high-performance braking kits, such detected, a small braking force is applied to minimize the
as actuators, will be more helpful in boosting safety and separation between the brake pad and rotor to reduce the
upgrading the braking system. This study uses deep rein- brake response time. The small braking force is activated
forcement learning to create a throttle and brake control when the target deceleration for stopping without colliding
system [10]. The two scenarios that are briefly covered in with the vehicle ahead exceeds 5.88 m/s2.
this article are a static obstacle and a dynamic obstacle. In general, most of the early models specifically
The main disadvantage of this research is that it does not attempted to explain a derived motivation to alter his or
explore the emergency and unforeseen scenarios of the her behavior, casting the problem in items of managing or
obstacle [11]. balancing various assessments of risk. While many of these
According to [12], an automatic braking system that models cite specific driving behaviors as evidence of risky
employs an ultrasonic sensor can reduce the impact of an behavior, their focus is primarily on behavior change that
accident. In order to partially prevent accidents, the use of results from maintaining a target risk level crossing a risk
such a propelled framework may be made necessary in the threshold or as a nonspecific driver of guidance about what
same way how the safety belts are used. In the automation particular kinds of change in driver behavior are likely to
field, designers have proposed several enhancements. A result from adaptations to specific advanced driver assis-
precise short-range radar system was developed for anticol- tance system (ADAS) functionalities. An automatic reverse
lision applications where automatic braking is applied in braking system (ARBS) will process the sensor data and
response to the detection of a collision risk where a very high operate the vehicle to prevent accidents caused by reckless
probability of detection is accompanied by a very low level of driving or trouble detecting objects in the reverse route.
false alarm. A brake strategy for an automatic parking sys- ARBS uses sensors to detect barriers and will process the
tem of the vehicle has proposed a brake controller which sensor data to prevent collisions. FPGA is utilized in [17],
works with the automatic parking system and makes the as a control unit to which the devices and sensors are con-
process of parking smooth and stable. nected. This control unit will perceive the object in accor-
An autonomous antilock braking system (ABS) which dance with the digital input and conduct the appropriate
can take over the tracking control of the vehicle is developed action. Review of behavioral adaptations to advanced driver
for a four-wheel vehicle. The ABS is a braking system that assistance systems was detailed in [18]; such systems are cre-
maintains control over the directional stability of the vehicle ated to assist drivers with duties that were previously han-
during emergency braking or braking on slippery roads by dled only by the drivers themselves.
preventing wheel lockup. There have been considerable Autobraking system using sensors was proposed to pre-
advances in modem vehicle braking systems in recent years. vent front-end, rear-end, right-turn, and left-turn accidents
Automatic emergency braking systems (AEBS), which can on roads. This module can detect the distance between the
mitigate some crashes with stationary objects and motor- front vehicle and the driver’s vehicle to keep a constant dis-
bikes as well as front-to-rear shunt accidents involving two tance using a sensor and operate the brake system. All the
vehicles, were in production on a number of modern above-proposed design models contributed to the safety of
vehicles at the high end of the market in the early days of vehicles and pedestrians. It prevented rear-end crashes and
[13]. If they are overcome, significant casualty savings with provided ABS for sharp or slippery roads. But all these are
a high likelihood of a benefit to cost ratio greater than one applicable for a vehicle running in the conventional
are possible. direction, so we need to develop systems that enhance the
This study develops an effective electric braking system performance and safety of the vehicle when it moves in the
with energy regeneration for a brushless DC motor in an reverse direction. A model designed for reversing vehicles
electric vehicle (EV) [14]. Implementing the recommended provided an obstacle and speed control mechanism based
approach of adjusting the inverter sequence to manage the on binocular cameras. Thus, in this paper, we propose an
inverse torque will enhance the EV’s driving range by 16.2 automatic reverse braking system to prevent a collision by
percent. Braking becomes easier and more effective by har- using sensors to detect obstacles. The automatic reverse
nessing and conserving the kinetic energy that is worn down braking system processes the sensor data and controls and
by friction [15]. An extensive review of the literature was prevents accidents.
carried out. This included marketing and promotional infor- It makes use of a microcontroller to regulate the braking
mation from manufacturers on the automated braking sys- and throttle of the vehicle, as well as an ultrasonic sensor
tem and other active safety systems that they sold or were and a revolutions per minute (RPM) counter [19]. The
developing as well as scientific papers on the technical information about the surrounding environment can be
behavior and development of such systems and technical accurately provided as input to the driver by incorporating
standards, regulations, guidelines, and research papers on a lidar sensor or radar [20]. The autonomous braking sys-
the effectiveness of systems. tems include components of Arduino UNO module, ultra-
The Nissan brake assist system with a preview function sonic sensor, lidar sensor, linear actuator, relay switch, and
(BAP) utilizes information provided by adaptive cruise con- power supply for microcontroller. The paper is organized
trol (ACC) sensors to judge when an emergency braking into various sections as follows. An overview of the design
application may be required based on the distance to the procedure is presented in Section 2, and the results and
followed vehicle and relative velocity. The paper by Tamura discussion are in Section 3 and Section 4 conclusions.
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Journal of Sensors 3

2. Methodology
Lidar sensor
2.1. Work on the Braking System. If a collision is imminent, the
driver does not intervene, and the autonomous emergency
braking (AEB) system begins braking automatically. The AEB
can detect a probable collision and activate the braking system Microcontroller
to slow the vehicle down in order to avoid or mitigate the (Arduino UNO)
impact of the accident. The AEB is part of the second wave of
active safety features that are being installed in passenger cars.
These features include onboard sensors, radar, cameras, GPS, Power supply
Relay
and lasers. Active safety technology can either prevent an
accident from occurring or actively assist the driver in reducing
the severity of an emergency scenario. In a dangerous situation,
active systems provide additional driver control. To that pur- Linear actuator
pose, a vehicle’s performance and surroundings are constantly
monitored by numerous safety systems. The automated brak-
ing system is an Arduino-based mechatronic system.
The microcontroller of the device receives information Braking system
from a lidar sensor (constant data collectors of the environ-
ment). As soon as the engine starts, the lidar sensors begin col-
lecting data and transmitting it to Arduino, which then Figure 1: Block diagram of the proposed model.
performs the required steps. The automobile will continue to
accelerate unabatedly until it comes into contact with or passes
Table 1: Reaction distance for various situations.
close to an obstruction. When considering the technology of
autonomous vehicles, the ultimate goal is to assist the driver Reaction distance (m)
in the operation of the vehicle. To mimic the same, sensors S. no Velocity (km/hr)
Expected Unexpected Surprise
are used to perceive the environment. Namely, these sensors 1 10 2.77 3.46 4.98
include a camera, lidar, radar, and ultrasonic sensor. After
2 20 5.55 6.93 9.99
perception of the environment, necessary actions are needed
to be taken to actuate the vehicle; in that condition, the actua- 3 30 8.33 10.41 14.99
tors place a role. 4 40 11.11 13.88 19.99
These include the actuation of the braking system, steer- 5 50 13.88 17.35 24.98
ing motor, and acceleration pedals. When a barrier or
impediments are identified, the sensors transmit the infor-
mation to the microcontroller, which reacts by bringing
the vehicle to a complete stop or slowing down, as desired
in Figure 1.

2.1.1. The Process of Breakdown

(1) To begin, sensors will gather data from their imme- Figure 2: Hardware model of actuator and vehicle.
diate environment and transmit it to the Arduino
UNO
(2) The data will be processed by Arduino and com- Table 2: Calculation of dry roads in an expected situation.
pared to the programmer (safe distance)
S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking
(3) Once the comparison is complete, the Arduino will no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
perform the actions assigned to the various cases: 1 10 2.77 0.558 3.328
(a) no action has been taken, (b) the vehicle will slow 2 20 5.55 2.24 7.79
down by the distance between it and the impediment
3 30 8.33 5.05 13.38
ahead, and (c) the vehicle will come to a complete
4 40 11.11 8.98 20.09
stop
5 50 13.88 14.02 27.9
2.2. Braking Distance Calculation. The braking distance is the
distance a vehicle travels before coming to a complete stop
when the brakes are completely engaged. Braking is affected The braking distance, on the other hand, is divided into
by the friction between the tires and the road surface, the two parts: (1) total stopping distance and (2) reaction dis-
weight of the vehicle, the wind, the type of braking system, tance. The reaction distance is the distance traveled before
and air resistance. using the brake. It is essentially the time it takes for the
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4 Journal of Sensors

Velocity vs braking distance Table 4: Calculation of dry roads at surprise situation.

distance (m) 30
Braking

20 S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking

10 no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
0 1 10 4.98 0.558 5.538
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2 20 9.99 2.24 12.23
Velocity (Km/hr)
3 30 14.99 5.05 20.04
Figure 3: Dry road at an expected situation. 4 40 19.99 8.98 28.97
5 50 24.98 14.02 39.01

Table 3: Calculation of dry roads in the unexpected situation.

Velocity vs braking distance
S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking 45
40
no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)

distance (m)
35
30

Braking
1 10 3.46 0.558 4.016 25
20
2 20 6.93 2.24 9.16 15
10
3 30 10.41 5.05 15.44 5
0
4 40 13.88 8.98 22.82 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5 50 17.35 14.02 31.31 Velocity (Km/hr)

Figure 5: Dry road at surprise situation.

Velocity vs braking distance
35
30 Table 5: Calculation of wet road at an expected situation.
distance (m)

25
Braking

20 S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking

15
10 no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
5 1 10 2.77 1.107 3.877
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2 20 5.55 4.44 9.99
Velocity (Km/hr) 3 30 8.33 10.01 18.34
Figure 4: Dry road at the unexpected situation. 4 40 11.11 17.81 28.92
5 50 13.88 27.81 41.69
driver to apply the brakes. Reaction distance is the product
of velocity and reaction time. to a complete stop when the brake is applied is referred to
as braking distance. The braking distance can be calculated
Reaction distance = Velocity ∗ Reaction time: ð1Þ by using two methods: (a) kinematics and (b) work-energy
method. The experimental setup of the actuator and vehicle
Reaction time is obtained based on the various situa- is illustrated in Figure 2.
tions. There are three situations: (a) expected, (b) unex-
pected, and (c) surprise. 2.2.1. Kinematics Method. The general equation for calculat-
Reaction times vary depending on the situation, with ing braking distance is given below.
expected braking distances ranging from 0.7 to 1.0 seconds,
unexpected braking distances ranging from 1.25 to 1.5 sec- Vt 2 = V 2 + 2ad, ð3Þ
onds, and surprise braking distances ranging from 1.5 to 2
seconds.
Since we are calculating reaction distance for various sit- where V f is the final velocity, V i is the initial velocity, a is
uations, reaction distance is expected as the acceleration rate, and d is the distance during
acceleration.
Reaction distance = V ∗ Rt: ð2Þ We assume that the end velocity will be zero when calcu-
lating the braking distance. Based on this equation, the dis-
10 Km/hr =2.77 m/s tance traveled during braking can be calculated.
Reaction time expected is 1.0 sec
Reaction distance =2.77 ∗ 1.0 =2.77 m
ðviÞ2
Reaction time for unexpected is 1.25 sec d= : ð4Þ
Reaction distance =2.77 ∗ 1.25 = 3.46 m 2a
Reaction time for surprise is 1.8 sec
Reaction distance =2.77 ∗ 1.8 = 4.98 m The acceleration rate is calculated by multiplying grav-
Various scenarios’ reaction distances are mentioned in ity’s acceleration by the sum of the coefficients of friction
Table 1. The distance traveled by a vehicle before coming and road slope. Calculating dry roads in a scenario that is
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Journal of Sensors 5

anticipated is illustrated in Table 2. Velocity vs braking distance

50

distance (m)
40

Braking
ðviÞ2 30
d= , ð5Þ
2gðu = GÞ 20
10
0
where g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2), u is the 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
coefficient of friction between road and tires, dry road is 0.7, Velocity (Km/hr)
wet road is 0.35, and G is the road grade percentage at 0.06. Figure 6: Wet road at an expected situation.
From Figure 3, at 10 km/hr, the braking distance is
3.328 m, and for 40 km/hr, the braking distance is 20.09 m. Table 6: Calculation of wet road at the unexpected situation.
Table 3 shows the calculation of dry roads in unexpected
conditions. S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking
From Figure 4, for a velocity of 20 km/hr, the braking no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
distance is 9.16 m, and for 50 km/hr, the braking distance 1 10 3.46 1.107 4.567
will be 31.31 m. Dry road calculations at a surprise situation 2 20 6.93 4.44 11.37
are presented in Table 4.
3 30 10.41 10.01 20.42
From Figure 5, for a velocity of 20 km/hr, the braking
distance is 12.23 m, whereas for 50 km/hr velocity, the brak- 4 40 13.88 17.81 31.69
ing distance is 39.01. The calculation of a wet road in a sce- 5 50 17.35 27.81 45.16
nario that is anticipated is given in Table 5.
From Figure 6, the wet road at different velocities has a Velocity vs braking distance
stopping distance of 1.107 m and a braking distance of 50

distance (m)
3.877 m for a velocity of 10 km/hr and a stopping distance Braking 40
30
of 17.81 m and a braking distance of 28.92 m for a velocity 20
of 40 km/hr. Table 6 mentions the determination of wet road 10
in the unexpected situation. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
From Figure 7, at a velocity 30 km/hr, the braking dis-
Velocity (Km/hr)
tance is 20.42 m, and for a velocity 50 km/hr, the braking dis-
tance is 45.16 m. Table 7 shows the determination of wet Figure 7: Wet road at the unexpected situation.
road as a surprise situation. The wet road at surprise situa-
tion is illustrated in Figure 8. Table 7: Calculation of wet road a surprise situation.
2.2.2. Work-Energy Method. The work-energy formula for S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking
calculating a braking distance is kinetic energy = work done. no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
1 10 4.98 1.107 6.087
Work done = braking force ∗ distance = F ∗ d, ð6Þ 2 20 9.99 4.44 14.43
3 30 14.99 10.01 25.07
1 4 40 19.99 17.81 37.8
m ∗ V 2 = kinetic energy: ð7Þ
2 5 50 24.98 27.81 52.79

The average braking force is 2000 N, automobile weight

Velocity vs braking distance
is 1000 kg, and speed is 10 m/s. 60
The formula for braking distance using work-energy is 50
distance (m)
Braking

given below: 40
30
20

10
m ∗ v2
d= : ð8Þ 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2F
Velocity (Km/hr)
The braking distance for an anticipated circumstance is Figure 8: Wet road at surprise situation.
mentioned in Table 8. From Figure 9, work-energy at the
predicted condition for velocity 30 km/hr is 25.67 m and
for velocity 50 km/hr is 62.04. Table 9 shows the braking dis- From Figure 11, for work-energy at surprise condition
tance for an unexpected situation. for velocity 20 km/hr, the braking distance is 17.69 m, and
From Figure 10, the work-energy at different velocities for velocity 50 km/hr, the braking distance is 73.14.
has a braking distance of 5.378 m at 10 km/hr and a braking
distance of 65.51 m at 50 km/hr. Braking distance in case of 2.2.3. Linear Actuator with Brake Pedal Travel Distance.
surprise is mentioned in Table 10. When the brakes are applied, the distance traveled by the
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6 Journal of Sensors

Table 8: Braking distance for an expected situation. Velocity vs braking distance

80
70
S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking

distance (m)
60

Braking
no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m) 50
40
1 10 2.77 1.918 4.688 30
20
2 20 5.55 7.70 13.25 10
0
3 30 8.33 17.34 25.67 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
4 40 11.11 30.85 41.96 Velocity (Km/hr)
5 50 13.88 48.16 62.04
Figure 11: Work-energy for surprise situation.

Brake
Velocity vs braking distance 6

Actuator analog
value (mvolt)
70 5
distance (m)

60 4
50
Braking

40 3
30 2
20 1
10 0
0 0 50 100 150 200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Velocity (Km/hr) Time (m sec)

Figure 9: Work-energy for expected situation. Figure 12: Analog range of braking values.

Table 9: Braking distance for an unexpected situation. Table 11: Braking distance at various situations.

S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking Braking distance

no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m) Linear actuator Time Distance traveled
Conditions
(mm) (sec) (m)
1 10 3.46 1.918 5.378
2 20 6.93 7.70 14.63 No braking 0 0 0
3 30 10.41 17.34 27.75 Partial
40 3.5 9.32
barking
4 40 13.88 30.85 44.73
Full barking 70 6 4.95
5 50 17.35 48.16 65.51

brake pedal. Depending on the conditions, it may traverse

the whole distance or only half of it. Similarly, the linear
actuator’s travel distance will vary depending on the sce-
Velocity vs braking distance
70 nario. The simulation of real-world scenarios with utmost
60 precision so that the real-life conditions and opportunities
distance (m)

50 can be modeled and analyzed in the simulation world

Braking

40
30 reduces the hazard to human life. The program and function
20 used in the real-life simulation for an autonomous world
10 include functions for various real-life obstacles like humans,
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 animals, and various vehicles, physical conditions like pot-
Velocity (Km/hr) holes, weather conditions, and driver consciousness, and
vehicle dynamics like inertia and braking conditions. Actua-
Figure 10: Work-energy for an unexpected situation. tor analog values are shown in Figure 12. Distance to brake
in different situations is mentioned in Table 11.
Calculate the brake pedal travel distance:
Table 10: Braking distance for surprise situation.

S. Velocity Reaction Stopping Braking (i) The pedal has a mechanical advantage of 6 : 1
no (km/hr) distance (m) distance (m) distance (m)
(ii) The pedal height is 650 mm from the pivot, and the
1 10 4.98 1.918 6.898
angle is 45°
2 20 9.99 7.70 17.69
3 30 14.99 17.34 32.33 (iii) As a result, the bottom end of the brake pedal’s
4 40 19.99 30.85 50.84 travel distance is 720 mm
5 50 24.98 48.16 73.14
(iv) Linear actuator has a speed of 20 mm/s
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Journal of Sensors 7

2.2.4. Control System. The control system is vital to auto-

mated braking. The lidar sensor is essential to the control
system. The object reflects light waves onto the lidar sensor.
The sensor measures distance by counting the duration
between each pulse (time of flight). To identify an impedi-
ment and transmit input to the relay switch to decide Arduino UNO
Relay
whether or not the actuator has to go in or out to apply or
Switch
release the brake, the GPS receiver interprets the incoming
wave and sends information to the Arduino UNO. Control-
ling linear actuators is straightforward when two SPDT Linear
relays are utilized. Relays direct the movement of your actu- actuator

ator by stimulating a magnet, which activates high-power Figure 13: Interfacing of components.
currents with an electric current. Such a system can be pow-
ered and run by a microcontroller, such as Arduino. It is a
feature of ADAS in which the driver is assisted from obsta-
Velocity vs braking distance
cles like humans, animals, lane departure, and cruise control, 50

distance (m)
so that braking can be applied when the driver is not at 40

Braking
attention while driving. Arduino is a very good and standard 30
20
controller tool with GPIO, which includes the PWM and 10
digital control along with a communication stack. Most of 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
the actuators can be actuated through it or via it, and at
Velocity (Km/hr)
the same time, it can be used for piecewise testing of each
test case and later can be taken to a high-level controller like Expected
RPI or NVIDIA Jetson boards. The interfacing of the com- Unexpected
ponents system is shown in Figure 13. Surprise

Figure 14: Dry road conditions in three different situations.

3. Results and Discussion
In this paper, the real-time fabrication of an autonomous Velocity vs braking distance
distance (m)

braking system is carried out using electronic components 60

Braking

40
and also tested in real-life situations. The range of values
20
used for testing is considered as per UN Regulation stan-
0
dards of various car models. Therefore, the prototype of an 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
autonomous braking model worked successfully under dif- Velocity (Km/hr)
ferent conditions.
Expected
In three different situations, the kinematics method of Unexpected
determining the braking distance for dry roads, wet road Surprise
conditions, and work-energy method is discussed in this
research. Figure 15: Wet road conditions in three different situations.
From Figure 14, when stopping distances for unexpected
and predicted conditions are compared on a dry road at the Velocity vs braking distance
same speed, the braking distance for surprise is longer. The 80
distance (m)

shorter braking distance is because it is proportional to 60

Braking

velocity. From Figure 15, the increase in velocity can be 40

20
interpreted as increasing the difference in braking distance
0
for three different situations with the same velocity. Wet 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
road conditions have a longer braking distance than dry Velocity (Km/hr)
road conditions, which can lead to a collision. Shortening
Expected
the braking distance can help to avoid accidents. Unexpected
From Figure 16, as the kinematics method has taken the Surprise
coefficient of friction and road grade way into account, it is
found to be more accurate than the work-energy method. Figure 16: Work-energy for three different situations.
The braking distance rises as the speed increases due to the
work-energy approach in this instance. In contrast to kine- the driver is diverting from the standard ways of driving.
matics, this approach requires more braking time. The Let’s take the example of a car approaching a barrier in front
autonomous emergency braking (AEB) features are consid- of it when the driver is drowsy. This is where linear actuators
ered level 2 of autonomy for any autonomous vehicle; they are helpful. In such case, if the driver fails to press the pedal,
help in assisting the driver in cases like lane departure, cruise sensors will perceive the obstacle and actuate the linear actu-
control, drowsiness detection, and other condition in which ator, which will actuate the braking mechanism.
 9161, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/7707600, Wiley Online Library on [19/04/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 Journal of Sensors

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