Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J.

McPherson

Figure 17.8 Wet bulb globe temperature exposure for acclimatized workers at varying working
time per hour(recommended by the U.S. National Institute of Occupational Safety
and Health, Pub. 86-113).

The WBGT and its simplified companion, WGT are both well suited to the rapid assessment of
climatic conditions in existing locations where instrumentation may be located. They are, at
present, less useful for the prediction of air cooling power in underground openings that have not
yet been constructed, as neither natural wet bulb temperature nor wet or dry globe temperatures
are included as output in current subsurface climate simulators.

Improvements in instrumentation, microelectronics and computer software have resulted in the

development of hand-held devices that give an in-situ indication of air cooling power (e.g. Wu and
Gillies, 1997).

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

17.4.4 Rational indices

A rational index of heat stress is one that has been established on the basis of the physiological
heat balance equation (17.3) and that conforms to heat transfer relationships such as those
developed in Section 17.3. A thermoregulation model (Section 17.3.6) may be used for detailed
investigations of existing or proposed facilities. The establishment of such a model on a mine
office microcomputer enables it to be employed for day to day routine assessments. However, for
rapid manual assessment or where predictions of average cooling power for a work area are
required, a thermoregulation model can be simplified into charts or tables by establishing specific
values for the weaker parameters, or defining fixed relationships between those parameters and
the more dominant variables.

A choice must be made on the physiological response that is to be used as an indicator of

climatic acceptability. This is usually one of the linked parameters, core temperature, mean skin
temperature or sweat rate. In the thermoregulation model output illustrated in Figure 17.6, mean
skin temperature is employed in association with the limit values of Figure 17.5 as the indicator of
acceptability.

17.4.4.1 Air Cooling Power (M scale), ACPM

The illustrative example shown on Figure 17.6 (a) gives a series of curves relating equilibrium
skin temperature to wet bulb temperature and air velocity for unclothed personnel producing 100
W/m2 of metabolic heat, and for specified values of

P = 100 kPa and td = tr = tw + 5°C (17.39)

Figure 17.5 indicates that at M = 100 W/m2 an equilibrium skin temperature of 35.8°C is
associated with a probability of no more than one in a million that core temperature will exceed
40°C, i.e. a negligible risk of unacceptable heat strain. Scanning across the tsk = 35.8°C line on
Figure 17.6 (a) allows us to read the corresponding limiting wet bulb temperatures for air
velocities 0 to 5 m/s.

If the procedure were repeated with a sufficiently large and detailed number of charts of the type
illustrated on Figure 17.6 then tables relating metabolic heat, wet bulb temperature and air
velocity could be compiled for each clothing ensemble. This exercise has been carried out, not by
a graphical construction of charts, but by cyclic operation of the thermoregulation model
described in Section 17.3.6. The results are shown on Figure 17.9.

The lines on this chart have been established from equilibrium conditions when the ambient
environment removes metabolic heat at the same rate as it is generated. Hence, they may be
regarded as limit lines of climatic acceptability. For this reason, the vertical axis has been
renamed Air Cooling Power (M scale) as a reminder that the lines represent equilibrium with
metabolic heat, M, and to distinguish it from earlier versions of Air Cooling Power.

In order to use the chart as a rapid means of assessing climatic acceptability of any given
environment, the psychrometric wet bulb temperature, tw, and metabolic heat generation, M, are
plotted as a coordinate point. If this point lies above the relevant air velocity line for the chosen
clothing ensemble then the average cooling power of the air is greater than metabolic heat
generation and personnel will be able to attain thermal equilibrium with the environment at that
same rate of work. However, if the air cooling power is less than the relevant limit curve then the
workers will discard clothing, reduce their work rate or risk the onset of heat strain.

In addition to the specified relationships of td = tr = tw + 5°C and P = 100 kPa, the ACPM chart is
based on a body posture factor of fr = 0.75 and the following specifications for clothing:

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

Unclothed Light Clothing Heavy Clothing

2
thermal resistance Rcl (°Cm /W) 0 0.085 0.143
area factor, fcl 1 1.14 1.28
vapour permeation efficiency 1 0.45 0.45

It will be recalled, also, that the air velocity is the relative velocity between the worker’s body and
the main airstream.

Figure 17.9 Air Cooling Power (M scale) or ACPM chart.

[Based on td = tr = tw + 5°C and P = 100 kPa]

As the effects of dry bulb temperature, radiant temperature and barometric pressure are relatively
weak in underground environments, the ACPM chart may be used without undue error for wet
bulb depressions from 2 to 8°C and for the range of atmospheric pressures that normally exist in

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

mine workings. The computer model listed in Appendix A17.1 can be used to develop similar
charts for any other specified conditions. Air cooling charts have the advantage that they are
based on a thermoregulation model and can also be used to assess the acceptability of existing
workplace conditions.

Example 1
In a mine working, the wet bulb temperature is 28°C and the air velocity is 1 m/s. Estimate the
limiting rates of continuous work for unclothed, lightly clothed and heavily clothed personnel.

Solution
From Figure 17.9 the three values of air cooling power at tw = 28°C and u = 1 m/s are estimated
at:
unclothed: 313 W/m2 lightly clothed: 168 W/m2 heavily clothed: 127 W/m2

Table 17.1 may be used to relate these cooling powers to types of work activity.

Example 2
It is predicted that in a future subsurface development the air velocity will be 2 m/s. If personnel
are to sustain a metabolic rate of 220 W/m2 while lightly clothed, estimate the upper limit of
psychrometric wet bulb temperature.

Solution
From the light clothing curves on Figure 17.9, at an air velocity of 2 m/s and an air cooling power
of 220 W/m2, the limiting wet bulb temperature is estimated at 25.6°C.

Example 3
Acclimatized mine employees are required to work in a location where the wet bulb temperature
is 29 °C. The workrate will be moderate with occasional extra effort. Recommend the type of
clothing and the minimum air velocity to minimize the probability of unacceptable heat stress.

Solution
From Table 17.1 an average metabolic heat production rate is estimated at 260 W/m2.
Plotting a point at M = 260 W/m2 and tw = 29 °C on the Air Cooling Power (M scale) chart of
Figure 17.9 shows that it lies close to an air velocity of 0.5 m/s in the unclothed region. Hence,
the recommendation is that these workers should wear no more than brief shorts, boots and
hardhats, and that the air velocity should not be less than 0.5 m/s.

17.4.4.2 Specific Cooling Power (A scale), ACPA

The original concept of air cooling power as employed in this chapter arose from pioneering work
conducted by the Chamber of Mines Research Organization of South Africa (Mitchell and Whillier,
1972; Wyndham, 1974; Stewart and Whillier, 1979; Stewart, 1982). This involved detailed
analytical investigations as well as some thousands of tests in a large environmentally controlled
and monitored wind tunnel. A thermoregulation model was developed on the basis of the
physiological heat transfer equation (17.3). That model was restricted to the hot and humid
conditions prevalent in the stopes of deep South African gold mines. In those conditions the
influence of respiratory cooling is relatively small and was ignored. The model was further
confined to fully wetted and unclothed personnel. An air cooling power chart was produced for the
specific conditions of td = tr = tw + 2°C and P = 100 kPa and for wet bulb temperatures in the
range 25 to 35°C (Stewart, 1982). This was termed the Specific Cooling Power (A Scale) chart
and yielded curves that are comparable to those given for unclothed personnel on Figure 17.9
within that range of wet bulb temperature.

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

17.4.5 Choice of heat stress index.

With such a variety of heat stress indices the question arises on when to employ an empirical or
rational index. It would be impractical to conduct measurements of physiological response (e.g.
body core temperature, sweat rate or mean skin temperature during normal mining operations.
Hence, for routine manual monitoring of the workplace empirical indices are usually preferred by
supervisors (Section 17.4.3)3.The values obtained for the preferred empirical index can then be
compared with limits of acceptability that have been estimated from controlled experiments on
volunteers (e.g. Figures 17.7 and 17.8).

As the reliability and costs of handheld cooling power instruments continue to improve we may
see these being more widely used for routine workplace monitoring. Similar devices might also be
incorporated into minewide monitoring systems for hot mines.

Where computer simulation programs are employed to predict climatic conditions in planned
future workings a wider choice is available. Provided that the relevant variables of environmental
temperatures and air velocities are produced by the simulation package then one or more of the
empirical indices of heat stress can again be shown. However, a thermoregulation model may
also be included in the simulation package in order to predict one or more of the physiological
responses. The latter can be used as a direct and more precise indicator of the level of heat
stress experienced by workers for specified types of clothing and rates of physical work. For
example, in the CLIMSIM package (Chapter 16) the empirical indices produced are effective
temperature and wet bulb globe temperature. Additionally, the thermoregulation model listed in
Appendix A17.1 is incorporated within CLIMSIM in order to predict mean skin temperature as an
indication of physiological reaction and to give warnings of impending heat stress (see Case
Study, Section 16.3.3).

17.5 HEAT ILLNESSES

The human thermoregulation system depends upon the efficient operation of the core and skin
temperature receptors, the flow of blood throughout the body but particularly between the core
and skin tissues, and the production of perspiration. If any of these mechanisms loses its
effectiveness then the body will progressively exhibit the symptoms of one or more of a series of
disorders known collectively as the heat illnesses. These may arise as separate and recognizable
ailments with identifiable causes. However, for workers in hot and humid environments they can
occur in combination.

A common initial symptom is a loss of interest in the task and difficulty in remaining alert. In any
adverse environment, the desire to seek more comfortable surroundings is a psychological
reaction that is just as much a part of the body's defence mechanism as thermoregulatory effects.
Suppression of such predilection may result in irritability or displays of anger. This may be
observed even in persons who are cognizant of the effect. The physical symptoms often reveal
themselves first as a loss of coordination and dexterity.

It follows, even from these initial symptoms of heat strain, that both manual and mental work
productivity will suffer, morale is likely to be low, absenteeism high and standards of safety will
decline in environments that are unduly hot. This is true for either a labour intensive method of
working or one that is heavily mechanized.

3
However, Air Cooling Power Charts (e.g. Figure 17.9) are also directly applicable to existing workplaces.

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

Heat illnesses are introduced in the following subsections and in order of increasing seriousness.
However, it should be remembered that symptoms may overlap and, in cases of doubt, it should
be assumed that the patient is a victim of heat stroke.

17.5.1 Heat fainting

This occurs most frequently when a person stands still for an extended period in a warm
environment. Blood tends to pool in the lower parts of the body causing a temporary reduction in
blood supply to the brain and, hence, a short term loss of consciousness. A common example
arises when soldiers in heavy uniform are required to remain motionless for long periods of time
during ceremonial parades.

The treatment is simply to restore an adequate supply of blood to the brain by allowing the patient
to lie flat in a cooler area and to loosen or remove clothing. Recovery is normally rapid and
complete. The probability of heat fainting is reduced by intermittent body movements.

17.5.2 Heat exhaustion

Conductance of heat within the body is facilitated primarily by the flow of blood. If the volume of
blood is insufficient then heat exhaustion may ensue. A decrease in blood volume may result
from dehydration caused either by an inadequate intake of fluids or by a salt deficient diet.
Alternatively, a combination of environmental heat stress and metabolic rate may cause the
heartbeat to exceed some 180 bpm. The inadequate time interval between contractions of heart
muscles may then be insufficient to maintain an adequate supply to the heart chambers - the rate
of blood flow drops. A significant increase in total volume of blood occurs during periods of heat
acclimatization.

The additional symptoms of heat exhaustion are

• tiredness, thirst, dizziness
• numbness or tingling in fingers and toes
• breathlessness, palpitations, low blood pressure
• blurred vision, headache, nausea and fainting
• clammy skin that may be either pale or flushed.

On the spot treatment should include removal to a cool area and administration of moderate
amounts of drinking water. If the patient is unconscious then heat stroke should be assumed. In
any case, a medical examination should be carried out before the victim is allowed to return to
work.

17.5.3 Heat cramps

If the electrolytic balance of body fluids is sufficiently perturbed then painful muscular contractions
occur in the arms, legs and abdomen. This may occur by salt deficiency or drinking large
amounts of water following dehydration. Medical opinion no longer favours salt tablets but
recommends a diet that provides a more natural supply of salt. However, immediate treatment
may include the administration of fluid containing no more than 0.1 per cent salt.

17.5.4 Heat rash

This is sometimes known as prickly heat by residents of equatorial regions. It is caused by

unrelieved periods of constant perspiration. The continuous presence of unevaporated sweat
produces inflammation and blockage of the sweat ducts. The typical appearance of the ailment is

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

areas of tiny red blisters causing irritation and soreness. Although not serious in itself, heat rash
may lead to secondary infections of the skin and, if sweat rates are sufficiently inhibited, may
produce an increased susceptibility to heat stroke. Heat rash can be prevented by frequent
bathing and the provision of cool living quarters.

Skin irritations can also occur in the hot, dry environments of some evaporite mines, especially at
areas of skin contact with hat bands or protective devices.

17.5.5 Heat stroke

The most serious of the heat illnesses, heat stroke, may occur when the body core temperature
rises above 41°C. Co-ordination of the involuntary nervous system, including body
thermoregulation, is achieved by means of proteins controlled by the hypothalamus, part of the
brainstem. At temperatures in excess of 41°C, damage to those proteins results in the
transmission of confused signals to the muscles and organs that control involuntary reactions.
Furthermore, irreversible injury may be caused to the brain, kidneys and liver. Heat stroke carries
a high risk of fatality.

The initial symptoms of impending heat stroke are similar to those of the less serious heat
illnesses, i.e. headaches, dizziness, nausea, fatigue, thirst, breathlessness and palpitations. If the
patient loses consciousness, then heat stroke should be assumed. The additional symptoms
arise from disruption of the thermoregulatory and other nervous systems of the body:

• perspiration ceases, the skin remains hot but is dry and may adopt a blotchy or bluish
colouration.
• disorientation may become severe involving dilated pupils, a glassy stare and irrational or
aggressive behaviour.
• shivering and other uncontrolled muscular contractions may occur.
• there may be a loss of control of bodily functions.

Although treatment should commence as soon as possible, current medical opinion is that the
patient should not be moved until core temperature has been brought under control. The
administration of first aid should include:

• Cooling by air movement and the application of water to the skin. The water temperature
should be not less than 15°C in order to avoid vasoconstriction of the skin blood capillaries.
Massaging the skin also assists in promoting blood flow through the surface tissues.
• The application of CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) in cases where perceptible heart
beat or respiration are absent. This includes chest massage and mouth-to-mouth breathing.
• Frequent sips of water if the patient is conscious.

Medical assistance should be sought and treatment continued until the core temperature falls
below 38.5°C. The patient should then be covered by a single blanket and transported by
stretcher to hospital. Unfortunately, death or permanent disability may still occur if irreversible
damage has occurred in vital organs. Even after physical recovery, the heat tolerance of the
victim may be impaired, perhaps permanently.

17.5.6 Precautions against heat illnesses

There is a great deal that can be done to protect a workforce against unacceptable heat strain.
First, the design and engineering control of the ventilation and air quality systems of the mine or
facility should be directed toward providing a safe climatic environment within all places where

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

personnel work or travel routinely. If threshold limit values for climatic parameters have not been
set by legislative action, then they should be chosen and enforced by self-imposed action of the
mine or industry. Cool and potable drinking water should be available to workers in hot mines.

Clothing that is appropriate for the work environment and level of activity should be worn by
personnel. In hot environments, this may mean very little clothing or lightweight garments that are
loosely weaved, porous and absorbent. For unusual circumstances such as rescue operations
where personnel are occasionally required to enter hot areas that do not meet the criteria of
climatic acceptability, microclimate protective garments may be used as a short-term and
temporary measure. Such devices typically take the form of specialized jackets that contain
distributed pockets to hold solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), cooled gels or water ice. The
microclimate garments are worn over underclothing in order to avoid ice burns. Outer clothing
reduces direct heat transfer from the surroundings. It is important that this type of microclimate
jacket is changed before the cooling medium is exhausted, as the garment may then become an
effective insulator. More sophisticated microclimate suits, incorporating temperature controlled
fluids circulating through capillary tubing, have also been manufactured. However, these are
expensive and less applicable to mining environments.

A workforce that is required to work in hot environments should be trained to recognize the initial
symptoms of heat strain and to adopt sensible work habits. The latter include appropriate, but not
excessive, rest periods and adequate consumption of cool drinking water. A good dietary balance
should be sought that includes sufficient but, again, not excessive salt. Vitamin C
supplementation is also regarded as improving heat tolerance (Visagie, 1974).

Finally, workers should have been subjected to a process of natural or induced acclimatization
prior to being employed in particularly hot conditions (Section 17.7).

17.6 COLD ENVIRONMENTS

This chapter is concerned primarily with physiological reactions to heat. However, personnel at
mines or other facilities that are located in cold climates or at high altitudes may be subjected to
low temperatures for at least part of the year. Even in the more temperate zones, workers in main
intake airways may suffer from cold discomfort during winter seasons. It is, therefore, appropriate
that we include the effects of cold environments on the human body.

17.6.1 Physiological reactions to cold environments

Heat loss from the clothed body in cold surroundings is mainly by convection with lesser amounts
by radiation and respiration. The most important climatic parameters in these circumstances are
ambient (dry bulb) temperature and air velocity. These may be combined into an equivalent wind
chill temperature (Section 17.6.3).

As heat loss occurs, the initial behavioural response is to don additional clothing and to increase
metabolic heat production by conscious muscular activity. Involuntary physiological reaction is
initiated by reductions in either the body core temperature or mean skin temperature and consists
of an increase in muscular tension. In skin tissues, this causes the familiar "gooseflesh” and
progresses into shivering within localized muscle groups. This may result in metabolic heat
generation being raised by up to 120 W/m2. With further cooling, the degree of shivering
increases to encompass the whole body, producing as much as 300 W/m2 of metabolic heat and
effectively incapacitating the person.

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

If the core temperature falls below 35°C, the

body thermoregulation system will be affected. Mean skin Subjective response
Core temperatures of less than 28°C can prove temperature °C
fatal, although successful recovery of
individuals has been achieved from core 31 uncomfortably cold
temperatures of less than 20°C. The subjective
feeling of comfort depends upon the mean skin 30 shivering
temperature and also the surface temperature
of the extremities. Commencing from the 29 extremely cold
neutral mean skin temperature of 34°C, this
table shows subjective reactions that have been 25 limit of tolerance without numbing
reported for sedentary persons. However, the
increased blood flow caused by a medium or hard work rate may enable reduced values of mean
skin temperature to be tolerated.

The large surface to volume ratio of fingers, toes, and ears maximizes heat loss while the
influence of vasoconstriction is particularly effective in reducing blood flow to those areas. The
latter is a natural reaction to protect, preferentially, the vital organs within the body core.
However, it can give rise to severe discomfort and tissue (frost) damage to the extremities. The
following reactions to hand surface temperatures have been reported:

20°C uncomfortably cold

16°C limit of finger dexterity
15°C extremely cold
5°C painful
Skin surface temperatures some 1.5 to 2.0°C higher produce similar reactions at the feet.

17.6.2 Protection against cold environments

Human beings have been described as “tropical animals” inasmuch as our thermoregulation is
much more effective in warm environments. In cold conditions we rely more on the behavioural
response of donning extra clothing and/or engaging in additional muscular activity.
The first line of defence against any potentially adverse environment in the subsurface is the
initial design and subsequent control of the ventilation and air conditioning systems. Methods of
heating mine air are discussed in Section 18.4. These are subject to economic limitations and can
lead to problems of strata control if the mine is within permafrost. It may, therefore, be necessary
to provide means of personal protection against a cold working environment.
Personnel should be instructed on physiological reactions to cold ambient surroundings and,
particularly, on the use of protective clothing. The thermal insulating properties of garments
depend upon the entrapment of air rather than the fibres of the material. The incorporation of
radiation reflective layers can also be helpful. A compromise must be sought between the body
movements required to perform the work and the restraint offered by bulky insulated clothing. An
ambient temperature of -35°C appears to be the practical limit for many activities while, at -50°C
only short term exposure should be permitted. Protection to the hands and feet is particularly
important but does, of course, affect dexterity. Auxiliary heating of some 10W to each hand and
foot allows activity to continue at even lower temperatures provided that the rest of the body is
well insulated.
Facial tissues do not suffer unduly from vasoconstriction. Hence, face masks are usually
unnecessary. However, the effects of wind chill can result in freezing of exposed skin. Fur-lined
hoods should be used to avoid direct wind on the face at low ambient temperatures. Pre-heating
inspired air is not required for healthy individuals for air temperatures down to -45°C.
A limited degree of cold acclimatization can occur in personnel who have been subjected to
frequent exposure. An improved blood flow to skin tissues gives increased circulation to the

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

extremities and reduces the risk of frostbite. Additional heat is also generated by the metabolism
of body reserves of adipose (fatty) tissue.

17.6.3 Indices of cold stress

A series of experiments were carried out by Siple and Passel (1945) in Antarctica involving rates
of cooling by convection and radiation from a plastic cylinder of 5.7 cm diameter whose surface
temperature was 33°C. This led to an empirical formulation known as the Wind Chill Index, WCI,
which described the rate of heat loss from the cylinder. When expressed in SI units, this becomes

( )
WCI = 1.163 10.45 + 10 u − u (33 − t d ) W/m2 (17.40)

where u = air velocity (m/s) and td = dry bulb temperature (°C)

Although the Wind Chill Index is open to criticism arising from the differences in heat transfer
phenomena between a small plastic cylinder and a human body, it has been used as a basis for
the more commonly employed Equivalent Wind Chill Temperature, teq . This is defined as the
ambient temperature in an airstream moving at 1.79 m/s (4 mph) that gives the same WCI (rate of
cooling) as the actual combination of air temperature and velocity. That definition leads to the
equation

t eq = 33 −
(10.45 + 10 )
u − u (33 − t d )
°C (17.41)
22

Figure 17.10 Equivalent wind chill temperature (developed from data

reported by the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental
Medicine).

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

This relationship may be employed for air velocities not less than 2 m/s. Figure 17.10 gives a
graphical depiction of equivalent wind chill temperature. It is important to remember that teq is
indicative of a rate of cooling rather than a physical temperature. The ambient temperature, td,
controls the limit to which any body can cool and is independent of air velocity.

17.7 HEAT TOLERANCE AND ACCLIMATIZATION

In any mine or other subsurface facility where the wet bulb temperature exceeds 25°C, it is
advisable to consider means of combatting potential heat strain within the workforce. The return
on such efforts is shown not only by a decreased risk of heat illnesses but also improvements in
safety statistics and productivity. This section considers procedures of physiological testing and
the acclimatization procedures that may be conducted on personnel prior to their employment in
hot conditions.

Much of the research and development on heat stress and acclimatization procedures for hot
mines has been carried out for the gold mining industry of South Africa. Most of the information
given in this Section originates from that work (e.g. South African Department of Minerals and
Energy, 2002; Bluhm and von Glehn, 2006; Burrows, 1989; Stewart, 1982).

Prior to 1990, the primary objective of heat stress procedures practiced in South Africa was to
reduce the incidence of heat stroke for persons who worked in deep gold mines. It was not
uncommon for wet bulb temperatures to reach 32 °C in stoping areas. Following initial screening
and work/heat tolerance tests to identify the heat intolerant, new and returning mine recruits
underwent acclimatization procedures over several days in surface-located climatic chambers.
For historical interest those former procedures are outlined in Appendix A17.2.

Since the early 1990s the approach has changed. First, a determined effort was undertaken to
reduce wet bulb temperatures to not more than 28 °C in active mining zones. Secondly, the
primary objective of reducing heatstroke has given way to a more general form of risk
assessment through an approach known as Heat Stress Management. This also includes revised
procedures of initial screening and heat tolerance tests but is followed by a natural progression of
supervised on-the-job heat acclimatization. The combination of reduced wet bulb temperatures
and the more holistic approach of Heat Stress Management has enabled the elimination of
several days spent in surface acclimatization chambers.

17.7.1 Physiological tests

17.7.1.1 Initial screening

The initial screening of new or returning recruits who will work in hot conditions in South Africa’s
gold mines consists of two parts. First, a general medical examination is carried out on each
candidate. In addition to health checks this examination includes the medical, occupational and
heat disorder history of each recruit being recorded within a database.

Secondly, a separate physical evaluation is carried out to identify features that would indicate
unsuitability for physical work in hot environments. These factors include:

Age
Tolerance to heat declines with age, a trend which accelerates rapidly over the age of 40 years. A
general recommendation is that persons of 50 years or more should not normally undertake
strenuous activities in hot environments.

Body dimensions.
Both body mass and Body Mass Index (BMI) should be recorded during the physical examination.
The latter is defined as:

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

body mass kg
BMI = 2
(17.42)
height m2

Table 17.4 gives recommendations of the Department of Minerals and Energy, Mine Health and
Safety Inspectorate of South Africa, 2002.

Employee status Criterion/Standard Recommendation

New or returning recruit Body mass < 50 kg Unsuitable: reject

Body mass 50 to 55 kg Suitable but not for strenuous work
BMI: 15 to 29 Suitable
BMI: 30 to 35 Suitable if no medical concerns
BMI > 35 Unsuitable: reject

Existing worker Body mass < 45 kg Unsuitable: reject

Body mass 45 to 50 kg Suitable if no medical concerns or history of
heat disorders
Body mass 45 to 55 kg No allocation to strenuous work
(i.e. M > 160 W/m2)
BMI < 15 Unsuitable
BMI: 15 to 19 Suitable if no medical concerns or history of
heat disorders
BMI: 20 to 29 Suitable
BMI: 30 to 35 Suitable if no medical concerns or history of
heat disorders
BMI > 35 Unsuitable

Table 17.4. Body mass and Body Mass Index criteria for physical work in hot environments.
Source: Department of Minerals and Energy, Mine Health and Safety Inspectorate of South Africa, 2002.
http://www.dme.gov.za/pdfs/mhs/guidelines/thermal_stress.pdf

17.7.1.2 Heat Tolerance Screening

The aim of heat tolerance screening is to identify persons who are likely to suffer from heat stress
while working in hot environments. It is also indicative of the physical fitness of the individual.

The procedure commences with a rest period of 30 minutes in an environment that feels
comfortable to men wearing shorts only. Candidates who have oral temperatures greater than
37 °C at the end of the rest period are excused from the heat tolerance screening and referred
for further medical evaluation.

The heat tolerance screening itself consists of a 30 minute period during which the test subjects
undertake a bench-stepping procedure at a rate of 24 steps per minute to a bench height of 30.5
cm. This approximates to a work rate of 80 W. One step consists of raising the upright body such
that both feet are placed on the bench then back to the floor. The climate should be maintained at
a dry bulb temperature of 29.5 °C and a wet bulb temperature of 28 + 0.3 °C while the air velocity
is maintained within the range 0.3 to 0.5 m/s.

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Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

Individuals whose oral temperature at the end of the test does not exceed 37.6 °C are deemed to
be able to acclimatize successfully under supervision in the mine environment. Those with oral
temperatures higher than 37.6 °C are recognized as heat intolerant and will not be required to
work in hot areas of the mine.

17.7.2 Acclimatization

17.7.2.1 In-situ acclimatization

For candidates who have successfully passed the medical, physical and heat tolerance
screenings, full acclimatization can be expected within some 12 successive work shifts in hot
conditions. During this time physiological changes take place which reduce susceptibility to heat
stress. Formal supervision must be provided during the period of acclimatization. Supervisors
should be capable of measuring wet and dry bulb temperatures, recognizing signs of ill health
and heat stress, ensuring that potable water is available and trained in emergency treatments.

Workers in hot conditions should be trained to recognize symptoms of heat stress, not only in
themselves but also in fellow workers. The training should also encompass good work practices
such as self-pacing of physical work and the use of rest periods. The latter may be imposed by
management.

It is important to remember that acclimatization does not provide immunity against heat illnesses,
including heat stroke, if good work practices are not maintained on a permanent basis. A loss of
full acclimatization can occur after missing only a few days of work in hot conditions. Similarly, if
exposure to those conditions occurs only intermittently full acclimatization will neither occur nor
be maintained. Hence, visits by persons such as senior officials or visitors should take place only
while accompanied by acclimatized supervisors.

17.7.2.2 Physiological changes during acclimatization

During the process of acclimatization, several significant physiological changes take place that
enhance the effectiveness of the body thermoregulation system. These are accompanied by a
noticeable psychological improvement. Acclimatization produces a dramatic increase in blood
volume, averaging about 25 per cent. This, in turn, results in several beneficial reactions. First,
there is an improvement in the response of blood flow conductance to increased metabolic heat
production or greater heat stress. Coupled with an enhanced elasticity in the walls of blood
vessels, this allows a greater flow of blood both to internal organs and to skin tissues. As a
consequence, both core temperature and heartbeat decrease for any given workrate and level of
environmental heat stress.

There is also a dramatic increase in sweat rate for any given core temperature during
acclimatization. Perspiration commences at a lower core temperature, increasing the range and
efficiency of evaporative cooling. The improved ability to produce sweat appears also to be
associated with the increased blood volume as well as enhanced performance of the sweat
glands.

Finally, acclimatization raises the mechanical efficiency of the human body, i.e. any given task is
achieved with a lower production of metabolic heat. This, again, results in a lower core
temperature and reduced thermal strain.

The combined effect of the changes obtained through acclimatization is that the worker can
perform appropriate tasks in hot conditions more efficiently, with a greatly reduced risk of heat
illness, and in a more stable psychological state.

38
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

17.8 EFFECT OF MINE CLIMATE ON PRODUCTIVITY

From a consideration of the psychological as well as physiological effects of hot working
conditions, it can be expected that as the cooling power of the ambient airstream decreases
below some 300 W/m2, personnel will become substantially less effective. There will be a
deterioration in the rate and quality of individual work performance. Unduly hot conditions may
result in poor morale and are likely to produce increased accident rates and problems of
absenteeism.

However, the same difficulties can arise from other causes including standards of supervision,
management style and labour relations, geological conditions and legislative requirements. For
this reason, few studies have been reported that give quantified relationships between mine
environmental conditions and those factors that contribute to overall mine productivity. It is,
however, relatively easy to demonstrate the debilitating influence of heat on individual work
performance. Figure 17.11(a) summarizes results obtained from monitoring the effectiveness of
acclimatized men engaged in manual work in a heading (Poulton, 1970). The work consisted of
shovelling fragmented rock into ore cars. The temperature of the near saturated air and the air
velocity at the workplace were varied to give the range of effective temperatures (Section
17.4.3.1) shown on the figure. The work performance at an effective temperature of 22°C was
taken to represent 100 per cent. The results show that work efficiency begins to suffer at an
effective temperature of about 27°C and declines rapidly when the effective temperature exceeds
30°C. The latter approximates to an air cooling power of some 270 W/m2 for unclothed personnel.

100
90
worker performance %

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
Effective temperature, deg C
Figure 17.11(a) Influence of Effective Temperature on worker performance(after Poulton).
Performance is expressed as a percentage of the largest value reported.

39
 Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 17.11 (b) depicts results reported in a comprehensive study by Howes (1978) using
statistics collated by the Chamber of Mines for gold mines in South Africa. The air cooling power
used in this figure was an early version of the ACP (A scale).

100
Productivity per cen t

90

80

70

60

50
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Air Cooling Power (ACP) W/sq. m
Figure 17.11(b) Effect of Air Cooling Power on mine productivity (after Howes).
Productivity is expressed as a percentage of the largest value reported.

The correlation between Figures 17.11 (a) and (b) is clear for a labour intensive operation.
However, any environment that causes physical discomfort will involve a decline in standards of
care and attention. The potential for accidents and loss of production is greater in a mechanized
operation where an error made by a single person can have serious repercussions. Low morale
and the irritability that often appear as an early symptom of heat strain can easily lead to strained
industrial relations. This can have disastrous effects on overall mine profitability. Furthermore, the
costs of the additional personnel that are required to compensate for absenteeism in hot mines
can be high in an expensive labour market.

Failure to create a reasonably comfortable working environment underground not only puts the
health and safety of the workforce at risk, it also results in lower productivity and profitability.

40
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

References
ASHRAE (1985, 1989 and 1993). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers. Fundamentals Handbooks.

Bluhm, S. and von Glehn, F (2006). Private communication.

Botsford, J.H. (1971). A wet globe thermometer for environmental heat measurement. American
Industrial Hygiene Assoc. Journal: 38, 264

Brake, R. and Bates, G, (2002). A valid method for comparing and rational and empirical heat
stress indices. Ann. Occupational Hygiene, Vol. 46, No.2. pp. 165-174. Published by Oxford
University Press.

Burrows, J.H. (1989). Private communication.

Chamber of Mines of South Africa (1972). Routine mine ventilation measurements.

Johannesburg.

Ciriello, V.M. and S.H. Snook, 1977. The prediction of WBGT from the Botsball. American
Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 38(June): p. 264-271.

Dreosti, A.O. (1935). Problems arising out of temperature and humidity in deep mines of the
Witwatersrand. J. Chem, Metall, Min. Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 36, pp 102-129.

duBois, D. and duBois, E.F. (1916). A formula to estimate approximate surface area if height
and weight are known. Archives of Internal Medicine. 17: pp. 863-871.

Fanger, P.O. (1970). Thermal comfort. Danish Technical Press. Copenhagen.

Gagge, J. et al (1969). The prediction of thermal comfort when thermal equilibrium is maintained
by sweating. ASHRAE Trans. Vol. 75 Part 2 p.108.

Hanoff, J.S.T. (1970). Investigation of the limit of tolerable stresses to men subjected to climatic
and working conditions in coal mines. Glückauf-Forschung. Vol. 31 (4). pp. 182-195.

Hill, L. Griffith, O.W. and Flack, M. (1916). The measurement of the rate of heat loss on body
temperature by convection, radiation and evaporation. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., Section B
(London) Vol. 207 pp 183-220.

Houghton, F.C. and Yaglou, C.P. (1923). Determining lines of equal comfort. ASHVE Trans.
Vol. 29 pp.163-176 and 361-384.

Howes, M.J. (1978). The development of a functional relationship between productivity and the
thermal environment. J. Mine Vent. Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 31, pp 21-38.

International Organisation for Standardization (1982). Hot environments - Estimation of the

heat stress on working man, based on the WBGT (wet bulb globe temperature). IS0 Standard
7243 (See also Standard 7730, 1984).

Mitchell, D. And Whillier, A. (1972). The cooling power of underground environments. Journ.
Mine Ventilation Soc. of S.Africa. Vol 25, pp 140-151.

41
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

NIOSH (1986). Criteria for a recommended standard – Occupational exposure to hot

environments, revised criteria. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, USDHHS
(NIOSH) publication 86-113.

Onkaram, B. et al (1980). Three instruments for assessment of WBGT and a comparison with
WGT (Botsball). American Industrial Hygiene Assoc. 41: pp. 634-641.

Oohori, T. et al (1984). Comparison of current two-parameter indices of vapor permeation of

clothing as factors governing thermal equilibrium and human comfort. ASHRAE Trans. Vol. 90 (2).

Poulton, E.C. (1970). Environment and human efficiency. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois,
U.S.A.

Siple, P.A. and Passel, C.F. (1945). Measurements of dry atmospheric cooling in subfreezing
temperatures. Proc. Americ. Philosophical Soc., Vol. 89, p.177.

South African Department of Minerals and Energy, Mine Health and Safety Inspectorate
(2002). Guideline for the compilation of a Mandatory Code of Practice for an Occupational Health
Programme on Thermal Stress. 78pp.
http://www.dme.gov.za/pdfs/mhs/guidelines/thermal_stress.pdf

Stewart, J.M. (1982). Environmental engineering in South African mines, Chapters 20 and 21.
Mine Ventilation Soc. of S. Africa.

Stewart, J.M. and Whillier, A. (1979). A guide to the measurement and assessment of heat
stress in gold mines. Journ. Mine Ventilation Soc. of S.A. Vol. 32, No. 9. pp. 169-178.

Visagie, M.E. et al (1974). Changes in vitamin A and C levels in black mine workers. S. African
Med. Journ. Vol. 48, pp. 2502-2506.

Windham, C.H. (1974). The physiological and psychological effects of heat. Chapter 7 The
Ventilation of South African Gold Mines. Mine Vent. Soc. of S. Africa. pp 93-137.

Wu, H.W. and Gillies, A.D.S. (1997). The development of a personal response heat stress meter
calibrated to the range of physiology of the range of employees within the mine workplace. Proc.
6th International Mine Ventilation Congress, Pennsylvania, U.S. pp. 255-261. Published by the
Society of Mining Engineers.

Yaglou, C.P. and Miller, W.F. (1925). Effective temperatures with clothing. ASHVE Trans. Vol. 31
pp. 89-99.

42
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

APPENDIX A17.1
Listing of the thermoregulation model developed in Section 17.3.6

The program is listed in the original BASIC language in which it was developed and can be
translated into any other preferred language suitable for running on a personal computer. Alpha
characters are printed in upper case for clarity.

The data required are indicated in lines 20 to 100 and the computed parameters identified in lines
560 to 790. The program cycles iteratively, varying the mean skin temperature and other
dependent variables until the Air Cooling Power (M scale) equals the input metabolic rate. Mean
skin temperatures in excess of 36°C generate a warning message.

10 OPEN "LPT1" FOR OUTPUT AS #1

20 INPUT “TW,TD (deg C),P(kPa) ”,TW,TD,P
30 INPUT "RAD TEMP OF SURROUNDINGS (deg C) ",TR
40 P=1000*P
50 INPUT “RELATIVE AIR VELOCITY (m/s) ",UR
60 INPUT “CLOTHING RESISTANCE, RCL (degC m^2/W) ”,RCL
70 INPUT “CLOTHING AREA RATIO,Fcl ”,FCL
80 INPUT “CLOTH VAPOUR PERMEABILITY EFFICIENCY, Icl “,ICL
90 INPUT “METABOLlC RATE (W/m^2) ”,M
100 INPUT "BODY VIEW FACTOR,Fr ",FR
110 IF UR<3 THEN 140
120 U=UR
130 GOT0 150
140 U=0.8*UR+0.6
150 T=TW
160 HC=.00878*P^.6*SQR(U)
170 GOSUB 930
180 SINT=S
190 GOSUB 1010
200 GOSUB 1050
210 TEX=32.6+(.066*TD)+(0.0002*E)
220 EA=E
230 GOSUB 1080
240 REM
250 REM RESPIRATORY HEAT, BR
260 T=TEX
270 GOSUB 930
280 SEX=S
290 BR=.0000017*M*(SEX-SINT)
300 REM
310 REM CONVECTIVE HEAT, C
320 CNV=(TSK-TD)/(RCL+1/(FCL*HC))
330 TCL=TSK-CNV*RCL
340 REM RADIATIVE HEAT, R
350 TCL=TSK-CNV*RCL
360 TAV=(TCL+TR)/2+273.15
370 HR=4*5.67E-08*(TAV)^3
380 R=HR*FR*(TCL-TR)
390 REM
400 REM EVAPORATIVE HEAT, EV
410 GOSUB 1190
420 IF TSK>32.5 THEN GOSUB 1410

43
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

430 T=TSK
440 GOSUB 850
450 HE=.0007*HC*L/P
460 GOSUB 810
470 RECL=RCL*P/(.0007*L*ICL)
480 EV=W*(ES-EA)/(RECL+1/(FCL*HE))
490 ACPM=BR+CNV+R+EV
500 PRINT TSK
510 IF ABS(ACPM-M)<1 THEN 560
520 TSK=TSK-.01*(ACPM-M)
530 W=W1
540 IF TSK>32.5 THEN GOSUB 1410
550 GOT0 310
560 PRINT #1,“ACPM = ”,:PRINT #1,USING “####”;ACPM;:PRINT #1,” W/m^2”
570 PRINT #1,“TCLOTH = ”,:PRINT #1,USING “##.##”;TCL;:PRINT #1,” C “,
580 PRINT #1,“SKIN TEMP = “;:PRINT #1,USING “##.##”;TSK;:PRINT #1, “ C”
590 IF TSK>=36 AND TSK<37 THEN PRINT #1,“***ONSET OF HEAT STRAIN***“:GOTO 610
600 IF TSK>=37 THEN PRINT #1 ,"*** DANGEROUS SKIN TEMPERATURE ***”
610 PRINT #1,”TEXHAUST = “ ,:PRINT #1,USING "##.##";TEX;:PRINT #1," C "
620 PRINT #1, "SWEAT = “ ,:PRINT #1,USING "##.##”;W
630 PRINT #1,”HC = “,:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;HC;:PRINT #1,” W/m^2 C”,
640 PRINT #1,"HR = ",:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;HR;:PRINT #1," W/m^2 C” ,
650 PRINT #1,"HE = ",:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;HE;:PRINT #1," W/m^2 Pa",
660 PRINT #1,"FCL = “, FCL
670 PRINT #1,"RECL = “,:PRINT #1,USING "###.###";RECL;:PRINT #1," m^2 Pa/W",
680 PRINT #1,"RCL = “,RCL
690 PRINT #1,"RESP = ",:PRINT #1,USING "###.##";BR;:PRINT #1," W/m^2 “,
700 PRINT #1,“CONV = ",:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;CNV;:PRINT #1," W/m^2”
710 PRINT #1,"RAD = ",:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;R;:PRINT #1," W/m^2 “,
720 PRINT #1,"EVAP = ",:PRINT #1,USING "###.##";EV;:PRINT #1," W/m^2"
730 PRINT #1,"SINT = ",:PRINT #1,USING "####.#";SINT*.001;:PRINT #1," kJ/kg ",
740 PRINT #1,"SEX = ",:PRINT #1,USING "####.#";SEX*.001;:PRINT #1," kJ/kg"
750 PRINT #1,"LSK = ",:PRINT #1,USING "#####.#";L*.001;:PRINT #1," kJ/kg ",
760 PRINT #1,"EAIR = ",:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;EA*.001;:PRINT #1,” kPa"
770 PRINT #1,"ESK = ",:PRINT #1,USING “###.##”;ES*.001;:PRINT #1," kPa “,
780 PRINT #1,"X = “ ,:PRINT #1,USING "##.####”;X;:PRINT #1,” kg/kg dry “
790 PRINT #1,"MICRO VELOCITY = ";:PRINT #1,USING “##.##”;U;:PRINT #1,” m/s"
800 END
810 REM SAT VAP PRESS
820 ES=610.6*EXP(17.27*T/(237.3+T))
830 RETURN
840 REM
850 REM LATENT HEAT
860 L=(2502.5-2.386*T)*1000
870 RETURN
880 REM
890 REM MOISTURE CONTENT
900 X=.622*E/(P-E)
910 RETURN
920 REM
930 REM SIGMA HEAT
940 GOSUB 850
950 GOSUB 810
960 E=ES
970 GOSUB 890
980 S=L*X+1005*T

44
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

990 RETURN
1000 REM
1010 REM ACT. MOISTURE CONTENT
1020 X=(S-1005*TD)/(L+1884*(TD-TW))
1030 RETURN
1040 REM
1050 REM ACT VAP PRESS
1060 E=P*X/(.622+X)
1070 RETURN
1080 REM SKIN TEMP
1090 REM REF GAGGE, 1969
1100 TSK=24.85+.322*TD-.00165*TD*TD
1110 IF W<.9 THEN 1130
1120 TSK=24.49+.249*TD
1130 REM VELOCITY (HC) CORRECTION
1140 DTSK=8.999999E-03*HC*(TSK-TD)*(.15-RCL)/0.15
1150 TSK=TSK-DTSK
1160 REM CLOTHING CORRECTION
1170 TSK=TSK+(RCL/.15)
1180 RETURN
1190 REM SWEAT FRACTION
1200 IF TW> 27.194*EXP(-.004*M) THEN 1230
1210 W=0.06
1220 GOT0 1390
1230 IF TW<33 THEN GOT0 1260
1240 W=1
1250 GOT0 1390
1260 IF M>=200 THEN GOT0 1320
1270 A=-(1.781265E-04-2.544E-07*M+8.557743/M^2.218731)
1280 B=.012095-1.79735E-05*M+1063.187/M^2.31927
1290 C=-(.194294-3.279531E-04*M+46903/M^2.44229)
1300 D=.998117-1.816454E-03*M+92432l/M^2.651246
1310 GOT0 1360
1320 A=-(3.97379E-05+7.075456E-08*M+17.880231/M^2.218441)
1330 B=2.369825E-03+3.359426E-06*M+2211.1688/M^2.316119
1340 C=-(-5.682282E-03+5.86905E-05*M+95583.18/M^2.437565)
1350 D=-.321605+7.958265E-04*M+1875636/M^2.645912
1360 W=D+TW*(C+TW*(B+TW*A))
1370 IF W<.06 THEN W=.06
1380 IF W>1 THEN W=1
1390 W1=W
1400 RETURN
1410 REM INCREASE W FOR TSK>32.5
1420 IF TSK<38 THEN 1450
1430 W=1
1440 GOT0 1480
1450 DW=SIN((31.85*TSK-762)*.01745)*.5+.5
1460 W=W1+DW
1470 IF W>1 THEN W=1
1480 RETURN

45
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

APPENDIX A17.2
Acclimatization of workers in South African gold mines prior to 1990.

This appendix is included for historical interest and is taken from the earlier printed version of this
textbook. It reflects the philosophy and procedures of the South African gold mining industry
relating to heat stress in underground workers before 1990. The updated procedures at the time
of this current writing are outlined in Section 17.7 of the main text.

Physiological tests

Initial screening
An initial screening of recruits for work in wet bulb temperatures of more than 25°C should
investigate both body mass and age. Any person with a body mass of less than 50kg is unlikely to
have a skin surface area that is sufficient to ensure efficient body cooling. Conversely, individuals
with a mass exceeding 100kg have a high and constant metabolic burden in supporting their own
weight. No persons in either of these groups should be asked to work in hot environments.
After the age of 40 years, the probability of heat stroke increases significantly. Although
considerable variation exists between individuals, it is prudent to relocate persons of more than
45 years of age to zones of reduced heat stress.

Work capacity tests

A simple test of work capacity consists of a ten minute period of constant and controlled activity
that requires an oxygen consumption rate of 1.25 litres per minute. At the conclusion of the
period, the heartbeat provides an indication of maximum rate of oxygen consumption and, hence,
work capacity. Persons with test heartbeats of over 140 bpm should be prohibited from tasks
requiring hard manual exertion or from working in conditions of heat stress. If the test results
indicate a heartbeat of less than 120 bpm then that individual should be capable of strenuous
work. If the wet bulb temperature in the workings does not exceed 27.5°C the initial screening
and the work capacity tests are all that are required.

Heat tolerance test

This more rigorous test may be carried out on persons who have passed both the initial screening
and the work capacity tests, and who may be required to work in wet bulb temperatures in excess
of 27.5°C. The test consists of requiring the participants to engage in a controlled activity
corresponding to an oxygen consumption of 1.25 litres/minute for a period of four hours in a
climatic chamber. The wet bulb temperature should be at least equal to the highest value that will
be encountered within work areas in the mine.

Oral temperatures are taken at intervals of not more than 30 minutes throughout the test and the
following criteria applied:

If oral temperature –
remains below 37.5°C: person eligible immediately for work in hot mine environment
varies between 37.5 and 38.6°C: eligible for short-term or micro-climate acclimatization
varies between 38.6 and 40.0°C: eligible for full acclimatization
exceeds 40.0°C: test terminated and person classified as heat intolerant

If it is suspected that heat intolerance is caused by a temporary illness or body disorder then the
test may be repeated after treatment and recovery.

Heat acclimatization

The organized process of heat acclimatization may take place over a period of several days
during which the participants are subjected to gradually increasing work rates and/or levels of
heat stress. During this time, definite physiological changes occur that enable the human body to
better resist the adverse effects of a hot environment.

46
Chapter 17 Physiological reactions to Climatic Conditions Malcolm J. McPherson

The first attempts at organized acclimatization for work in hot mines appear to have been carried
out in 1926 within the South African gold mining industry (Dreosti). Considerable effort was
devoted to the improvement of acclimatization procedures and South Africa seems to have been
the only country that provided formal acclimatization for the majority of recruits into deep and hot
mines. However, advances in the design of ventilating and air conditioning systems have led to
significant improvements in climatic conditions within those mines. The modern philosophy is to
promote working environments that do not necessitate full acclimatization procedures.

Methods of acclimatization
There are essentially three methods of acclimatization for workers in hot environments. The first
and, perhaps, most natural is for the individual to spend the first two weeks of underground work
in tasks of increasing physical effort (or less frequent rest periods) within the actual mine
environment. This may be combined with commencing in relatively cool areas of the mine and
progressively moving the participants to locations of increased heat stress through the two week
period.

Although such "on-the-job” acclimatization appears to be convenient, it does have significant

drawbacks. If successful acclimatization is to be achieved, then the process must be monitored
and controlled by well-trained supervisors. Work rates, body temperatures and psychrometric
conditions must be logged and, if necessary, modifications made to the place or rate of work.
Individuals who exhibit signs of heat intolerance must be identified before they suffer unduly from
heat strain. Drinking water must be administered at frequent intervals. The difficulty is that such
procedures do not blend readily into the production-oriented activities of a working stope or face.
It is for this reason that “on-the-job” acclimatization has, in general, been less successful than the
more easily controlled procedures.

For individuals whose oral temperature does not exceed 38.6°C during a heat tolerance test a
shorter period of acclimatization may provide the required degree of protection. The use of micro-
climate jackets during acclimatization may be deemed acceptable for candidates who are familiar
with underground operations. For the first week in hot conditions, the worker performs his
expected rate of work while wearing a micro-climate jacket. This allows the individual to be fully
productive during the acclimatization period while, at the same time, offering protection against
heat illness.

The use of surface or underground climatic chambers designed specifically for fully controlled
acclimatization procedures was developed for the South African gold mining industry (Stewart,
1982). The success of those procedures in reducing the incidence of heat stroke and improving
productivity led to the widespread use of the technique within that country. The environment
within the climatic chamber is maintained at a wet bulb temperature of about 31.7°C and an air
velocity of 0.5 m/s. The work consists of stepping on and off a bench at a rate indicated by an
audible and visual metronome. The height of the bench is adjusted according to each man's body
weight such that every person works at the same rate. This correlates with an oxygen
consumption of some 1.4 litres/minute and, hence, is equivalent to hard manual work. The task is
carried out for four continuous hours per day over a period of several days. Measurements are
made of body temperature, and drinking water is administered every thirty minutes. During the
first day of acclimatization, the stepping task is conducted at only half the normal pace for most of
the four hours. The time spent on full work rate (oxygen consumption of 1.4 litres/minute) is
increased gradually until the final day is entirely at the full rate.

The period of acclimatization within a climatic chamber originally encompassed eight days.
However, the improvement of conditions underground, coupled with heat tolerance testing have
resulted in the acclimatization period being reduced to four days with far fewer men required to
undergo it. The ultimate objective is to reduce the wet bulb temperature to less than 27.5°C in all
mines at which time acclimatization will no longer be required (Burrows, 1989).

47
Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

CHAPTER 18. REFRIGERATION PLANT AND MINE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

18.1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 2

18.2. THE VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE .......................................................... 2
18.2.1. Basic principles ....................................................................................................................... 2
18.2.2. Refrigerant fluids..................................................................................................................... 4
18.2.3. Basic components of the vapour compression cycle.............................................................. 5
18.2.4. Performance of a refrigeration cycle....................................................................................... 6
18.2.4.1 The Carnot cycle ............................................................................................................... 6
Coefficient of Performance, COP, ................................................................................... 8
18.2.4.2. The actual cycle ............................................................................................................... 8
18.3. COMPONENTS AND DESIGN OF MINE COOLING SYSTEMS.................... 15
18.3.1. Overview of mine cooling systems ....................................................................................... 15
18.3.2. Heat exchangers................................................................................................................... 20
18.3.2.1. Indirect heat exchangers................................................................................................ 22
18.3.2.2. Performance calculations for indirect heat exchangers ................................................. 22
18.3.2.3. Direct heat exchangers .................................................................................................. 26
Chilled water spray chambers ....................................................................................... 28
18.3.2.4. Performance calculations for direct heat exchangers. ................................................... 31
18.3.2.5. Heat exchange across the walls of pipes and ducts ...................................................... 41
Air inside a duct ............................................................................................................. 42
Water inside a pipe ........................................................................................................ 42
Air outside a pipe ........................................................................................................... 43
Radiative heat transfer coefficient ................................................................................. 43
18.3.3. Water distribution systems................................................................................................... 45
18.3.3.1. Pipe sizing ...................................................................................................................... 46
18.3.3.2. Pipe insulation ................................................................................................................ 47
Table 18.3. Thermal conductivities of pipe materials. ................................................. 48
18.3.3.3. Energy and temperature changes within water systems ............................................... 48
18.3.4. Energy recovery devices....................................................................................................... 53
18.3.4.1. Water turbines ................................................................................................................ 54
18.3.4.2. Hydrolift systems ............................................................................................................ 55
18.3.5. Design of mine cooling systems ........................................................................................... 56
18.3.5.1. Location of main plant .................................................................................................... 56
Surface plant.................................................................................................................. 57
Underground plant ......................................................................................................... 57
Combinations of surface and underground plant .......................................................... 59
18.3.5.2. Service water cooling ..................................................................................................... 61
18.3.5.3. Hydropower .................................................................................................................... 62
18.3.5.4. Ice systems ................................................................................................................... 62
Manufacture of ice ......................................................................................................... 64
Transportation of ice ...................................................................................................... 65
Incorporation into the mine cooling system ................................................................... 66
Economics of ice systems ............................................................................................. 67
18.3.6. Summary of design process ................................................................................................. 67
18.4. AIR HEATING ................................................................................................ 68
18.4.1. Utilization of waste heat ........................................................................................................ 69
18.4.2. Heat recovery from exhaust air............................................................................................. 69
18.4.3. Direct heating........................................................................................................................ 71
Table 18.4. Gross calorific values of gases................................................................... 71
18.4.4. Indirect heating ..................................................................................................................... 72
18.4.5. Ice stopes.............................................................................................................................. 73
18.4.6. Geothermal and cycled storage heat.................................................................................... 74
References.................................................................................................. 76

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

18.1. INTRODUCTION
One of the earliest methods of temperature control in underground mines was the importation of
naturally produced ice from the surface. Blocks of ice were transported in ore cars to cool miners in
the Comstock Lode under Virginia City in Nevada, USA, during the 1860's. The vapour compression
refrigeration cycle, currently the most widespread method of artificial cooling, appears to have first
been used in mining during the 1920's. Examples included the famous Morro Velho Mine in Brazil
(1923) and experimental work in British coal mines (Hancock, 1926). Air cooling techniques in mining
gained further recognition in the 1930's including their utilization in the gold mines of South Africa and
in the Kolar Goldfields of India. However, it was the 1960's that saw the start of a real escalation of
installed mine cooling capacity.

Large centralized refrigeration plant, located underground, became popular in the South African gold
mines. Limitations on the heat rejection capacity of return air, combined with the development of
energy recovery devices for water pipelines in shafts and improved "coolth" distribution systems led
to a renewed preference for surface plant. (The term "coolth" is a decidedly unscientific but
descriptive word sometimes used in association with chilled fluid distribution systems.)

Although the traditional role of mine cooling has been to combat geothermal heat and the effects of
autocompression in deep metal mines, an additional influence has been the escalating amount of
mechanized power employed underground, particularly in longwall coal mines. This resulted in
smaller scale and more localized use of air cooling units in such mines at depths where, prior to
intensive mechanization, heat had not been a limiting environmental problem. Examples of these
installations appeared in the United Kingdom and Germany.

In this chapter, we shall examine the essential theory of the vapour compression refrigeration cycle in
addition to discussing the design of mine cooling systems and some of the methods of distributing
"coolth" to the working areas of a subsurface facility. The chapter concludes with a section on the
opposite problem, that of increasing the temperature of the intake air for mines in cold climates.

18.2. THE VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

There are many transient phenomena that are known to produce a cooling effect, varying from
endothermic chemical reactions to the sublimation of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice). Where a
continuous cooling effect is required, then a means must be employed by which a supply of
mechanical, electrical or thermal energy is utilized to remove heat from some source, and to transport
it to a thermal sink where it can be rejected. If the primary objective is to cool the source, then the
device is known as a refrigerator. If, however, the desired effect is to heat the sink, then it is called a
heat pump. In fact, both effects occur simultaneously. Hence, a domestic refrigerator cools the interior
of the container but heats the air in the kitchen.

Of the several devices that have been developed to achieve a continuous refrigeration or heat pump
effect, the most common is based on the vapour compression cycle. This may be used on small units
such as air conditioning equipment fitted to automobiles or for very large scale cooling of mine
workings where many megawatts of heat require to be transferred. In this section, we shall examine
the basic principles of the vapour compression cycle, how rates of heat exchange may be calculated,
and the essential components of a refrigeration plant.

18.2.1. Basic principles

When a liquid boils, it does so at constant temperature provided that the applied pressure remains
fixed. The heat added is utilized in increasing the internal kinetic energy of the molecules until they

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

can no longer remain in the liquid phase but burst free to form a vapour or gas (Section 2.1.1). If,
however, the applied pressure is raised to a higher value, then additional heat is required to vaporize
the liquid. The boiling temperature will increase. The relationship between pressure and boiling point
for any given liquid may be defined as the vapour pressure line on a pressure-temperature diagram
such as that shown on Figure 18.1. The fluid is a liquid on the left of the curve and a vapour (gas) on
the right of the curve. The liquid may be vaporized either by increasing the temperature or decreasing
the pressure. Similarly, condensation from vapour to liquid may occur either by decreasing the
temperature or increasing the pressure.

Figure 18.1 A pressure-temperature diagram showing limits of phase change.

The change in physical appearance of a fluid on crossing the vapour pressure line is quite distinct,
liquid to gas or vice versa. However, there is a critical pressure-temperature coordinate beyond which
the change of phase is gradual rather than sudden and there is no clearly defined moment of
evaporation or condensation. This is known as the critical point.

Although the vapour pressure curve appears as a single line on the pressure-temperature diagram, it
takes a finite amount of time and energy exchange to cross that line. During this time, part of the fluid
will be liquid and the remainder will be vapour. This is the situation that exists inside a boiling kettle.
The region within which the two phases coexist is more clearly shown on the PV (pressure against
specific volume) diagram of Figure 18.2(a). The corresponding temperature-entropy (Ts) and
pressure-enthalpy (PH) diagrams are shown on Figures 18.2(b) and (c) respectively. The latter two
diagrams are particularly useful in analyzing and quantifying both the work and heat transfer
processes in the vapour compression cycle.

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 Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

In all three diagrams of Figure 18.2, a horizontal line within the two phase region indicates that the
pressure and temperature both remain constant during any given isobaric phase change. However,
the volume, entropy and enthalpy all increase
significantly during vaporization. Different horizontal
lines on anyone of these diagrams will indicate different
values of pressure and corresponding boiling (or
condensation) temperature (Figure 18.1).When a liquid
boils at a given value of applied pressure it will extract
heat from the surroundings or other available medium.
If the vapour thus produced is then transported to a
new location and compressed to a higher pressure,
then it can be condensed at a correspondingly higher
temperature, yielding up its heat of condensation to the
new surroundings or any cooling medium that may be
supplied. This is the basic principle underlying the
vapour compression refrigeration cycle.

18.2.2. Refrigerant fluids

The differing pressure-temperature relationships of

various fluids allow each of those fluids to act as a
refrigerant over specified temperature ranges. Carbon
dioxide and even water have been used as
refrigerants. For the ranges of pressures and
temperatures acceptable in refrigeration plant for air
conditioning, ammonia is a particularly efficient
refrigerant although its toxicity limits its use. The ideal
refrigerant for mining use is one that gives a high
efficiency of heat transfer, is non-corrosive to metal,
non-toxic and has a boiling temperature close to 0°C at
a positive pressure with respect to the ambient
atmosphere. Fluorinated hydrocarbons have been
widely employed in many types of industrial plant as
well as domestic refrigeration equipment. Although
non-toxic, fluorinated hydrocarbons react adversely
with atmospheric ozone and are being replaced by
alternative refrigerants.
Figure 18.2 PV, Ts and PH diagrams for
Refrigerant fluids are commonly referred to, not by their
change of phase.
chemical names, but by R (refrigerant) number. Table
18.1 indicates some of those designations.

Refrigerant No. Chemical name Refrigerant No Chemical Name

R11 trichlorofluoromethane R122 trichlorodifluoroethane

R12 dichlorodifluoromethane R170 ethane
R22 chlorodifluoromethane R290 propane
R23 trifluoromethane R600 butane
R30 dichloromethane R717 ammonia
R50 methane R718 water
R110 hexachloroethane R744 carbon dioxide
R113 trichlorotrifluoroethane R1150 ethylene
R120 pentachloroethane R1270 propylene

Table 18.1 Refrigerant numbers of selected fluids.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

18.2.3. Basic components of the vapour compression cycle

Figure 18.3 shows that there are four essential components of hardware in a vapour compression
refrigeration unit. The evaporator is a heat exchanger, typically of the shell-and-tube configuration in
mining refrigeration plant. In the larger units, the refrigerant liquid is on the outside of the tubes while
the medium to be cooled (for example, water, brine or glycol) passes through the tubes. Smaller units
employed for direct cooling of an airstream are sometimes called "direct evaporators" and contain the
refrigerant within the tubes while the air passes over their outer surface.

heated air or
water to heat
superheated rejection
vapour

high pressure:high temperature

liquid

condenser

compressor expansion
valve

warm air
or water
evaporator

low pressure: low temperature

chilled air or
water

Figure 18.3 Major components of a vapour compression cycle.

Within the evaporator, the refrigerant pressure is maintained at a relatively low level and boils at a
correspondingly low temperature. For example, refrigerant R12 will boil at 4°C if the pressure is 351
kPa (approximately 3.5 atmospheres). The heat required to maintain the boiling is extracted from the
gas or liquid passing on the other side of the tube walls. Hence, that gas or liquid is cooled. The
refrigerant, now vaporized, collects at the top of the evaporator and is allowed to gain a few degrees
of superheat to ensure full vaporization before it passes on the compressor. Except for direct
evaporators, it may be necessary to insulate the external surface of the evaporator in order to prevent
excessive heat gain from the ambient atmosphere.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The compressor is the device where mechanical work is input to the system. Reciprocating, screw or
centrifugal compressors are all employed. The latter are favoured for the larger units and where the
required pressure ratio remains constant. However, the development of large diameter screw
compressors allows a good efficiency to be maintained under conditions of variable cooling load.
(Baker-Duly, 1989). Multi-stage compressors are employed to give high differentials of pressure and,
hence, large temperature differences between the evaporator and condenser. Electric motors are
normally employed to drive the compressors on mine refrigeration units although internal combustion
engines may be used on surface or as standby units. The duty of a refrigeration plant can be modified
by changing the speed of the compressor. The flow of vapour through the compressor and, hence,
rate of heat transfer can also be controlled by inlet guide vanes.

The refrigerant vapour leaves the compressor and passes into the condenser at a relatively high
pressure and temperature. The condenser itself may be of similar construction to the evaporator, that
is, a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Heat is removed from the refrigerant by air, water or some other
fluid medium to the extent that the refrigerant cools and condenses back to a liquid. As the pressure
is high, this occurs at a relatively high temperature. At a pressure of 1217 kPa, refrigerant R12 will
condense at 50°C. The latent heat of condensation is removed by the cooling fluid for subsequent
rejection in a cooling tower or other type of separate heat exchanger. As the vapour compression
cycle is a closed system (ignoring heat losses or gains from the surrounding atmosphere), the rate at
which heat is removed from the refrigerant in the condenser must equal the combined rates of heat
addition in the evaporator and work provided by the compressor.

The condensed refrigerant passes from the condenser to the fourth and final component of the cycle.
This is the expansion valve whose purpose is simply to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant back to
evaporator conditions. An expansion valve may be a simple orifice plate or can be controlled by a
float valve. At the exit from the expansion valve, the liquid is at low pressure and has a
correspondingly low boiling temperature. Provided that the pipework is insulated, the latent heat for
boiling can come only from the liquid refrigerant itself. Hence, the temperature of the refrigerant drops
rapidly as it passes from the expansion valve to the evaporator where it enters as a mixture of liquid
and vapour, thus closing the cycle.

18.2.4. Performance of a refrigeration cycle

18.2.4.1 The Carnot cycle

Electrical motors or heat engines are devices that convert one form of energy into another. Their
efficiency may, therefore, be defined as an energy output/input ratio. However, in the case of
refrigerators or heat pumps, the purpose is to remove heat from a given source and to reject it at a
higher temperature to a receiving sink. A different measure of performance is required.

Figure 18.4 shows the temperature-entropy diagram for the ideal (frictionless) Carnot cycle to which
an actual vapour compression cycle can aspire but never attain. We may follow the ideal cycle by
commencing at position 1, the entry of refrigerant vapour to the compressor.

The ideal compression process is isentropic (Section 10.6). The compressed refrigerant vapour
enters the condenser at position 2 and, in the ideal condenser, passes through to position 3 with
neither a pressure drop nor a fall in temperature. This assumes frictionless flow and perfect heat
transfer. The ideal expansion valve allows an isentropic fall in pressure and temperature to station 4,
the entrance to the evaporator. The cycle closes via frictionless flow and perfect heat transfer in the
evaporator.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

12.5

12
temperature T

11.5

3 condenser 2

11 expansion
valve compressor

10.5

4 1
evaporator
10

b a
9.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 sb 0.4 0.5 0.6 sa 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

entropy s
Figure 18.4 Temperature-entropy diagram for an ideal vapour compression cycle
(Carnot cycle)

In order to quantify the ideal Carnot cycle, we apply the steady-flow energy equation (3.25). The
kinetic and potential energy terms are small and, in any event, cancel out in a closed cycle. Using the
numbered station points from Figure 18.4, the steady-flow energy equation gives:

compressor: W12 = H2 - H1 J/kg (18.1)

condenser: q23 = H3 - H2 J/kg (18.2)
expansion valve: 0 = H4 - H3 J/kg (18.3)
evaporator: q41 = H1 - H4 J/kg (18.4)

cycle summation: W12 + q23 + q41 = 0 J/kg (18.5)

where:
W12 = mechanical energy added by the compressor
q23 = heat exchange in the condenser (this is numerically negative as heat is leaving the refrigerant)
q41 = heat added to the refrigerant in the evaporator
H = enthalpy

We can rewrite equation (18.5) as

W12 + q41 = - q23 J/kg (18.6)

thus confirming our earlier statement that the heat rejected in the condenser is numerically equal to
the sum of the compressor work and the heat added to the refrigerant in the evaporator.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The measure of performance of a refrigeration cycle is known as the

Coefficient of Performance, COP,
and is defined as

Useful cooling effect (evaporato r heat transfer) q 41

COP = = (18.7)
Work input from the compressor W12

Using equation (18.5) once again, this may be rewritten as

q 41
COP = (18.8)
− q 23 − q 41

Recalling that the area under a process line on a Ts diagram represents heat (Section 3.5), the terms
in equation (18.8) may be related to Figure 18.4 for the Carnot cycle:

q41 = Area 41ab

-q23 = Area 23ba
and -q23 - q41 = Area 1234 (remember that q23 is numerically negative)

Hence, W12 = Area 1234 and equation (18.8) becomes

Area 41ab T1 (s a − s b )
Carnot COP = =
Area 1234 (T2 − T1 )(s a − s b )
T1 T4
= or (18.9)
(T2 − T1 ) (T3 − T 4 )
as T1 = T4 and T2 = T3

Hence, the ideal or Carnot coefficient of performance is given as the ratio:

Evaporator temperatur e (absolute)

Carnot COP = (18.10)
Condenser temperatur e − Evaporator temperatur e

Example
The evaporator and condenser of a refrigeration unit have temperatures of 4 and 50°C respectively.
Determine the maximum possible coefficient of performance of this unit.

Solution
The Carnot or ideal coefficient of performance is given by equation (18.10)

Carnot COP =
(273.15 + 4) = 6.025
(50 − 4)
18.2.4.2. The actual cycle

A real vapour compression cycle has a coefficient of performance that is necessarily lower than the
corresponding Carnot COP. There are two reasons for this. First, in actual compressors and
expansion valves, there are, inevitably, increases in entropy. Furthermore, as the refrigerant passes
through real condensers and evaporators there will be slight changes in pressure and temperature. In

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

a well designed unit, the latter are small compared with the differences in pressure or temperature
between the condenser and evaporator.

Secondly, it would be impractical to design a refrigeration unit that attempted to follow the Carnot
cycle. Referring again to Figure 18.4, it can be seen that station 1 (entry to the compressor) lies within
the two-phase region. The presence of liquid droplets would cause severe erosion of the compressor
impeller. It is for this reason that a few degrees of superheat are imparted to the vapour before it
leaves a real evaporator.

Figure 18.5 illustrates the temperature-entropy and pressure-enthalpy diagrams for a practical vapour
compression cycle. The major difference between Figure 18.5(a) and the Carnot cycle shown on
Figure 18.4 is that the compression commences slightly beyond the saturated vapour line (station 1)
and involves an increase in entropy to station 2. On entering the condenser, the superheated vapour
undergoes a near isobaric cooling process (stations 2 to 2'), losing sensible heat to the cooling
medium until condensing temperature is reached at station 2'.

Although the process through the expansion valve is no longer isentropic, the fluid remains at
constant enthalpy (no heat exchange takes place) and, hence, appears on the pressure-enthalpy
diagram as a vertical line 3 to 4.

Equations (18.1 to 18.4) arose from those parts of the steady-flow energy equation that do not involve
the friction term. They apply equally well to both the real and the ideal cases. Furthermore, the
definition of coefficient of performance given in equation (18.7) remains applicable. Substituting for
W12 and q41 from equations (18.1) and (18.4) respectively gives

q 41 H − H4
Actual COP = = 1 (18.11)
W12 H 2 − H1

The reason for introducing the pressure-enthalpy diagram now emerges. The coordinate points for
real vapour compression cycles can be plotted on pressure-enthalpy-temperature charts that have
been derived through tests on many refrigerant fluids. An example is given for refrigerant R12 on
Figure 18.6. The values of enthalpy may be read from the relevant chart enabling the actual
coefficient of performance and other parameters to be determined. For more precise work, tables of
the thermodynamic behaviour of refrigerants are available. The values of enthalpy and entropy on the
charts and tables are based on a specified datum temperature. This is usually either absolute zero
(-273.15°C) or -40°C. The datum employed has little import as it is differences in values that are used
in practical calculations.

A measure of efficiency of the refrigeration unit may now be defined by comparing the actual COP
with the ideal Carnot COP.

Actual COP
Cycle efficiency = (18.12)
Carnot COP

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

12.5

12
temperature T isobar

11.5 2
condenser
3 2’
expansion
compressor
11 valve
1
4 evaporator
10.5

10

9.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

entropy s (a)

12.5

12
pressure P

11.5

condenser 2’
expansion 3 2
11 valve

compressor
10.5

4 1
evaporator
10

9.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

enthalpy H (b)
Figure 18.5 Temperature-entropy and pressure-enthalpy diagrams for an actual vapour
compression cycle

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 18.6 Pressure-enthalpy diagram for refrigerant R12 (based on zero degrees Kelvin).
Reprinted by permission from the 1985 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Example
A plant employing refrigerant R12 is used to chill water for a mine distribution system. Water is also
used to remove heat from the condenser. The following measurements are made:

Evaporator:
Water flowrate: 50 litres/s
Water inlet temperature: 20°C
Water outlet temperature: 10°C
Refrigerant pressure: 363 kPa

Condenser:
Water flowrate: 140 litres/s
Refrigerant pressure: 1083 kPa

Compressor:
Refrigerant inlet temperature: 7°C
Refrigerant outlet temperature: 65°C

Using the pressure-enthalpy chart for R12, analyze the performance characteristics of the unit.

Solution
Step 1: On the pressure-enthalpy diagram, draw horizontal lines to represent the pressures in the
evaporator (363 kPa) and condenser (1083 kPa). For clarity, the relevant area of the R12
pressure-enthalpy chart has been enlarged and reproduced as Figure 18.7. The
corresponding temperatures may be estimated directly from the chart.

tevap = t4 = 5°C
tcond = t3 = 45°C

These temperatures can, of course, be verified by direct measurement.

Step 2: Establish the nodal points on the pressure-enthalpy chart and read the corresponding values
of enthalpy.

The temperature of the refrigerant entering the compressor (station 1) is given as 7°C. This
represents 7 - 5 = 2° of superheat. Station 1 is, therefore, established on the evaporator
pressure line at a temperature of 7°C. Note that the lines of constant temperature change
from horizontal to near vertical on passing the saturated vapour line. We have ignored the
small pressure drop between the evaporator and the compressor inlet.

Station 2 is established in a similar manner, i.e. at the measured compressor outlet

temperature of 65°C and lying on the condenser pressure line.

Station 3, representing the refrigerant leaving the condenser, lies on the junction of the
evaporator pressure line and the saturated liquid curve.

The expansion process is represented by a vertical line dropped from station 3 until it
intersects the evaporator pressure line at station 4.

The four critical enthalpies may now be estimated from the chart:
compressor inlet H1 = 356 kJ/kg
compressor outlet/condenser inlet H2 = 386 kJ/kg
condenser outlet H3 = 244 kJ/kg
evaporator inlet H4 = 244 kJ/kg

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

2’ 2
3

4 1

Figure 18.7 Example vapour compression cycle on the Pressure-enthalpy chart.

Step 3: Establish the coefficients of performance and cycle efficiency:

Carnot COP =
T4
=
(273.15 + 5) = 6.954 equations (18.9 or 18.10)
(t 3 − t 4 ) (45 − 5)
(H1 − H 4 ) 356 − 244
Actual COP = = = 3.733 equation (18.11)
(H 2 − H1 ) 386 − 356

Actual COP 3.733

Cycle efficiency = = × 1000 = 53.7 per cent equation (18.12)
Carnot COP 6.954

Step 4: Determine the useful cooling effect, or evaporator duty, qevap. This can be established from
the known flowrate and temperature drop of the water being cooled as it passes through the
evaporator:

qevap = mw,evap Cw ∆Tw, evap kW (18.13)

where: water mass flowrate mw,evap = 50 litres/s = 50 kg/s

specific heat of water, Cw = 4.187 kJ/kg°C
temperature drop of water ∆Tw, evap = 20 -10 = 10°C

giving qevap = 50 x 4.187 x 10 kJ/s or kW = 2093.5 kW

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Step 5: Determine the mass flowrate of refrigerant, mr, around the system. The evaporator duty,
already found to be 2093.5 kW, can also be expressed as

q evap = m r (H 1 − H 4 ) kW (18.14)

Hence,

2093 .5
mr = = 18.69 kg/s
(356 − 244 )
Step 6: Determine the compressor duty. The work input from the compressor to the
refrigerant,W12, can be established in two ways. First,

W12 = m r (H 2 − H 1 ) = 18.69 (386 − 356 ) = 560.7 kW (18.15)

and, secondly, from the definition of coefficient of performance given in equation (18.7),

q evap 2093 .5
W12 = = = 560.8 kW
Actual COP 3.733
The slight difference arises from rounding errors.

Step 7: Evaluate the condenser duty. The heat transferred from the refrigerant in the condenser is
simply

− q cond = q evap + W12 = 2093.5 + 560.7 = 2654.2 kW (equation (18.6))

As the cooling water flowrate through the condenser is known to be mw,cond = 140 kg/s, the
temperature rise of this water, ∆Tw cond, may be determined from

− q cond = mw ,cond Cw ∆Tw ,cond

2654.2
giving ∆Tw ,cond = = 4.53 °C
140 × 4.187

The performance of a refrigeration unit may be enhanced beyond that illustrated in the example. For
large units, it may be necessary to employ two or more stages of compression in order to achieve the
desired difference in temperature between evaporator and condenser. In that case, it is usual to
employ the same number of expansion valves as stages of compression. A fraction of the refrigerant
is vaporized on passing through an expansion valve. That fraction can be read from the
corresponding point on the pressure-enthalpy diagram or calculated from the isobaric enthalpies at
the saturated liquid and saturated vapour curves. This "flash gas" may be separated out and piped to
the corresponding intermediate point between compressor stages. This is known as interstage
cooling or, simply, intercooling and reduces the total mass of refrigerant that passes through all
stages of compression. The result is to reduce the required compressor power and/or increase the
useful refrigerating effect.

In some units, the hot liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser is partially cooled by a secondary
cooling circuit. This subcooling reduces the fraction of flash gas produced at the downstream side of
expansion valves and gives a small increase in the performance of the plant.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The coefficient of performance as defined by equation (18.7) takes into account the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor. However, it does not cater for the efficiency of the motor or other device
that drives the compressor. Hence, the W12 in equation (18.7) may be replaced by the power fed to
the compressor drive unit to give a more practical coefficient of performance. Furthermore, the
compressor is not the only device that consumes energy in a refrigeration unit. There will also be
water pumps or fans to promote the flow of the cooled medium at the evaporator and the cooling
medium at the condenser. An overall coefficient of performance may be defined as:

Heat transfer in the evaporator

Overall COP = (18.16)
Total energy consumptio n of the refrigeration unit

Care should, therefore, be taken that any quoted values of COP are interpreted in the correct
manner.

18.3. COMPONENTS AND DESIGN OF MINE COOLING SYSTEMS

18.3.1. Overview of mine cooling systems

In the majority of large scale mine cooling systems, there are usually three sets of heat transfer
involved:

• transfer of heat from the work areas to the evaporators of the refrigeration units

• transfer of heat from the evaporators to the condensers in the refrigeration units (the vapour
compression cycle)

• transfer of heat from the condensers to the free atmosphere on surface.

There exist tremendous variations in the duty, complexity and efficiency of the hardware involved in
these three phases, dependent upon the severity and dispersion of the heat problem in the mine. In
this section we shall discuss a range of systems varying from a simple spot cooler for very localized
applications to large integrated systems that may be required for deep and hot mines. This will serve
both as an overview and an introduction to a more detailed examination of individual components and
overall system design.

Figure 18.8 shows a simple application of a direct evaporator or "spot cooler" to a specific working
area in a mine. The evaporator of the refrigeration unit takes the form of copper or cupronickel tubular
coils located within an air duct. The refrigerant passes through the inside of the evaporator tubes and
cools the air flowing along the duct. The heat from the condenser is rejected directly to the return air.
This system has the advantage that the cooling effect produced by the refrigeration unit is utilized
directly and immediately at the place where cooling is required. There is no loss of efficiency
introduced by an intervening water reticulation system between the evaporator and working area.
Similarly, heat rejection from the condenser is direct and immediate. The spot cooler is merely an
industrial version of a domestic air conditioning unit where heat is rejected directly to the outside
atmosphere.

Unfortunately, the spot cooler has a major disadvantage that limits its application in subsurface
ventilation systems. Glancing, again, at the blind heading illustrated in Figure 18.8, it is clear that the
air emerging from the end of the duct will be at a reduced temperature when the refrigeration unit is
operating. Although this is the desired effect, a consequence will be that the flow of strata heat into
the heading will increase due to the lowered air temperature, a phenomenon that is examined in
Chapter 15. Yet more heat is added as the air returns over the condenser. The net effect is that the
return air leaving the area has a greater enthalpy (and, usually, temperature and humidity) than would

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

be the case if the refrigeration unit were not operating. The increase in enthalpy is the sum of the
additional strata heat and the energy taken by the compressor. The use of spot coolers is restricted
by the availability of return air and the debilitating effect on psychrometric conditions within local
return airways.

condenser evaporator

fan

fan

Figure 18.8 The simplest application of a direct evaporator or spot cooler with local
heat rejection in a mine heading.

There are three ways of alleviating the situation. First, the condenser could take the form of a shell
and tube heat exchanger and be cooled by a water circuit (Figure 18.3). The hot water can then be
piped away and recirculated through a heat exchanger in a main return airway. Secondly, the
refrigeration unit itself may be located away from the working area and water that has been chilled by
the evaporator piped to a heat exchanger in the workings. Thirdly, the first two arrangements may be
combined, resulting in the system illustrated in Figure 18.9. Here, the refrigeration plant of, perhaps, 2
MW cooling duty, is sited in a stable location and provides chilled water for a number of work areas.
The chilled water flows through thermally insulated pipes to heat exchangers in the faces, stopes or
headings and returns to the plant via uninsulated pipes. Some of the chilled water may be used for

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

dust suppression purposes in which case additional make-up water must be supplied to the plant. Hot
water from the condenser is recirculated through heat exchangers that are located in a main return
airway. If that return airway is to remain open for persons to travel, either for routine purposes or as
an emergency escapeway, then the psychrometric conditions must remain physiologically acceptable
(Chapter 17). Again, this provides a limit on the degree of heat rejection and, hence, size of
refrigeration plant that can be utilized as a district cooler. If, however, a return route can be dedicated
fully to heat rejection, then physiological acceptability limits may be exceeded. In this case, the
dedicated return or "dirty pipe", as it is sometimes called, must be made inaccessible to inadvertent
entry by personnel. Inspection or maintenance can be carried out either when the plant is shut down
or by persons wearing protective clothing (Section 17.5.6). It may be necessary to seek exemption
from national or state legislation in order to utilize a "dirty pipe" arrangement.

air
coolers chilled intake
water

chiller
plant

hot
water

heat
rejection

return

Figure 18.9 A district chiller supplying cold water to air coolers in headings, stopes or faces and rejecting
heat into a return airway.

For mines that have a widespread heat problem, the economies of scale and the need for flexibility
indicate a requirement for large centralized cooling facilities. Banks of individual refrigeration units,
each producing a typical 3.5 MW of cooling capacity, may be assembled to give a total duty which
might exceed 100 MW for a large and deep metal mine. The "coolth" is normally distributed via chilled
water lines to provide any required combination of bulk air cooling, face or stope air cooling and
chilled service water.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Until the mid-nineteen seventies, centralized plant tended to be located underground in excavated
refrigeration chambers close to shaft bottoms. All of the mine return air could then be utilized for heat
rejection. In South Africa, it was common for large cooling towers to be situated in, or adjacent to, the
upcast shaft bottoms. Chilled water from the centralized underground plant could be transmitted to
other levels. However, at elevations greater than some 500 m below the plant, water pressures in the
pipe ranges become excessive. This can be counteracted either by pressure reducing valves
(adjustable orifices) or by employing water to water heat exchangers and secondary, low pressure,
cold water circuits. Unfortunately, there are difficulties associated with both of these types of device.
Pressure reducing valves necessitate the employment of high duty pumps to raise the heated water
back to the plant elevation. Maintaining the high pressure water in a closed circuit by means of water
to water heat exchangers balances the pressure heads in the supply and return shaft ranges.
However, the intermediate water to water heat exchangers produce an additional loss of heat transfer
efficiency between the work areas and the refrigeration plant. Furthermore, they are a further source
of potential corrosion and fouling of internal tubes.

In the mid 'seventies a number of factors coincided to promote a trend towards the location of
centralized refrigeration plant at the surface of deep and/or hot mines. First, there was a significant
drop in the wet bulb temperatures at which mining workforces would be expected to work. Cut-off wet
bulb temperatures have been reduced from 32°C to 28°C with an expectation of further improvements
to 27°C or less. Secondly, the combination of greater depths of workings and more intensive
mechanization produced higher heat loads to be handled by the mine environmental control system.
These factors combined to give very significant increases in the required cooling capacities of mine
refrigeration plant, to the extent that untenable and uneconomic quantities of return air would be
required for heat rejection. There was no choice but to locate the larger new plant on surface where
heat rejection is relatively straightforward. Thirdly, the problem of high pressures developing in the
shaft pipes was combatted by the development of energy recovery devices including water turbines
(Section 18.3.4).

A simplified schematic of one arrangement involving surface refrigeration plant is indicated on Figure
18.10. The figure illustrates water being cooled by a surface refrigeration plant and collected
temporarily in a cold water dam. The hot water from the condensers is cycled around the condenser
cooling tower for heat rejection to the atmosphere. If a natural supply of sufficiently cool water is
available from a stream or river, then there may be no need for the capital and operating expense of
refrigeration plant. Alternatively, in dry climates, a modest required degree of cooling may be
achievable simply by spraying the water supply through a surface cooling tower. Furthermore, it may
be necessary to operate the refrigeration plant during the summer months only.

The water passes from the surface cold water dam to an insulated shaft pipe through which it falls to
the working levels. The water may then be passed through a turbine at one or more subsurface levels
before being stored temporarily in underground cold water dams. The turbine(s) achieve three
beneficial results. First, the pressure of the water is reduced to that of the mine atmosphere at the
corresponding level. Hence, no extensive high pressure water systems need exist in the workings.
Secondly, the mechanical output power produced by the turbines may be employed directly to assist
in driving the pumps that raise the return hot water to surface. However, because the demand for cold
water may be out of phase with the availability of hot return water, it is preferable to use the turbines
to drive generators for the production of electrical power. Third, the removal of energy from the water
by the turbines results in a reduced temperature rise of that water, improving the cooling efficiency of
the system.

From the underground cold water dams, the chilled water may be utilized for a variety of purposes
including water to air heat exchangers for cooling the air at the entrance to a stope or face, or for
recooling at intermediate points along the stope or face. Water to water heat exchangers may be
employed to cool secondary water circuits such as a supply of potable drinking water or dust
suppression service water. However, the modern trend is to supply chilled service water directly from
the cold water dam.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

condenser pre-cooling
cooling tower
tower
refrigeration
plant
condenser make-up
water
evaporator

cold water dam hot water dam

turbine LEVEL X
electric
power
hot water return
from workings
cold water dam hot water dam
chilled service
water

chilled water to heat

exchangers in mine
workings
turbine
LEVEL Y

electric hot water return

power
from workings
cold water dam hot water dam
chilled service
water
chilled water to heat hot water pipe pump
exchangers in mine insulated chilled
workings water pipe valve

Figure 18.10 Schematic of centralized plant on surface supplying chilled water for
underground heat exchangers and mine service water.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Warm water returning from the heat exchangers or via drainage channels is directed into hot water
dams adjacent to a shaft. The pumps that return this water to surface may be powered partly by the
energy recovered by the turbines. Where surface refrigeration plant is in use, the hot water from the
mine may be sprayed through pre-cooling towers prior to its return to the plant evaporators. This
gives an additional low cost supplement to the cooling capacity of the system. Any required make-up
water and anti-corrosion chemicals are added at this stage.

The purpose of the dams on both the cold and hot water sides of the layout is to provide capacitance
to the system. This permits short term fluctuations in demand for chilled water while using smaller
refrigeration plant than would otherwise be necessary. At times of low demand, the temperature of
the water in the surface dams can be further reduced by recycling that stored water through the plant.
This smoothes the variations in cooling load required of the refrigeration units.

Having introduced the broad concepts of subsurface cooling systems, we are now in a better position
to examine the component parts in greater detail.

18.3.2. Heat exchangers

In general, a heat exchanger may be defined as a device that facilitates the transfer of thermal energy
from one solid or fluid system to another. In subsurface air conditioning systems, there are two
classifications of heat exchanger in common use, both involving heat transfer between fluids.

An indirect heat exchanger promotes heat transfer across a solid medium that separates the two
fluids. There is no direct contact between the fluids. Examples include:

• the shell and tube evaporators and condensers of refrigeration units (Figure 18.3)

• shell and tube water to water heat exchangers employed to transfer heat between water
systems of differing pressure and/or water quality (Figure 18.11)

• tubular coil heat exchangers to transfer heat from air to water (Figure 18.12).

As the term implies, direct heat exchangers involve direct contact between the two fluids. Cooling
towers and other types of spray chambers fall into this category. The objective may be to reject heat
from the water to the air as in a conventional cooling tower. Conversely, a spray chamber supplied
with chilled water provides a means of cooling an airstream.

The higher efficiency of heat transfer associated with direct heat exchangers caused a distinct trend
away from tube coil air coolers during the nineteen eighties. Good performance of large horizontal
spray chambers for bulk air cooling promoted the further development of compact and enclosed spray
chambers for more localized use.

In this section we shall examine the essential structure and operating principles of both indirect and
direct forms of heat exchanger.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

primary chilled
water circuit

secondary
water circuit

Figure 18.11 A water-to-water heat exchanger

chilled water

Airflow

Figure18.12 An air-to-water heat exchanger showing one layer of tubes.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

18.3.2.1. Indirect heat exchangers

A shell and tube heat exchanger may contain over 200 tubes. In a counter-flow heat exchanger, the
fluids inside and outside the tubes move in opposite directions, maximizing the total heat transfer.
However, the water to water heat exchanger illustrated in Figure 18.11 shows that this may be
sacrificed in the interest of compactness.

In an air to water indirect heat exchanger, a bank of tubes carrying chilled water is located within an
air duct. Figure 18.12 shows one layer in a bank of tubes. The tubes are often inclined to the direction
of airflow to improve the efficiency of the unit and to control the movement of condensate.

The two important features of a heat exchanger are that a good efficiency of heat transfer is obtained
and that the pressure drops suffered by both fluid streams should remain within acceptable limits.
Heat transfer is facilitated by choosing a tube material that has a high thermal conductivity and is also
resistant to corrosion and the build-up of scale deposits within the tubes. Chemical additives can be
used to control such fouling of the tubes. Copper tubes are commonly employed for air to water heat
exchangers. For water to water heat exchangers and in the evaporator and condensers of
refrigeration units, cupronickel and stainless steel are more resistant to corrosion. Even titanium may
be used within evaporators and condensers.

If tubes are not maintained in a clean condition then the efficiency of the unit can fall dramatically.
Periodic manual brushing of the tubes is time-consuming and may be replaced by a variety of
automatic tube cleaning devices including reverse flushing with brush inserts or ultrasonic vibration.
Air to water tube coils, as illustrated on Figure 18.12, are subject to caking by dust deposits in mine
atmospheres. This may be handled by periodic cleaning with a high pressure water jet. Alternatively,
sprays may be located permanently upstream from the coils. In humid atmospheres, the coils may be
made self-cleaning by arranging them into horizontal banks with air passing upwards over the tubes.
The droplets of condensate fall back through the coils giving a continuous and oscillating cleaning
action on the outer surfaces of the tubes.

A second major factor that controls the duty of a heat exchanger is the effective area available for
thermal transfer. Spiral fins welded to the tubes, as illustrated on Figure 18.12, may be used. Metal
plates welded between consecutive and partially flattened tubes have also been used (Mücke, 1984;
Weuthen, 1975). It is important that such means of area enlargement should have good thermal
contact with the tubes and that they are oriented such that they present minimum resistance to flow
over the tubes. In evaporators and condensers, the tube surfaces may be knurled or sintered. In
addition to enhancing the surface area, this assists in the promotion of boiling or condensation.

18.3.2.2. Performance calculations for indirect heat exchangers

At equilibrium, the heat gained by one fluid in a heat exchanger must equal the heat lost by the other
fluid. Hence, taking the example of an air to water heat exchanger, we can express the rate of heat
transfer to be

q = mw C w ∆t w = m a ∆S W (18.17)

where mw = mass flow of water (kg/s)

Cw = specific heat of water (4187 J/(kg °C)
∆tw = rise in temperature of the water (°C)
ma = mass flow of air (kg/s)
∆S = fall in sigma heat of the air (J/kg) (ref. section 14.6).

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

As each of the factors in equation (18.17) can be calculated easily from measured temperatures and
flowrates, either the water or the air may be used to determine the rate of heat transfer, q. As
measurements on the water circuit can normally be made more accurately than those on the airflow,
the former are preferred for a determination of heat transfer. If condensation occurs on the outside of
the coils then the third part of equation 18.17 is slightly in error as it does not take into account the
heat removed from the system by the condensate. However, this is usually small and may be
neglected.

Another way of expressing the heat transfer is in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient, U,
(W/m2°C) for the coils and adjacent fluid boundary layers, and the difference between the mean
temperatures of the air and the water, (tma - tmw), giving

q = UA (tma - tmw) W (18.18)

where A = area available for heat transfer. (This is analogous to equation (15.16) for a rock surface.)

As the temperatures of both the air and water streams are likely to vary in a logarithmic rather than a
linear fashion through the heat exchanger, it is more accurate to employ logarithmic mean
temperature difference in equation (18.18), giving

UA (∆t 1 − ∆t 2 )
q = W (18.19)
ln (∆t 1 − ∆t 2 )
where ln indicates natural logarithm and ∆t1 and ∆t2 are the temperature differences between the
fluids at each end of the heat exchanger.

The UA product is usually quoted as a measure of the effectiveness of an indirect heat exchanger.

A performance check should be carried out at monthly or three monthly intervals in order to determine
any deterioration in the UA caused by corrosion, scaling, or other forms of deposition on the tube
surfaces.

Example
Measurements made on a counterflow air to water cooling coil give the following results.

Air: Inlet wet bulb/dry bulb temperature = 28/34°C

Outlet wet bulb/dry bulb temperature = 22.7/22.7°C
Mass flowrate = 5.1 kg/s
Barometric pressure = 105 kPa

Water: Inlet temperature = 17 °C

Outlet temperature = 23 °C
Mass flowrate = 4 kg/s

Determine the operating duty of the coil and the UA value.

Solution
From the psychrometric equations given in section 14.6, the sigma heats of the air at inlet and outlet
conditions of 28/34 and 22.7/22.7°C, respectively, are found to be

Sin = 84 696 J/kg

and
Sout = 63 893 J/kg

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

From equation (18.17) the heat lost from the air is:

qa = ma (Sin - Sout) = 5.1 (84 696 - 63 893) = 106.1x103 W or 106.1 kW.

Also, from equation (18.17), the heat gained by the water is:

qw = mw Cw ∆tw = 4 x 4187 x (23-17) = 100.5x103 W or 100.5 kW.

At equilibrium, qa and qw must be equal, showing that the errors in measurements have caused a
deviation of some 5.5 percent. Much larger discrepancies often occur due mainly to difficulties in
making measurements in highly turbulent and, often, saturated airflows. We shall continue the
calculation using the rate of heat transfer given by the water circuit, 100.5 kW.

In order to calculate the UA value from equation (18.19), we must first evaluate the temperature
differences between the water and air at the air inlet and air outlet ends (subscripts 1 and 2,
respectively).

∆t 1 = t a,in − t w ,out = 34 − 23 = 11 °C

∆t 2 = t a,out − t w ,in = 22.7 − 17 = 5.7 °C

Notice that we use the dry bulb temperature at the air inlet and before saturation conditions are
attained for the determination of ∆t1. This is equivalent to taking the latent heat of condensation as a
factor contributing towards the UA value of the heat exchanger.

Equation (18.19) now gives

ln (∆t 1 / ∆t 2 ) ln (11 / 5.7 )

UA = q w = 100.5 = 12.47 kW/°C
(∆t 1 − ∆t 2 ) (11 − 5.7)

The UA of a clean coil may lie between 10 and 25 kW/°C depending upon the design of the heat
exchanger and the configuration of fluid flows. Records should be kept of the periodic performance
tests on each heat exchanger. Significant reductions in UA values indicate the need for cleaning or
replacement of the tubes.

Although UA values are normally determined by measurement as illustrated in the example, they may
also be defined by the following equation:

1 1 1 x 1 1
= + + + + °C (18.20)
UA h i Ai hfi Ai k t Am h o Ao hfo Ao

where h = heat transfer coefficients (W/(m2°C)

A = area available for heat transfer (m2)
x = thickness of tube walls (m)
kt = thermal conductivity of tube material (W/(m°C)

and subscripts
i = inside surface of tubes
o = outside surface of tubes
m = mean of inner and outer surfaces.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

hfi and hfo are the heat transfer coefficients associated with fouling (deposits) on the inside and
outside surfaces of the tubes respectively. On a clean tube there are no such deposits; hfi and hfo are
both then infinite.

Radiation terms have been left out of equation (18.20) as these are normally small in a heat
exchanger. They may, however, become significant in situations such as an uninsulated pipe
suspended in an airway.

Equation (18.20) can be further simplified for practical application. First, the term x / (ktAm) is very
small compared with the others. Secondly, the terms involving fouling of the tubes are often combined
and attributed to the inside surface only, giving

1 1 1 1
= + + °C/W (18.21)
UA h i Ai h o Ao hf Ai

As fouling of the tubes occurs, hf will decrease causing the UA value also to fall. Whillier (1982)
quotes a typical value of some 3000 W/(m2°C) for hf in a mine refrigeration plant. For turbulent flow
inside smooth tubes, the heat transfer coefficient can be determined from equation (15.23) and the
Colburn equation (A15.15)

k
hi = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4 W/(m2 °C) (18.22)
d

where k = thermal conductivity of fluid ( W/(m°C) )

d = internal diameter of tube (m)
Re = Reynolds number = ρud/µ (dimensionless)
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)
u = fluid velocity (m/s)
µ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
Pr = Prandtl number = Cp µ/k (dimensionless, may be taken as 0.7 for air)
and Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure ( J/(kg°C) )

For air and water, the values of viscosity and thermal conductivity within the temperature range 0 to
60°C are given in sections 2.3.3 and 15.2.4 respectively. Other expressions for the heat transfer
coefficient at rough surfaces are given in Table A15.1.

The values of ho for the outer surfaces of the tubes vary widely according to geometry and the
configuration of tubes. For turbulent cross flow of air over tubular surfaces, McAdams (1954) gives:

for a single tube:

ka W
ho = 0.24 Re 0.6 2 o
(18.23)
d m C

and for a bank of staggered tubes:

k W
ho = 0.29 a Re 0.6 2 o
(18.24)
d m C

In these relationships, d is the outer diameter of the tubes and Reynolds' Numbers are determined on
the basis of the maximum velocity of the air as it flows between the tubes. The selection of cooling
coils is facilitated greatly by tables and graphs provided by manufacturers.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

18.3.2.3. Direct heat exchangers

In direct heat exchangers, air is brought into contact with water surfaces. The purpose may be to cool
water from the condensers of a refrigeration plant. In this case the hot water is sprayed into a cooling
tower and descends as a shower of droplets through an ascending airstream. Heat is transferred from
the water droplets to the air by a combination of convection (sensible heat) and evaporation (latent
heat). The cooled water that collects at the base of the cooling tower is then returned to the
condenser (see the condenser cooling tower on Figure 18.10).

Alternatively, the objective may be to cool the air. In this case, chilled water is sprayed into a vertical
or horizontal spray chamber. Provided that the airflow enters with a wet bulb temperature that is
higher than the temperature of the water, then heat will be transferred from the air to the water by a
combination of convection and condensation.

Although there are significant differences between the designs of cooling towers and spray coolers,
there are several common factors that influence the amount and efficiency of heat exchange:

• water mass flowrate

• supply temperature of water
• air mass flowrate
• psychrometric condition of the air at inlet
• duration and intimacy of contact between the air and the water droplets.

This latter factor depends upon the physical design of the heat exchanger. In particular,

(i) the relative velocity between the air and water droplets
and
(ii) the size and concentration of water droplets - governed by the flow and pressure of the
supply water, the type and configuration of spray nozzles, and the presence of packing
within the heat exchanger.

The traditional use of direct heat exchangers in mine air conditioning systems has been for cooling
towers either underground or on surface. Tube coil heat exchangers with closed circuit water systems
have been used extensively for air cooling in or close to mine workings. However, the greater
efficiency of direct heat exchangers led to the development of large permanent spray chambers for
bulk air cooling. Furthermore, through the nineteen eighties, smaller portable spray chambers began
to be employed for local cooling.

Cooling Towers
First, let us examine the essential features of cooling towers. Figure 18.13 illustrates a vertical forced
draught cooling tower of the type that may be used on the surface of a mine. Hot water from
refrigeration plant condensers is sprayed into the cooling tower and moves downward in counterflow
to the rising air current. The purpose of the packing is to distribute the water and airflow uniformly
over the cross section and to maximize both the time and total area of contact between the air and
water surfaces. The packing may take the form of simple splash bars or riffles arranged in staggered
rows, egg-crate geometries or wavy (film-type) surfaces located in vertical configurations. The
materials used for packing may be treated fir or redwood timber, galvanized steel, metals with plastic
coatings and injection molded PVC or polypropylene. Concrete is used primarily for casings,
structural reinforcements and water sumps or dams. Air velocities through counterflow packed cooling
towers lie typically in the range 1.5 to 3.6 m/s.

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 Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

heated air In underground cooling

towers, the packing is often
eliminated completely or
fan takes the form of one or two
mist screens arranged
eliminator horizontally across the tower.
Such heat exchangers are
sprays hot water in essentially vertical spray
chambers. Other means of
maximizing contact time are
packing then employed. These
include designs that
introduce a swirl into the air
at entry, and directing the
airflow sprays upward rather than
downward. Again, in
underground installations,
airflow is induced through the
cooling towers by the mine
ventilating pressure or by
booster fans in return
airways rather than by fans
connected directly to the
tower. The pressure drop
through underground cooling
water droplets towers may be further
reduced by replacing the
mist eliminator screens with
an enlarged cross-sectional
area; the lower air velocity in
air in this zone decreases the
carry-over of water droplets.
The optimum air velocity in
open spray towers lies in the
cooled water out range 4 to 6 m/s with a
maximum of some 8 m/s.
Water loadings should not be
Figure 18.13 Counterflow cooling tower. (The same greater than 16 litres/s per
configuration may be used to cool air by square metre of cross-
supplying the tower with chilled water.) sectional area (Stroh, 1982).

Cooling towers of the type used for mine air conditioning are typically 10 to 20 m in height and some
3 to 8 m in diameter, depending upon the rate at which heat is to be exchanged. Heat loads may be
as high as 30 MW.

Natural draught cooling towers do not have fans but rely upon air flow induction by the action of the
sprays, or by density difference between the outside atmosphere and the hot moist air within the
tower. The hyperbola shaped cooling towers employed commonly for the high heat loads of power
stations are of this type and may be over 150 m high in order to accentuate the chimney effect.

The air leaving a cooling tower is usually saturated. This often results in the formation of a fog plume
in the surface atmosphere. The environmental effects of such a plume should be considered carefully
and may influence the siting of a surface cooling tower. In large installations with unacceptable fog
plumes, part of the hot condenser water may be cooled within a finned tube indirect heat exchanger.
This involves sensible heat exchange only and reduces the humidity of the air leaving the cooling
tower. However, such an arrangement detracts from the overall efficiency of heat transfer.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

In a direct exchange cooling tower, some water is lost continuously from the circuit both by
evaporation and by drift (or carry-over) of small droplets. The evaporation loss approximates some
one percent for each 7°C of water cooling and drift loss is usually less than 0.2 percent of the water
circulation rate (ASHRAE, 1988). However, evaporation can result in a rapid escalation in the
concentration of dissolved solids and other impurities leading to scaling, corrosion and sedimentation
within the system. In order to limit the buildup of such impurities, some water is continuously removed
from the system (bleedoff or blowdown). The bleedoff rate is controlled by monitoring the quality of
the water but may be of the order of one percent of the circulation rate. The combined losses from
evaporation, drift and bleedoff are made up by adding clean water to the circuit.

Further protection of metal components and, particularly the tubes of condensers is obtained by
administering anticorrosion compounds. These generally take the form of chromates, phosphates or
polyphosphonates of zinc, and promote the formation of a protective film on metal surfaces. Some of
these compounds are toxic and precautions may be necessary against accidental release into natural
drainage systems. Biocides such as chlorine are also added on a periodic basis to control the growth
of algae and other organic slimes.

Chilled water spray chambers

If the water supplied to a direct contact heat exchanger is at a temperature below that of the wet bulb
temperature of the air, then cooling and dehumidification of the air is achieved. Chilled water spray
chambers fall into two categories with respect to size. First, the larger installations are constructed at
fixed sites for bulk cooling of main airflows. Secondly, portable spray chambers for localized use
within working areas have many advantages over the more traditional tube coil (indirect) stope or face
coolers. We shall consider each of these two applications in turn.

For bulk air cooling, spray chambers may be designed in vertical or horizontal configuration. Indeed, if
the cooling tower shown on Figure 18.13 were supplied with chilled water, then it would act equally
well as a vertical spray air cooler. Such designs may be employed either on surface or underground
for bulk cooling of intake air and may have heat transfer duties up to 20 MW.

Horizontal spray chambers have more limited maximum capacities of some 3.5 MW. They are,
however, more convenient for underground use in that existing airways may be utilized without
additional excavation. Figure 18.14 illustrates a single stage horizontal spray chamber. The sprays
may be directed against or across the airflow. The nozzles can be distributed over the cross section
as shown in the sketch or, alternatively, located at the sides or near the base of the chamber.
Although the position of the nozzles appears not to be critical, it is important that both the sprays and
the airflow are distributed uniformly over the cross section. The spray density should lie within the
range 2 to 5 litres/second for each square metre of cross sectional area (Bluhm, 1983).

The area of liquid/air interface and efficiency of heat exchange increase for smaller sizes of droplets.
However, very small droplets result in excessive carry-over or necessitate highly constrictive mist
eliminators. Furthermore, higher water pressures and, therefore, pumping costs are required to
produce fine sprays. In practice, droplet diameters of some 0.5 mm and water pressures in the range
150 to 300 kPa give satisfactory results in horizontal spray chambers (Reuther, 1988).

At positions fairly close to the nozzles, the relative directions of the air and water droplets may be
counterflow or crossflow, dependent upon the orientation of the nozzles. However, aerodynamic drag
rapidly converts the spray to parallel flow, particularly for the smaller droplets. In order to regain the
higher efficiency of counterflow heat exchange, the spray chamber may be divided into two or three
stages so that the air leaves the chamber at the position of the coldest sprays. Chilled water should
be supplied at as low a temperature as practicable but, in any event, not higher than 12°C.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson
mist
chilled water inlet eliminator

warm air cooled air

water return water sump

Figure 18.14 A single stage , horizontal spray chamber.

Figure 18.15 illustrates a two stage spray chamber. An additional sump at each end assists in
balancing the pumping duties.

If the surrounding strata are unfractured and unaffected by water, then the spray chamber may utilize
the full cross section of a bypass airway. If, however, the rock must be protected against the effects of
water, then concrete lining or prefabricated sections may be employed to contain the spray chamber.
In cases where the strata is very sensitive to water (such as evaporite strata) then it is advisable to
protect the rock surfaces for 50 to 100 m downstream from the spray chamber.

The cross-sectional area of the spray chamber should be chosen to give a preferred air velocity of
some 4 to 6 m/s, but not more than 7 m/s. Higher air velocities will reduce the efficiency of heat
exchange and can result in excessive pressure drops in the airflow.

In addition to cooling and dehumidifying the air, spray coolers can also reduce dust concentrations.
However, the buildup of dust particles in the recirculating water system may cause fouling of the
pipes and other heat exchangers. This may require filters or sedimentation zones to be included in
the design.

Internal packing can also be employed to improve the efficiency of horizontal spray chambers (Stroh,
1980). This can increase the air frictional pressure drop across the cooler. However, the water supply
pressure (gauge) may be as low as 30 kPa since the spray nozzles can be replaced by low
resistance dribbler bars.

In order to extend the applicability of direct spray coolers, enclosed and portable units have been
developed (Thimons, 1980; Ramsden, 1984; Reuther, 1988). These may be mounted on wheels or
sleds and are often referred to as spray mesh coolers. Figure 18.16 illustrates the principle of
operation. In order to maintain the design to acceptable dimensions for portable application, the water
loading may be much higher than open spray chambers and it becomes even more important to
maximize the area and time of contact between the air and water. This occurs in three stages. First,
the air passes through the lower mesh of plastic or knitted stainless steel. Secondly, the airflow is
directed through the upward pointing and finely divided sprays. The final stage of cooling occurs
within the upper mesh which also acts as a demister. The distribution of droplets of water falling from
the upper to the lower mesh may be assisted by installing drip fins. These also help to prevent water
running down the walls (Heller, 1982). Between the two meshes, heat exchange occurs by a
combination of counterflow, crossflow and parallel flow. Another type of portable spray cooler
employs film packing and crossflow heat exchange (Reuther, 1988).

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson
mist
eliminator 1st stage 2nd stage

cooled air
warm air

chilled water inlet

water return

high level pump with low

control valve pump level switch

Figure 18.15 A two-stage horizontal spray chamber

cool air

demister

sprays
chilled water

mesh
guide vanes
warm air lattice

return
water

Figure 18.16 A section through a portable mesh cooler.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The dry bulb temperature of air can be reduced by passing it through a spray chamber supplied with
unchilled water. The device is then known as an evaporative cooler. No heat is removed from the air.
Hence, if the water is supplied at wet bulb temperature, then the exhaust air may attain that same wet
bulb temperature while the moisture content will have increased. Evaporative coolers have an
application for surface structures in hot dry climates but are seldom used in underground mines. They
have been employed for very localized effects in hot evaporite mines. However, the reduced dry bulb
temperature encourages enhanced heat flow from the strata (Section 15.2.2) which, when combined
with the raised moisture content, reduces the cooling power of the air downstream from the cooled
area.

18.3.2.4. Performance calculations for direct heat exchangers.

A common theoretical analysis may be applied to direct heat exchangers irrespective of the direction
of heat transfer. The results of such analyses apply equally well to cooling towers and chilled water
spray chambers. In order to avoid unnecessary repetition, we will conduct the following analysis on
the assumption of a cooling tower (Figure 18.13). Water recycles continuously through the condenser
of a refrigeration plant (where it gains heat) and the cooling tower where it rejects that heat to the
atmosphere.

The first observation is that if we ignore the small heat losses from interconnecting pipes and the
equally small effects of make-up water, then, at steady state, the heat rejected in the cooling tower
must be equal to the heat gained in the condenser. This leads to the initially surprising statement that
the rate of heat rejection in the cooling tower depends only upon the heat load imposed by the
condenser and not at all upon the design of the cooling tower. However, if the cooling tower is
inefficient in transferring heat from the water to the air, then the temperature of the water throughout
the complete circuit will rise until balance is attained between heat gain in the condenser and heat
rejection in the cooling tower. This would be unfortunate as the coefficient of performance of the
refrigeration plant deteriorates as the condenser temperature increases (Section 18.2.4).

Figure 18.17 illustrates the decrease in temperature of the water as it falls through the cooling tower
and the corresponding increase in the wet bulb temperature of the ascending air.

Figure 18.17 also defines the meaning of two terms that are commonly employed:

The range is the change in temperature of the water

range = tw,in - tw,out °C (18.25)

while the approach is the difference between the temperatures of the water outflow and the wet bulb
temperature of the air inflow:

approach = tw,out - ta,in °C (18.26)

where t = temperature, °C
and subscripts w = liquid water
a = air (wet bulb)
in = inflow
and out = outflow

Manufacturers will usually accept requests for approach values down to 2°C.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

36

34 tw,in
32
range

30

28 ta,out
Temperature

water
26

24
air
22 tw,out
approach

20 ta,in
18
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance through cooling tower

Figure 18.17 Variation of water temperature, tw, and wet bulb temperature of the air, ta,
through a cooling tower.

The quantitative analysis of the cooling tower commences by writing down the balance that must exist
between rates of heat gained by the air and heat lost from the water:

ma (Sout - Sin) = mw Cw (tw,in – tw,out) W (18.27)

where m = mass flow, kg/s

S = sigma heat of air, J/kg
and Cw = specific heat of water (4187 J/kg °C)

This is, in fact, an approximation as evaporation changes the value of mw within the tower. However,
the error does not normally exceed 4 percent and may be neglected for practical purposes.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

As in so many cases of assessing performance, it is useful to imagine the unattainable perfect cooling
tower. In such a device, the two curves on Figure 18.17 would coincide and, in particular, the water
would leave at inlet air wet bulb temperature while the air would leave at the temperature of the
incoming water, that is:

tw,out = ta,in (18.28)

and ta,out = tw,in (18.29)

The concept of a perfect cooling tower allows us to devise efficiencies of heat transfer for both the
water and the air streams:

water efficiency
actual heat lost from the water
ηw =
theoretical maximum heat that could be lost from the water
mw C w (t w ,in − t w ,out ) (t w ,in − t w ,out ) range
= = =
mw C w (t w ,in − t a,in ) (t w ,in − t a,in )
(18.30) (See Figure 18.17)
range + approach

Similarly, air efficiency

actual heat gained by the air
ηa =
theoretica l maximum heat that could be gained by the air
m a (S out − S in ) (Sout − S in )
= = (18.31)
m a (Sw ,in − S in ) (Sw ,in − S in )

where Sw,in = sigma heat of saturated air at a temperature equal to that of the inlet water, J/kg.

[The term "thermal capacity" is sometimes employed where we have used "theoretical maximum heat".]

Although the water and air efficiencies are useful indicators of the efficacy of heat transfer for each of
the two fluids, neither gives any clue to the overall quality of design for the complete cooling tower.
For example, if the water flow were low giving relatively few small droplets falling through a large
airflow, then the water efficiency would be very high. However, the air would be used to only a small
fraction of its thermal capacity and, hence, the air efficiency and overall heat transfer would be low.

To examine this problem let us consider, again, perfect heat transfer in a cooling tower. Then,

maximum thermal capacity of water = mw Cw (tw,in - ta,in) J

and maximum thermal capacity of airstream = ma(Sw,in - Sin) J

The ratio of these maximum thermal capacities defines the tower capacity factor, R

mw (t w ,in − t a,in )
R =
(Sw ,in − S in )
Cw (dimensionless) (18.32)
ma

The liquid to gas ratio, mw/ma normally lies within the range 0.4 to 2.0.

The theoretical concept of tower capacity factor ignores the practical reality that in a real cooling
tower the rate of heat loss from the water must equal the rate of heat gain by the air. It may be
defined in words as follows:

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

'If both of the given fluid streams were used to their maximum thermal capacity, then
R would be the number of Watts lost by the water for each Watt gained by the air.’

An important observation here is that R depends only upon the flowrates and the inlet conditions of
the water and air. It is completely independent of the construction of the cooling tower. Notice also
that we have been quite arbitrary in choosing to define R as the ratio of water thermal capacity
divided by air thermal capacity, rather than the other way round. The values of tower capacity factor
vary from 0.5 to 2.

The tower capacity factor is also related to the ratio of air and water efficiencies.
From equations (18.30 and 18.31)

ηa (S out − S in ) (t w , in − t a, in )
=
ηw (Sw ,in − S in ) (t w , in − t w , out )
and substituting for
(S out − S in ) =
mw
ma
(
C w t w , in − t w , out ) from equation (18.27) gives

ηa mw (
t w , in − t a, in )
=
ηw ma
Cw
(
Sw , in − S in ) (18.33)

As this is identical to equation (18.32), then tower capacity factor

ηa
R = (18.34)
ηw

indicating that the ratio of air and water efficiencies is also independent of the design of the cooling
tower or spray chamber.

The overall effectiveness of heat transfer within the cooling tower must be dependent on the fluid
having the smaller thermal capacity, i.e. the fluid having the larger efficiency. To quantify this concept,
we can say that the Effectiveness, E, is the larger of the values of ηa and ηw. Another way of
expressing this, using equation (18.34), is:

E = ηa if R > 1
and (18.35)
E = ηw if R < 1

ηa and ηw are, of course, equal when R = 1.

Prior to 1977, there seems to have been no one single parameter that could be used to describe the
quality of design for any given cooling tower. The rate of heat transfer, air and water efficiencies, and
the tower capacity factor are all dependent on inlet temperatures. It is, therefore, somewhat
misleading to quote a single value of cooling duty to characterize a heat exchanger.

In the mid 1970's, Whillier of the South African Chamber of Mines conducted an analysis on results
published earlier by Hemp (1967 and 1972) relating to a series of tests during which a spray tower
was successively supplied with a range of inlet water temperatures. Whillier (1977) noticed that two
distinct curves were produced when (a) water efficiency and (b) air efficiency were plotted against
tower capacity factor. Furthermore, these two curves appeared to be mirror images of each other. In
a moment of inspiration he recalled that the order of the ratio that we choose to define R is quite
arbitrary (equation (18.32). Whillier took the values of tower effectiveness, E, as defined by equations
(18.35) and plotted them against R*, where

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

R* = R when R < 1
and (18.36)

R* = 1/R when R > 1

(i.e. inverting the ratio when R exceeds unity).

To his delight, all the points for the spray tower then lay on a single curve within an acceptable
experimental scatter, and no matter whether the tower was used to cool water or air. The shape of
that curve is illustrated on Figure 18.18. The fact that all test results lay on a single curve held
promise that an equation or characteristic number for that curve could be used as a means of
quantifying the overall merit of the design and construction of the cooling tower or spray chamber,
and independent of the inlet temperatures or flowrates of the air and water. Whillier attempted several
curve fitting exercises on his results and found that a reasonable correlation was obtained by the
exponential relationship

E = F R* (18.37)

where F was a constant for that particular spray tower. Different values of F in the range 0 to 1 would
be obtained for other cooling towers or spray chambers. Whillier termed this parameter the Factor of
Merit for the cooling tower. A means had been found by which the performance characteristic of a
direct heat exchanger could be quantified in a single number. A factor of merit of 1.0 would indicate a
perfect counterflow direct-contact heat exchanger. Practical values lie within the range 0.3 to 0.8.

0.9
0.8
0.8
E

0.7
0.7
Effectiveness

0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
E = F R* 0.4
0.4

0.3 F = 0.3

0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ratio of Thermal Capacities R*

Figure 18.18 Variation of E with respect to R* over a range of

Factors of Merit, F, for a direct heat exchanger.

Further work by Bluhm (1980, 1984) investigated the factor of merit for multi-stage spray chambers,
and produced an improved algorithm for spray coolers:

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

1 − exp(−N (1 − R ))
ηw = (18.38)
1 − R exp (− N (1 − R ))

F
where N = (18.39)
R 0.4 (1 − F )

It is recommended that this algorithm is used for factors of merit below 0.4 or above 0.7.

Typical factors of merit suggested by Whillier (1977) and Bluhm (1980) are shown on Table 18.2.
Once the factor of merit has been established for any direct-contact heat exchanger,
either by testing or by estimation from Table 18.2, then the performance of the unit can be
established for any given flow rates and inlet conditions of the air and water streams.

Type of unit Typical Values of Factor

of Merit, F

Vertical spray filled towers

No packing:
high water loading 0.5 to 0.6
low water loading 0.6 to 0.7
With packing:
high water loading 0.55 to 0.65
low water loading 0.65 to 0.75
Industrial packed tower 0.7 to 0.8

Horizontal spray chambers

single-stage 0.4 to 0.5
two-stage 0.58 to 0.68
three-stage 0.65 to 0.75
Packed air coolers
crossflow 0.55 to 0.65
counterflow 0.68 to 0.78
Mesh coolers 0.55 to 0.65

Table 18.2. Typical factors of merit for direct contact heat exchangers.

Example 1
A cooling tower operates at a barometric pressure of 95 kPa. The following temperature
measurements were obtained:

air inlet wet bulb temperature, ta,in = 18.0 °C

air outlet wet bulb temperature, ta,out = 28.0 °C
water inlet, tw,in = 32.0 °C
water outlet, tw,out = 22.5 °C

Determine the factor of merit for the cooling tower.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Solution
Using the psychrometric equations given in section 14.6 (or from a 95 kPa psychrometric chart),
sigma heats may be determined to be:

at air inlet (18.0 °C) Sin = 52.05 kJ/kg

at air outlet (28.0 °C), Sout = 90.90 kJ/kg
at water inlet temperature (32.0 °C), Sw, in = 111.64 kJ/kg

Air efficiency (from equation (18.31))

(S out − S in ) (90.90 − 52.05) = 0.652
ηa = =
(Sw ,in − S in ) (111.64 − 52.05)

Water efficiency (from equation (18.30))

(t w ,in − t w ,out ) (32.0 − 22.5)
ηw = = = 0.679
(t w ,in − t a,in ) (32.0 − 18.0)
Tower capacity factor (from equation (18.34))
ηa 0.652
R = = = 0.961
ηw 0.679

Tower effectiveness(from equations (18.35))

As R < 1 then E = ηw = 0.679.
Also, from equations (18.36)

R* = R = 0.961

Factor of merit (from equation (18.37))

E = F R*
ln(E ) = R * ln(F )
or
 ln(E )   ln(0.679 ) 
F = exp   = exp  0.961  = 0.668
 R *   

Note that we have been able to calculate the factor of merit using measured temperatures and the
barometric pressure only. We have not required any fluid flowrates.

Bluhm's equations (18.38 and 18.39) give the factor of merit to be 0.659, a difference of some 1.3
percent in this example.

Example 2
Suppose the cooling tower of the previous example were to be converted into a vertical spray cooler
by supplying it with chilled water. Calculate the operating characteristics of the cooler given that:

water inlet temperature, tw,in = 5°C

air inlet wet bulb temperature, ta,in = 18°C
water flowrate, mw = 100 litres/s or kg/s
air flowrate = 120 m3/s (at an air density of 1.1 kg/m3),
or ma = 120 x 1.1 = 132 kg/s
barometric pressure, P = 95 kPa

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Solution
The wet bulb temperature of the inlet air is the same as in the previous example. Hence, the
corresponding sigma heat remains at

Sin = 52.05 kJ/kg

However, at the new inlet water temperature of 5°C, the psychrometric equations of Section 14.6 give
Sw,in = 19.38 kJ/kg.

Tower capacity factor (from equation (18.32))

mw (t w ,in − t a,in ) 100 (5 − 18 )
R = = × 4187 = 1.262
(Sw ,in − S in ) 132
Cw
ma (19.38 − 52.05 )1000
Tower effectiveness
As R > 1 then R* = 1/R (equation (18.36))

1
R* = = 0.7923
1.262

Now the factor of merit for the tower, F, was calculated in the previous example as 0.668. This
remains the same despite the new inlet conditions. Equation (18.37) gives

E = F R* = 0.668 0.7923 = 0.7264

Fluid efficiencies
As R > 1, E = ηa (equation (18.35))

Hence ηa = 0.7264 and from equation (18.34)

ηa 0.7264
ηw = = = 0.5755
R 1.262

Now, equation (18.30) gives

(t w ,in − t w ,out )
ηw =
(t w ,in − t a,in )
or

t w ,out = t w ,in − η w (t w ,in − t a,in ) = 5 − 0.5755 (5 − 18 ) = 12.48 °C

and equation (18.31) gives

(Sout − S in )
ηa =
(Sw ,in − S in )

from which

S out = η a (Sw ,in − S in ) + S in

= 0.7264 (19 380 − 52 050 ) + 52 050 = 28 319 J/kg or 28.3 kJ/kg

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The air wet bulb temperature giving this sigma heat may be read from the 95 kPa psychrometric chart
or calculated by iterating equations (14.44 to 14.47), giving ta,out = 9.18°C.

Rate of heat transfer, q

Using the water circuit,

q = mw C w (t w ,out − t w ,in ) = 100 × 4187 (12.48 − 5 )

= 3.132 × 10 6 or 3.132 MW

As a cross-check, we may use the air circuit to give

q = m a (S out − S in ) = 132 (28 319 − 52 050 )

= -3.132 x 106 W or -3.132 MW

The heat gained by the water is shown to balance the heat lost by the air.1

Example 3
A mesh spray cooler is to be supplied with water at a temperature of 10°C. The unit is required to cool
12 kg/s of air from a wet bulb temperature of 29°C to 23°C and at a barometric pressure of 100 kPa.
Determine the rate of water flow that must be sprayed through the cooler, the temperature of the
return water and the cooling duty of the unit.

Solution
In the absence of further data concerning the device, we take a mean value of 0.6 as the factor of
merit for a mesh cooler (from Table 18.2).

The data may then be summarized as follows:

ta,in = 29°C ta,out = 23°C ma = 12 kg/s

tw,in = 10°C tw,out = unknown, mw = unknown
F = 0.6

The sigma heats can be calculated from the psychrometric equations given in section 14.6 or
approximated from the 100 kPa psychrometric chart:

Sin (at 29°C wet bulb temperature) = 92.28 kJ/kg

Sout (at 23°C) = 67.11 kJ/kg
Sw,in (at 10°C) = 29.21 kJ/kg

Air efficiency (from equation (18.31))

(S out − S in ) (67.11 − 92.28)
ηa = = = 0.3991
(Sw ,in − S in ) (29.21 − 92.28)
Water efficiency (from equation (18.30)
(t w ,in − t w ,out ) (10 − t w ,out ) (t w ,out − 10)
ηw = = =
(t w ,in − t a,in )
(18.40)
(10 − 29 ) 19

1
Note that because of measurement uncertainties, good agreement may not be obtained in actual operating
conditions.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Capacity factor (from equation (18.34))

η 0.3991× 19 7.583
R = a = =
(t w ,out − 10) (t w ,out − 10)
(18.41)
ηw

We now have a decision to make - whether to assume that R is greater or less than unity, allowing us
to ascribe values for E and R*. Let us assume that R > 1 (we shall see in a moment that this was the
wrong decision). Using equations (18.35 and 18.36), if R > 1, then E = ηa and R* = 1/R.
Equation (18.37) gives

E = F R*
or
 (t w ,out − 10 ) 
 
 7.583 
0.3991 = 0.6
giving
(t w ,out − 10 ) = 7.583
ln(0.3991)
= 13.64
ln(0.6 )
or

tw,out = 23.64°C.

In order to check the consistency of the value of R, we can return to equation (18.41):

7.583
R = = 0.56
(23.64 − 10)
showing that our assumption of R > 1 was incorrect.

Let us, therefore, repeat the analysis assuming that R < 1. Then equations (18.35 and 18.36) give
E = ηw and R* = R.
Equation (18.37) gives

E = F R*
or, using ηw = (tw,out - 10)/19 from equation (18.40) and R = 7.583/(tw,out - 10) from equation (18.41)

(t w ,out − 10 ) {7.583 / (tw ,out − 10 )}

= 0 .6
19

To simplify the algebra, we may substitute

(tw,out - 10) = a

giving

a = 19 x 0.6(7.583/a)

This can easily be solved iteratively on a pocket calculator to give

a = 14.56
and
tw,out = 24.56°C

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Using equation (18.41), again, to check the value of R gives

R = 7.583/14.56 = 0.521

In this case, our assumption that R < 1 is shown to be consistent.

Water flowrate (from equation (18.32))

m a (Sw ,in − S in ) 12 (29 210 − 92 280 )

mw = R = 0.521× = 4.955 kg/s
C w (t w ,in − t a,in ) 4187 (10 − 29 )

Cooling duty
This can be calculated directly from the air data:

q = m a (S out − S in ) = 12 (67.11 − 92.28 ) = − 302 kW

To check the heat balance, the heat gain by the water is given as

q = mw C w (t w ,out − t w ,in ) = 4.955 × 4.187 × (24.56 − 10 ) = 302 kW

18.3.2.5. Heat exchange across the walls of pipes and ducts

When a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct is at a temperature different to that of the ambient air,
then heat exchange will occur across the walls of the pipe and any insulating material that surrounds
it. The analysis of indirect heat exchangers given in Section 18.3.2.2 applies equally well for pipes
and ducts.

Consider the insulated pipe shown on Figure 18.19 carrying a fluid of temperature tin when the
temperature of the outside air is tout.

kp tout
kins

r1
tin
hin hout
r2

r3

Figure 18.19 Heat transfer across an insulated pipe or duct.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The rate of heat transfer from a short length of pipe over which neither tin nor tout change significantly
is given as:

q = UA (t in − t out ) W (see equation (18.18)

The UA value is given by

1 1 r − r1 r − r2 1
= + 2 + 3 + °C/W (18.42)
UA hin Ain k p A12 k ins A23 (hout + 0.95 hr ) Aout

where hin = heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface ( W/(m2 °C) )
hout = heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface ( W/(m2 °C) )
hr = radiative heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface ( W/(m2 °C) )
r = radii (m)
kp = thermal conductivity of pipe ( W/(m °C) )
kins = thermal conductivity of insulation ( W/(m °C) )
A = area (or mean area) across which heat transfer occurs (m)
0.95 = assumed value for the product of emissivity and view factor, (Whillier, 1982)

Values of thermal conductivity for pipe materials can be obtained from Table 18.3.

The heat transfer coefficients may be estimated from the following relationships which take into
account the variations of fluid viscosity and thermal conductivity with respect to temperature.

Air inside a duct

The Colburn equation (18.22) gives the heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow inside smooth
tubes. For air, the Prandtl Number, Pr, remains essentially constant at 0.7 over a wide range of
temperatures and pressures (Appendix A15.3). Further analysis of the Colburn equation gives the
approximation

(ρ a u a )0.8
hin (air ) = 3.169
d 0. 2
(1 + 9.4 ×10 −4
t in − 6.49 × 10 − 6 t in
2
) W/(m2 °C) (18.43)

where ρa = air density (kg/m3)

ua = air velocity in duct (m/s)
d = internal diameter of duct (m)

The effect of temperature is fairly small over the range of 0 to 60°C. Hence, taking a value of 20°C
gives the simpler approximation

(ρ a u a )0.8
hin (air ) = 3.22 0 .2
W/(m2 °C) (18.44)
d

The incorporation of air density allows this relationship to be employed for compressed air pipes as
well as ventilation ducts.

Water inside a pipe

A similar analysis for water inside a pipe leads to the approximation

0. 8
hin (water ) = (1430 + 20.9 t in )
uw
0.2
W/(m2 °C) (18.45)
d

where uw = water velocity (m/s)

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

In this case, the near constant value of water density allows it to be eliminated as a variable.
However, the viscosity of water varies significantly in the range 0 to 60°C. Hence, the effect of
temperature should not be ignored in equation (18.45).

Air outside a pipe

This time, the relationship given by McAdams for the outside of a single tube (equation (18.23))
provides the basis for further analysis. This leads to an approximation that may be
used for both longitudinal flow and cross flow in subsurface airways.

(ρ a u a )0.6
hout (air ) = 4.24 0 .4
(1 + 0.0015 t out ) W/(m2 °C) (18.46)
d

Radiative heat transfer coefficient

This can be calculated from the Stefan-Boltzman equation (15.27) using the dry bulb temperature of
the surrounding air, giving

hr = 22.68 × 10 −8 (273.15 + t out )

3
W/(m2 °C) (18.47)

However, an adequate accuracy for most purposes is obtained simply by assuming a value of
hr = 6 W/(m2 °C).

Over long lengths of pipe or ducting the inner and outer temperatures, tin and tout, are each likely to
change in a nonlinear manner. In this case the log. mean temperature difference should be employed
giving

(∆t 1 − ∆t 2 )
q = UA W (18.48)
ln (∆t 1 / ∆t 2 )

where ∆t1 and ∆t2 are the values of the temperature difference (tin - tout) at the two ends of the pipe
and In = natural logarithm

Example
A chilled water pipeline is 1000 m long and comprises a 200 mm internal diameter steel pipe of
thickness 4 mm, inside a 30 mm sheath of phenol formaldehyde insulation. The water has a velocity
of 2 m/s and a mean temperature of 8°C while the surrounding air has a velocity of 4 m/s, a mean dry
bulb temperature of 25.5°C and a density of 1.12 kg/m3.
Determine
(a) the UA value per metre length of pipeline,
(b) the actual heat gain and temperature rise of the water
and (c) the temperature of the outer surface of the insulation.

Solution
(a) Let us first collate the data required by equation (18.42)

Thermal conductivities (from Table 18.3)

steel: kp = 45 W/(m °C)
phenol formaldehyde: kins = 0.032 W/(m °C

Radii (with reference to Figure 18.19)

r1 = 0.1m; r2 = 0.104m; r3 = 0.134 m

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Areas of heat transfer (per metre lenqth)

Ain = 2π r1 = 2π x 0.1 = 0.6283 m2
Aout = 2π r3 = 2π x 0.134 = 0.8419 m2

(r1 + r2 ) (0.1 + 0.104 ) = 0.6409 m2

A12 = 2 π = 2π
2 2

(r 2 + r3 ) (0.104 + 0.134 ) = 0.7477 m2

A23 = 2 π = 2π
2 2

Heat transfer coefficients

For water in the pipe (from equation (18.45)):

0. 8
hin (water ) = (1430 + 20.9 t in )
uw
0 .2
W/(m2 °C)
d1
2 0. 8
=(1430 + 20.9 × 8 ) = 3837 W/(m2 °C)
(0.2) 0 .2

For air outside the pipe (from equation (18.46)):

(ρ a u a )0.6 (
hout (air ) = 4.24 0 .4
1 + 0.0015 t out )
d3

= 4.24
(1.12 × 4)0.6 (1 + 0.0015 × 25.5) = 18.33
W
0.268 0 .4
m2 oC

For radiative heat transfer at outside of pipe (from equation (18.47))

hr = 22. 68 x 10- 8 (273.15 + 25. 5)3 = 6.04 W/(m2 °C)

The large value of hin (water) shows the relative ease with which heat is transferred from the
water to the steel pipe.

The UA value per metre length can now be calculated from equation (18.42). Inserting the
numerical value gives:

1 1 0.004 0.03 1
= + + +
UA 3837 × 0.6283 45 × 0.6409 0.032 × 0.7477 (18.33 + 0.95 × 6.04) 0.8419
water inside pipe steel insulation air outside insulation

= 0.00041 + 0.00014 + 1.2538 + 0.0493

= 1.3037 °C/W

or UA = 1/1.3037 = 0.7670 W/°C

The dominant effect of the insulation is shown here. Indeed, the terms involving the water inside
the pipe and the steel pipe itself may be neglected without significant loss of accuracy.

(b) The average heat loss per metre length of pipe is then simply

q = UA (tin - tout) = 0.7670 (8 - 25.2) = -13.42 W per metre

(negative as heat is transferred from the air to the water).

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Over the 1000 m pipeline, the total heat transferred to the water is then

qtot = 13.42 x 1000 = 13 420 W

In order to determine the actual increase in temperature of the water, ∆tw, it is first necessary to
calculate the mass flow of water

π × 0.2 2
mw = ρ w × u w × area of flow = 1000 × 2 × = 62.83 kg/s
4

where ρw = density of water (1000 kg/m3)

q tot
Then ∆t w =
C w mw
where Cw = specific heat of water (4187 J/(kg°C) giving

13 420
∆t w = = 0.051 °C
4187 × 62.83

This small rise in temperature justifies the assumption of a "constant" water temperature at a
mean value. In practice, the actual temperature rise may be significantly greater because of
damaged or imperfectly applied insulation, particularly at flange points.

(c) The heat flux remains the same at each surface boundary of the pipe and insulation. This allows
the temperatures at those boundaries to be determined. In particular, at the outer surface of the
insulation,

q = hout Aout (tsurf - tout) where tsurf = surface temperature of the insulation.

Inserting the known values gives

− 13.42
t surf = + 25.5 = − 0.87 + 25.5 = 24.63°C
18.33 × 0.8419

No condensation will occur on the outside of the insulation provided that the wet bulb temperature
of the air remains below 24.63°C. However, any imperfections in the insulation may allow the
ingress of water vapour and condensation on the steel tube. This can result in problems of
corrosion.

The techniques described in this section can be incorporated into mine climate simulation programs
(Chapter 16) in order to take into account heat transfers between pipes or ducts and the surrounding
airflow. If the fluid inside the pipe moves in the same direction as the ventilating airstream, then the
heat transfers and corresponding temperature changes can be computed sequentially along each
incremental length of simulated airway (Section 16.2.2.). In the case of the piped fluid and the
ventilating airstream moving in opposite directions, then an iterative procedure becomes necessary to
compute the equilibrium condition.

18.3.3. Water distribution systems

A significant item in the design and economic analysis of mine air conditioning systems is the choice
of piping that carries water between the refrigeration plant and heat exchangers or mining equipment.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

There are, essentially, two matters of importance. First, the size of the pipe should be selected
carefully. If it is too small for the given flowrate, then the frictional pressure drops and pumping costs
will be high. On the other hand, if too large a pipe is chosen the costs of purchase and insulation will
be high while the larger surface area and low velocity will exacerbate unwanted heat transfer with the
surroundings.

This brings us to the second consideration, the thermal properties of the pipe material and the need
for additional insulation. We shall discuss each of these matters in turn.

18.3.3.1. Pipe sizing

The first step in determining the diameters of the various pipes that comprise a water network is to
assess the flowrates that are to be carried in each branch. The cooling duty, q, of a heat exchanger is
given as

q = mw Cw (tw,out - tw,in) W (18.49)

where mw = water flowrate through the heat exchanger (litres/s or kg/s)

Cw = specific heat of liquid water (4187 J/kg °C)
tw,in = inlet water temperature (°C)
and tw,out = outlet water temperature (°C)

The heat transferred is dependent equally upon the water flowrate and the temperature rise of the
water through the unit. The latter, in turn, is governed by the construction of the heat exchanger and
the supply temperature of the water. Calculations of the type included in Section 18.3.2 allow
flowrates to be assessed. For service water lines, the flowrates must also satisfy the machine
requirements for dust suppression or hydraulic power.

Having established the water flowrate, the actual sizing of a pipe becomes a combination of simple
analysis and practical considerations. Taking into account capital, operating and installation costs,
van Vuuren (1975) suggested optimum water velocities of 1.8 to 2.0 m/s for 4000 kPa pipes and 2.0
to 2.2 m/s for 7000 kPa pipes. A common rule of thumb is to employ 2 m/s for an initial exercise in
pipe sizing. The size of pipe is then given as

π d2 Q
= A = m2
4 u
or

4Q Q
d = = 1.13 m
πu u

where d = pipe diameter (m)

A = pipe cross sectional area (m2)
Q = flowrate (m3/s)
and u = velocity (m/s)

The frictional pressure drop, p, along the pipe may then be determined from the Chezy Darcy
relationship (equation (2.45)):

4 f L ρw u 2
p = Pa (18.51)
2d

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

For practical calculations, water density, ρw, may be taken as constant at 1000 kg/m3. The length L is
often set at unity to give the frictional pressure loss in Pa per metre.

New steel pipes will have a coefficient of friction, f, approximating 0.0039. However, the aging
processes of corrosion and scaling may cause this to increase by 20 to 50 percent. Plastic pipes have
a coefficient of friction averaging about 0.0032. Manufacturers usually provide charts for their pipes
relating frictional pressure losses to pipe diameter and flowrate. The pressure loss that can be
tolerated depends upon the pumping cost function which is proportional to the product pQ (ref.
equation (9.17)), and the pressure required at the end of the pipeline. If the pumping costs are shown
to be high, then consideration should be given to increasing the pipe diameter and reducing the
velocity.

Pressure losses are also incurred at bends or pipe fittings. Again, manufacturer-specific data can be
employed to determine such losses. However, for mine water systems, it is common to cater for
bends and fittings by simply adding ten percent to the computed pressure drop.

Pipe diameters determined through this procedure should be rounded up to the next highest standard
size. Consideration should be given to any increases in water flow that may be required in the future.
Furthermore, pipe ranges that might be used for fire fighting should be sized to give adequate flow
and pressure at the hydrants. The sizes of pipes that are to be installed within existing airways or
shafts may also be constrained by the space available.

18.3.3.2. Pipe insulation

The performance of heat exchangers is dependent upon the temperature of the supply water. It is,
therefore, important that heat gain along chilled water pipelines is minimized. This is normally
accomplished by providing thermal insulation on those pipes. One exception is the special case
where the pipeline is located within an intake airway which, itself, requires air cooling. In such
circumstances, the insulation may be partially, or totally, omitted.

In addition to having a low thermal conductivity, the insulating materials for chilled water pipes in
mines should conform to several other criteria:

• The insulation should provide a barrier against the ingress of water that condenses on the outer
surfaces. A porous and permeable insulation that becomes waterlogged will be much more
conductive to heat. Furthermore, water that reaches the surface of metal pipes will cause
problems of corrosion. The required vapour barrier may be achieved either by covering the
insulation with an impermeable sheath or by using an insulating material that is, itself, non-
permeable. An example is cellular glass in which the small air pockets are isolated from each
other.

• The insulation or outside sheath should have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand the
rigours of transport and utilization in mine environments. Insulation on shaft pipelines must be
able to withstand impact from falling objects.

• The flammability of insulating materials and the toxicity of gases that they may produce when
heated in a mine fire is of great importance. Polyurethane foams have been employed widely in
the past. However, they emit carbon monoxide and, perhaps, cyanide vapours at temperatures
that may be reached in mine fires. Phenolic foams in which phenols are bound into a resin base
are safer in that they have a higher ignition temperature, and a much lower rate of flame spread
(Rose, 1989).

• The cost of purchase and ease of installation of insulating materials or pre-insulated piping
should also be taken into account.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

A common practice has been to apply insulating materials to pipes on the mine site - either on the
surface or after the pipework has been installed in its underground location. The application of foam
insulators may be carried out by injecting the foam within a PVC vapour barrier sheath that has been
pulled over spacers on the outside of the pipe. Pre-cast semicircular sections of cellular glass or other
rigid insulators may be bound on to the pipes with adhesives or an outer sealing material. Expanded
polystyrene granules and fibreglass have also been used widely (Arkle, 1985; Ramsden, 1985). The
thickness of applied insulators varies from 25 to 40 mm.

The continued development of thermoplastics has allowed the manufacture of pipes that combine
mechanical strength with good thermal insulating properties. These may consist of concentric and
impermeable cylinders with the annulus containing a cellular infill. Typical values of thermal
conductivity are given in Table 18.3.
Material Thermal conductivity
W/(m °C)
Still air 0.028
Expanded polystyrene 0.038
Polyurethane and polystyrene 0.034
Polyisocyanurate 0.023
Phenol formaldehyde 0.032
Glass fibre 0.029
Unplasticised polyvinylchloride (UPVC) 0.14
Still water 0.62
Wood 0.17
Steel 45
Table 18.3. Thermal conductivities of pipe materials.

18.3.3.3. Energy and temperature changes within water systems

In Section 3.4.1 we saw that fluid frictional effects have no influence on temperature changes within a
steady-state airflow. This is not the case for water or other near incompressible fluids. Furthermore, in
Section 15.3.1, the autocompression of air in a mine shaft was shown to produce an increase in air
temperature that depended upon the depth of the shaft. Again, this is not true for water in a shaft
pipe.

In order to reassess the situation for water, let us return to the steady flow energy equation (3.25).

2 2 2
u1 − u 2
+ (Z1 − Z 2 )g + W12 =
∫ V dP + F = (H 2 − H 1 ) − q12
J
12 (18.52)
2 kg
1
where
u = velocity (m/s)
Z = height above datum (m)
g = gravitional acceleration (m/s2)
W = work input (J/kg)
V = specific volume of fluid (m3/kg) = 1/ρ where ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)
F = work done against friction (J/kg)
H = enthalpy(J/kg).
and q = heat added from surroundings (J/kg).

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

In applying this equation to water, we recall the basic definition of enthalpy from equation (3.19):

H = PV + U J/kg (18.53)

where U = internal energy and by assuming the water to be incompressible, V = constant.

The right hand sides of equation (18.52) then give

V (P2 − P1 ) + F12 = P2V − P1V + U 2 − U 1 − q12

or
F12 = U 2 − U 1 − q12 (J/kg) (18.54)

However, we may take a single value for the specific heat of water, Cw = 4187 J/(kg °C).
Equation (3.28) then gives

(U 2 − U 1 ) = Cw (T 2 − T1 ) J/kg (18.55)

Substituting in equation (18.54),

F12 = Cw (T 2 − T1 ) − q12 J/kg (18.56)

Furthermore, the frictional pressure drop, p, is given by equation (2.46)

p = ρ w F12 = ρ w Cw (T 2 − T1 ) − ρ w q12 Pa (18.57)

where ρw = density of water (kg/m3)

In the particular case of adiabatic flow (q12 = 0), the increase in water temperature along a pipeline
becomes

(T2 − T1 ) =
p
°C (18.58)
ρ w Cw

The term 1/ρwCw is sometimes known as the Joule-Thompson coefficient and, for water, has a
standard value of 1/(1000 x 4187) = 2.39 x 10-7 °C/Pa.

The adiabatic rise in temperature along a water pipe is shown by equation (18.58) to be directly
proportional to the frictional pressure drop and is independent of changes in elevation. The frictional
pressure drop, p, may occur by viscous or turbulent action within the length of the pipe or by shock
loss across a valve or other obstruction.

For flow through a water pump or turbine, we can apply the left and right sides of equation (18.52).
However, the change in kinetic energy and the difference in elevation across the device are both
negligible, giving

W12 = (H 2 − H 1 ) − q12
= V (P2 − P1 ) + (U 2 − U 1 ) − q12
(P2 − P1 )
= + Cw (T 2 − T1 ) − q12 J/kg (18.59)
ρw

If there is negligible heat exchange across the casing of the pump or turbine, then we may assume
adiabatic flow (q12 = 0) giving the temperature rise as

(T2 − T1 ) =
1  (P2 − P1 )
W12 −  °C (18.60)
Cw  ρw 

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

While W12 is the total work applied to a pump impeller, the term (P2 – P1)/ρw represents the output of
useful mechanical energy. The difference between the two indicates the degradation of some of the
input power to thermal energy and produces a measurable temperature rise. In a turbine, it is the
other way round with (P1 - P2)/ρw representing the work input and -W12 being the output work.

For a pump, we can also write that the actual work output is given by

(P2 − P1 ) J
W12 η = (18.61)
ρw kg

and, for a turbine, the actual work output is

(P2 − P1 )η J
W12 = (18.62)
ρw kg

where η = efficiency of the device

Substituting for W12 in equation (18.60) gives the temperature rise

across a pump:

(T2 − T1 ) =
(P2
− P1 )  1 
 − 1 °C (18.63)
Cw ρ w η 
and across a water turbine

(T2 (P2 − P1 ) (P1 − P2 )

− T1 ) = (η − 1) = (1 − η ) °C (18.64)
Cw ρ w Cw ρ w

In these analyses, it has been assumed that water is incompressible. In fact, the slight compressibility
of water does give it a small isentropic temperature change with respect to pressure (Whillier, 1967).
This is given approximately as

∆t
= (0.759 t − 0.2)× 10 − 6 °C per kPa (18.65)
∆P

where t = initial temperature (°C)

This effect may be neglected for most practical purposes. However, if equations (18.63) or (18.64)
are transposed in order to determine the efficiency of the device from temperature observations, then
the measured temperature rise should be corrected according to equation (18.65) (negatively for a
pump and positively for a turbine).

Example 1
The barometric pressures at the top and bottom of a 1500 m deep shaft are 90 and 107 kPa
respectively. Chilled water at 3°C and ambient atmospheric pressure enters the top of a 150 mm
diameter steel pipe that is suspended in the shaft. A pressure reducing valve at the bottom of the pipe
controls the water flowrate to 35 litres/s and reduces the water pressure to that of the ambient
surroundings. Determine the pressures and temperatures of the water at the inlet and outlet of the
pressure reducing valve. Assume that no heat exchange occurs across the pipe wall.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Solution
The frictional pressure drop in the pipe is given by equation (18.51)

4 f L ρw u 2
p = Pa
2d

The known values are

L = 1500 m ρw = 1000 kg/m3 d = 0.15 m

where Q = flowrate = 35/1000 = 0.035 m3/s and A = c-s area = π x (0.15)2/4 =0.01767 m2

giving u = Q/A u = 1.981 m/s

Allowing for aging effects, we shall assume the coefficient of friction for the steel pipe to be f = 0.005.
We shall also allow an additional pressure loss of 10 percent to allow for bends and fittings.
Then
4 × 0.005 × 1500 × 1000 × (1.981)
2
p = (1 + 0.1) = 431.68 × 10 3 Pa
2 × 0.15

Water pressure at shaft top = 90 x 103 Pa

Water pressure at shaft bottom (inlet to pressure reducing valve)

= 90 + ρw g L - p

= 90 x 103 + (1000 x 9.81 x 1500) - 431.68 x 103

= 14 373 x 103 Pa or 14 373 kPa

At outlet from the valve, the water pressure is reduced to the shaft bottom barometric pressure of 107 kPa.

Hence,

pressure drop across the valve = gauge pressure at valve inlet

= 14 373 - 107 = 14 266 kPa

The temperature rise in the shaft pipe is given by equation (18.58) as

p 431.68 × 10 3
∆t sh = = = 0.103 °C
ρ w Cw 1000 × 4187

Temperature at valve inlet = water temperature at shaft top + 0.103 = 3.103 °C

As no energy is added or extracted by the pressure reducing valve, the flow is purely frictional.
Hence, equation (18.58) gives
Pressure loss across valve 14 266 × 10 3
∆t valve = = = 3.407°C
ρ w Cw 1000 × 4187

giving the water temperature at the valve outlet to be

3.103 + 3.407 = 6.510 °C.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The same total increase in water temperature of 3.51°C from shaft top to outlet of the valve at the
shaft bottom would occur whatever the cause of the restriction on flow - a valve, rougher lining of the
pipe or a smaller diameter of pipe, provided that no energy of any kind is added or extracted from the
water and that the water is emitted at the shaft bottom barometric pressure.

As a check, the overall temperature rise of the water between the shaft top and the outlet of the shaft
bottom valve can be calculated directly. From the steady flow energy equation (18.52) with no work
input (W12 = 0), for an incompressible fluid V = 1/ρ = constant, and ignoring changes in kinetic energy

(Z1 − Z 2 )g = V (P2 − P1 ) + F12

or
p tot = ρ w F12 = (Z1 − Z 2 )g ρ w − (P2 − P1 )

= 1500 x 9.81 x 1000 - (107 - 90) 1000

= 14.715 x 106 - 0.017 x 106

= 14.698 x 106 Pa

(The difference in barometric pressure is shown to have very little effect on ptot.)

Then

p tot
∆t tot = (equation (18.58))
ρ w Cw
14.698 × 10 6
= = 3.51 °C
1000 × 4187

This check calculation illustrates that when the water is emitted from the pipe at the underground
barometric pressure, the temperature rise is given approximately as

(Z1 − Z 2 )g
= 3.51 o C over the 1500m depth of the shaft, or 2.34 °C per 1000 m depth.
4187

In the past, this has mistakenly been referred to as an "autocompression temperature rise." The
misconception arose because in the special case of a pipe open at the bottom, the frictional pressure
drop in the pipe approximates the static pressure caused by a column of fluid in the shaft pipe.

Example 2
If, in Example 1, the pressure reducing valve at the shaft bottom were replaced by a water turbine of
efficiency 75 percent, what would be the temperature of the water leaving the turbine? Calculate,
also, the power produced by the turbine. Assume that all other parameters, including the flowrate of
35 litres/s, remain unchanged.

Solution
As the condition and flow of water in the pipe have not been altered, the increase in water
temperature down the pipe remains at ∆tsh = 0.103°C and the water enters the turbine at a pressure
of Pin = 14 373 kPa and a temperature of 3.103°C.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

At outlet from the turbine, the water pressure has fallen to the shaft bottom barometric pressure of
Pout = 107 kPa. The temperature rise across the turbine is given by equation (18.64).

(Pin − Pout ) (14 373 − 107 )10 3

∆t turb = (1 − η ) = (1 − 0.75 ) = 0.852 °C
Cw ρ w 4187 × 1000

Then the temperature of the water leaving the turbine is

3.103 + 0.852 = 3.955 °C.

Comparing this with the temperature of water leaving the pressure reducing valve of Example 1, i.e.
6.510 °C, shows that replacing the valve by a water turbine not only produces useful power but
reduces the temperature of the chilled water leaving the shaft station by 6.510 - 3.955 = 2.555°C.

This represents an equivalent refrigeration capacity of

mw Cw ∆t = 35 x 4187 x 2.555 = 374.5 x 103 W or 374.5 kW

The output work from the turbine is given by equation (18.62)

(Pout − Pin )η (107 − 14 373 )10 3 J

W12 = = × 0.75 = − 10 700
ρw 1000 kg

(negative, as work is leaving the water). To transform this to an output power, we simply multiply by
the mass flowrate, i.e.

10 700 x 35 = 374.5 X 103 W or 374.5 kW

We have, therefore, demonstrated that the power output from the turbine is equal to the equivalent
refrigeration capacity that has been produced by the system. This suggests a rapid means of
approximating the overall temperature rise of the water from the shaft top to the turbine outlet at shaft
bottom barometric pressure:

(Z1 − Z 2 )g turbine output power

∆t tot = −
Cw mw C w
1500 × 9.81 374 500
= − = 3.514 - 2.555 = 0.959 °C
4187 35 × 4187

This method remains acceptable provided that the frictional pressure losses are small compared with
the static pressure caused by the column of water.

18.3.4. Energy recovery devices

The trend towards siting main refrigeration plant on the surface of mines accelerated during the
1980's. This was caused in large part by the utilization of energy recovery devices, particularly water
turbines. Prior to that time, the provision of chilled water at the surface had three major drawbacks.
First, it caused high water pressures at shaft bottoms which necessitated a choice between high
pressure heat exchangers and associated pipework or, alternatively, to pass the water through
pressure reducing valves. The latter choice not only resulted in high operating costs of pumping to
return the water to surface, but also converted the potential energy of the water to thermal energy,
giving a rise in temperature and eroding the cooling capacity of the chilled water.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Energy recovery devices address each of these problems and divide into two major groups. First,
water turbines or hydraulic motors employ the potential energy of shaft water lines to drive electrical
generators or other devices. Secondly, hydrolift systems utilize the weight of descending chilled water
to help raise heated return water back to surface. We shall discuss each of these systems in turn.

18.3.4.1. Water turbines

As illustrated by Example 2 in section 18.3.3.3, shaft bottom turbines provide:

• work output that may be used to drive pumps, generators or any other mechanical device; this
work may provide part of the energy required to raise return water back to surface;

• reduced temperature of the subsurface supply of chilled water, and hence, savings in
refrigeration costs;

• a low pressure water system underground.

Two types of turbines are in use. Figure 18.20 illustrates an impulse turbine, commonly known as a
Pelton Wheel. In this device, the pressure of the supply water is used to produce kinetic energy by
means of one or more nozzles. The high velocity jets are directed at cups attached to the periphery of
a rotating wheel. Inside the casing of the device, the jets operate at the ambient atmospheric
pressure. Hence, the water leaves at zero gauge pressure. Control of the mechanical output may be
achieved by a needle valve in the nozzle which changes the water flowrate. Alternatively, if the flow is
to be maintained, deflector plates may be used to direct part of the jets away from the cups.

The advantages of a Pelton Wheel are that it is simple and rugged in construction, reliable and may
reach efficiencies of over 80 percent. The speed control is effective and no high pressure seals are
required on the casing.

inlet

nozzle

needle valve
runner

cups

outlet

Figure 18.20 Diagrammatic representation of a Pelton Wheel.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The second type of water turbine is the reaction device and is often referred to as a Francis or Kaplan
turbine. This is essentially a centrifugal runner (Figure 10.2) with the impeller designed to operate in
reverse and incorporating guide vanes to minimize shock losses. Indeed, a reversed centrifugal pump
may be used as a reaction turbine although at a considerably reduced efficiency. Control of the
device is by valves located upstream and/or downstream. Unlike the Pelton Wheel, a reaction turbine
operates in a "flooded" mode giving rise to its primary advantage, i.e. the water pressure at exit can
be maintained above the ambient air pressure and, hence, may be utilized further downstream to
overcome pipe losses, provide the required pressure at spray chambers or to activate further
hydraulic devices. Pelton Wheels give better efficiencies at the higher duties, typically 2 MW. The
Francis turbines are better suited for lower duties2.

In addition to shaft bottom stations, water turbines may be used for more local applications. For
example, if the water pressure available at a spray chamber exceeds that required at the spray
nozzles, then a turbine can be sited in the water supply line and used to power local pumps or fans.
This is particularly advantageous for multi-stage spray chambers (Ramsden, 1985).

18.3.4.2. Hydrolift systems

The principle of operation of a hydrolift system is illustrated on Figure 18.21. The device is sometimes
also known as a hydrochamber or hydrotransformer. The chamber is excavated or constructed
underground and is alternately filled from opposite ends with chilled water delivered from surface,
then with hot water returned from the mine.

Let us assume that the chamber is initially filled with warm water. Both of the automated valves A are
opened and valves B are closed. The pump at the surface cold water dam causes chilled water to
flow down the shaft pipe and into the chamber. This, in turn, forces the hot water to exit the chamber
and ascend the return shaft pipe. As the two columns of water are nearly balanced, the duty of the
pump is simply to overcome pipe friction. When the chamber is filled with chilled water, valves A are
closed and valves B are opened. The underground hot water dam pump then forces the hot return
water into the chamber, expelling the chilled water to the underground cold water dam.

The cyclic nature of the system can be negated by having three hydrolift chambers with the sets of
valves phased to give a continuous flow into and out of the water dams. The size of chambers and
water dams should be determined on the basis of the cooling requirements of the mine. An inherent
disadvantage of the hydrolift system is that the rate of chilled water flow must be equal to that of the
heated return water. It is, therefore, advisable that the water dams should be sized to accommodate
several hours supply.

A loss of efficiency occurs because of heat exchange with the walls of the chamber and due to mixing
and thermal transfer at the hot and cold interface within the chamber. The latter may be minimized by
inclining the chamber such that the hot water end is at a higher elevation.

2
As a guide, if the pressure differential available across the turbine (in kPa) is less than 70 mw0.67 (where mw is
the flowrate in litres/s), then a Francis turbine will give a better performance.

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 Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

refrigeration
plant
condenser
cold water evaporator
dam

pre-cooling
tower

hydrolift chamber
A A

B B

pump
cold water hot water
dam dam

Figure 18.21 Operating principle of a hydrolift system.

18.3.5. Design of mine cooling systems

The demand on a subsurface cooling system is dictated by the magnitude and distribution of the heat
load and the surface climate. The availability of cold natural water at the surface can result in large
savings in cooling costs. Similarly, passing the water supply through a surface cooling tower either
prior to or instead of a refrigeration plant can produce low-cost cooling.

Section 18.3.1 gave an overview of mine cooling systems and introduced spot coolers for isolated
heat loads (Figure 18.8), water chiller plant for sections of a mine (Figure 18.9) and a large
centralized system (Figure 18.10). In this Section, we shall concentrate on the latter and discuss the
alternative arrangements by which the hardware components may be integrated into a unified mine
cooling system.

18.3.5.1. Location of main plant

Figures 18.22 to 18.24 give examples of system configurations using main refrigeration plant located
on surface, underground and a combination of the two. In these figures, the ancillary components of
pumps, valves and retention dams are not shown.

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Surface plant
The ease of maintenance, construction and heat rejection, coupled with the utilization of energy
recovery devices have led to a preference for the main refrigeration units to be located on surface.
Figure 18.22(a) illustrates the simplest system that employs surface plant. Chilled water from the
refrigeration plant passes down an insulated pipe in the shaft to a high pressure water to water heat
exchanger at one or more shaft stations. This heat exchanger is a source of potential loss of system
efficiency and care should be taken with the design and choice of tube materials to minimize
problems of corrosion, scaling and erosion. Figure 18.22(b) shows the water to water heat exchanger
replaced by a turbine. This configuration requires the water flow in the shafts to approximate that
cycling through the mine, with capacitance provided by water dams.

In both cases, the heated water ascending to surface may be sprayed through a pre-cooling tower in
order to lower its temperature before returning to the refrigeration plant. This can be advantageous in
reducing the required capacity and operating costs of the refrigeration plant. However, the
effectiveness of a pre-cooling tower is dependent upon the difference between the temperature of the
return water and the wet bulb temperature of the surface atmosphere. An "approach" (see Figure
18.18) of 2°C is typical. For this reason, a pre-cooling tower may be utilized only during the colder
seasons.

Figure 18.22(b) also shows part of the chilled water being used for bulk cooling of the air before it
enters the downcast shaft. The vertical packed spray chambers used for this purpose are normally of
the induced-draught type with the fan located between the spray chamber and the shaft. This helps to
prevent fogged air from entering the shaft. If the experience of any given mine is that a heat problem
exists during the summer months only, then all that may be necessary is to install a surface bulk air
cooling system and utilize it during the warm season. However, if the workings are distant from the
shaft bottoms and the heat production is concentrated heavily within those working zones, then bulk
air cooling on surface will have greatly reduced effectiveness.

Underground plant
Figure 18.23 illustrates the principle of the system favoured by the South African gold mines prior to
the 1980's. The refrigeration plant is located entirely underground. Hot water from the condensers is
cycled through open spray cooling towers situated at or near the base of upcast shafts and supplied
by air returning from the mine. The advantages of this system are that it eliminates the need for
surface-connecting pipe ranges and the associated pumping costs. It also avoids any environmental
problems that may arise from surface plant. The major disadvantage of the system is that its duty is
limited by the capacity of the return air to accept heat rejected in the underground cooling towers.
Furthermore, saturated air subjected to decompression in the upcast shaft can cause problems of
heavy fogging, water blanketing in the shaft (Section 9.3.6) and reduced life of main exhaust fans.

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optional bulk
pre-cooling cooling of pre-cooling
tower downcast air tower

to
to to cooling
cooling downcast tower
tower shaft
condenser condenser

evaporator evaporator

(a) (b)
chilled water
chilled water return water

turbine
water to water
heat exchanger
high pressure cold water
dam

to from to from hot water dam

low pressure
workings workings workings workings

Figure 18.22 Examples of system configurations using surface refrigeration plant.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

upcast shaft

hot water from

condensor

cooling
tower

refrigeration
plant return air
from mine
condenser

evaporator

chilled water return water

to mine from mine

Figure 18.23 System configuration for underground plant.

Combinations of surface and underground plant

As the depth of mining increases, so also does the severity of geothermal and autocompressive heat
problems. Unfortunately, increasing depth also exacerbates the costs of installing, maintaining and
operating pipelines in shafts and, hence, eroding the advantages of a surface plant. Figures 18.24 (a,
b and c) illustrate examples of alternative means of combining surface and underground refrigeration
plant into an integrated system. In each of these configurations, the essential role of the underground
plant is to concentrate the heat in the return mine water into a lower flow, higher temperature system
for transmission to surface.

This enables smaller shaft pipes to be selected and also reduces the pumping costs. Furthermore,
the increased temperature of the water returning to surface improves the effectiveness of the pre-
cooling tower, allowing it to be utilized throughout the year. Another advantage of the combined
system is that it adds considerably to the flexibility and future upgrading of the cooling duty. Surface
plant alone is ultimately limited by the flow capacity of the shaft pipes. Similarly, underground plant
alone is limited by the thermal capacity of the return air. However, with a combined system the
cooling duty can be more easily upgraded by adding to the capacity of both surface and underground
plant and, hence, increasing the temperature difference between the descending and ascending shaft
pipes.

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 Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

pre-cooling pre-cooling pre-cooling

tower tower tower

to to to
cooling cooling cooling
tower tower tower
condenser condenser condenser

evaporator evaporator evaporator

(a) (b) (c)

refrigeration water-water refrigeration

plant heat exchanger plant
hot
condenser condenser
dam
evaporator evaporator
refrigeration
cold plant
dam condenser

evaporator
chilled water return water return water chilled water
to mine from mine from mine to mine chilled water
to mine return water
from mine

Figure 18.24 Examples of system configurations for combined surface and underground refrigeration plant.

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The simplest combined system is shown on Figure 18.24(a) where the surface plant is used to cycle
water through the shaft pipes and to remove heat from the subsurface condensers. Figure 18.24(b)
shows a system of potentially improved efficiency in which the chilled water from surface first passes
through a water-to-water heat exchanger before entering the condensers. The warm return water
from the mine is pre-cooled in the water-to-water heat exchanger prior to passing through the
evaporators.

Figure 18.24(c) shows the water-to-water heat exchanger replaced by a turbine. In this case, the
chilled water emerging from the turbine passes on to the mine via a cold water dam. The return water
in the hot water dam is split. Part of it removes heat from the condenser and returns to surface. The
remainder is re-cooled through the subsurface evaporator and returned to the cold water dam.

In each of the three examples of combined plant shown on Figures 18.24 (a, b and c), some of the
chilled water produced on surface may be used for bulk cooling the downcast air. Similarly, in all
three cases, if mine return air is available for heat rejection, then some of the hot water from the
underground condenser may be cycled through a subsurface cooling tower before returning to the hot
water dam.

18.3.5.2. Service water cooling

Service water is supplied to mining equipment primarily for dust suppression purposes and perhaps,
also, as a means of transmitting hydraulic power (Section 18.3.5.3). Heat and dust problems are
generally greatest in the working areas and, particularly, where rock breaking equipment is in use.
The heat emitted by the machines combines with that from the newly exposed strata to cause rapid
increases in air temperature (Section 15.2.2). Uncooled water supplied at dry bulb temperature to
dust suppression sprays exacerbates the problem by increasing the humidity of the air. However, if
the service water is chilled, then it will both cool and dehumidify the air through which it is sprayed.
This effect will continue until the effluent water running into drains or on rock surfaces attains the
ambient wet bulb temperature.

The effect of chilled service water in a local workplace can be quite dramatic, depending upon the
temperature and flowrate of both the water and the ventilating airstream. Indeed, it is recommended
that the temperature of the service water should not be less than 12°C to prevent cold discomfort of
personnel. A primary advantage of chilled service water is that it is applied where and when cooling is
most needed, i.e. where and when rock breaking or rock transportation is taking place.

The cooling efficiency of chilled service water is greater than that normally obtained from heat
exchangers because of the higher temperature of the return water. For example, water supplied to
sprays at 12°C may eventually leave the district at the prevailing wet bulb temperature of, say, 27°C,
giving a range of 15°C. For comparison, typical temperature ranges of water across local heat
exchangers may be of the order of 6 to 10°C. It follows that for the same cooling duty, lower water
flowrates can be used when the service water is chilled. This, in turn, reduces the required size of
pipes and pumping costs. Furthermore, the increased temperatures of return water enhance the
utilization of the low-cost pre-cooling towers on the mine surface.

The effectiveness of air cooling at the entrance to a stope or face is diminished by a large heat flux
from newly exposed or fragmented strata. However, such heat can be partially counteracted by the
use of chilled dust suppression water, enabling intake air cooling to be employed more effectively.

The benefits to be gained from chilled service water clearly depend upon how much water is required
by the equipment, and any adverse effects on the strata or travelling conditions that may arise from
too copious a supply of water. The practical approach is to determine the rate of water flow required
for dust suppression or other machine purposes and the expected temperature range. The fraction of
the total heat load removed by service water can then be estimated.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Example
Dust suppression water is supplied to a workplace at a rate of 100 litres per tonne of rock mined. If
the water is supplied to the machine at 12°C and leaves the district at 26°C, determine the cooling
provided by the service water at a mining rate of 5 tonnes per minute.

Solution
100 × 5
Water flowrate, mw = = 8.333 litres or kg/s
60

Rate of heat removal = mw Cw ∆t

= 8.333 x 4187 x (26 - 12)

= 488.5 x 103 W or 488.5 kW

The amount of service water used may vary from 20 to 3000 litres per tonne depending upon the
mining method and the mineralogical constituents of the dust particles. There is a corresponding
large range in the rate of possible heat removal by dust suppression water. However, due to the high
efficiency of the technique and the utilization of existing water lines, it may be regarded as the first
approach to the supply of "coolth" to a rock breaking area.

The fraction of total heat load that can be removed by chilled service water is eroded at greater
depths due to the increased effects of autocompression and geothermal heat, while the supply of
service water remains constant for any given mining method.

18.3.5.3. Hydropower

In section 18.3.4, we discussed the utilization of potential energy made available in shaft water pipes.
In addition to driving shaft station turbines or hydrolift systems, the water pressure available at spray
chambers can also be used to activate fans and pumps at those locations. The concept of
hydropower takes this idea further and combines it with service water cooling (Section 18.3.5.2).

The use of electrical or diesel power involves the production of heat. Expenditure is then incurred to
remove this heat from the mine by ventilation and/or cooling systems. The utilization of machine
power by such means involves both an environmental and an associated cost penalty. However, if
the machine is activated by chilled water under pressure provided by the shaft column, then the
hydraulic machine power and climatic control act in concert rather than in opposition. In a hot and
deep mine, chilled hydropower provides, simultaneously, a means of machine power, cooling and
dust suppression, all from a single system.

For relatively low powered units such as drills, hydraulic motors may be employed directly while, for
larger machines, turbine-electric combinations may be more practical. Furthermore, differing
combinations of water flow, pressure and temperature may be required for the demands of power,
cooling and dust suppression. A hydropower system should be designed and balanced to satisfy
those varying demands.

18.3.5.4. Ice systems

The limitations of heat rejection capability underground, together with the use of energy recovery
devices, have promoted the trend away from subsurface refrigeration plant towards surface units.
However, despite water turbines and hydrolift devices, pumping costs remain the factor which limits
the mass flow of water that can be circulated through the shaft pipelines of deep mines. Recalling the

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relationship q = mw Cw ∆t, heat removal from a mine can be enhanced by increasing the temperature
differential, ∆t, between supply and return water. This can be accomplished by combinations of
surface and underground refrigeration plant (Section 18.3.5.1). Despite such advances in mine
cooling technology, heat remains the primary limitation on the depth at which mining can take place.

In order to proceed beyond the physical restraints imposed by the circulation of fluids, other means of
transmitting "coolth" have to be considered. One of these is to employ the latent heat of melting ice.
Although the use of ice in mines is not new (Section 18.1), the first pilot plant employing an ice
pipeline was constructed in 1982 at the East Rand Proprietary Mines in South Africa (Sheer, 1984).
Further full scale applications followed soon afterwards (Hemp, 1988).

Ice has a specific heat varying from 2040 J/(kg °C) at 0°C to 1950 J/(kg °C) at -20°C. It has a latent
heat of melting of 333.5 kJ/kg. The mass flow of water circulated around a mine for cooling purposes
can be reduced by a factor of over 5 if it is supplied in the form of ice.

Example
A mine requires 10 MW of cooling. Calculate the mass flow of water involved

(a) if the water is supplied at 3°C and returns at 20°C

(b) if the water is supplied as ice at -5°C and returns at 20°C.

Solution
(a) for the water system:

q = m w C w ∆t w

q 10 × 10 6
or mw = = = 140.5 kg/s or litres/s
C w ∆t w 4187 × (20 − 3 )

(b) for the ice supply:

Heat absorbed as the temperature of mi kg of ice increases from -5 to O°C,

q ice = m i C i ∆t i

Choosing the specific heat of ice as 2030 J/(kg °C) gives

qice = mi x 2030 x 5 = 10 150 mi W

Latent heat absorbed as mi kg of ice melts at 0 °C

qL = Lice mi = 333 500 mi

Heat absorbed as mi kg of liquid water increases in temperature from 0 to 20°C:

q w = m i C w ∆t w = m i × 4187 × 20 = 83 740m i W

Then, total heat absorbed

q = q ice + qL + qw = 10 × 10 6 W

mi (10 150 + 333 500 + 83 740) = 10 x 106 W

giving mi = 23.4 kg/s

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Hence, in this example, the volume of cooling water is reduced by a factor of 6 when it is supplied as
ice at -5°C. The calculation also illustrates the dominant amount of heat involved in the change of
phase from ice to liquid, qL.

There are four primary items to consider when investigating an ice system for mine cooling;
• the large scale manufacture of ice,
• the means of transporting it underground,
• how it is best incorporated into a mine cooling system, and
• the economics of the system.
Each of these factors will be considered in turn.

Manufacture of ice
The ice that is utilized in a mine cooling system may be supplied either as particulate ice at sub-zero
temperature or as a slurry of ice crystals within liquid water or brine.

Particulate ice can be manufactured as cubes, cylinders or tubes of clear ice, or as ice flakes that can
be compressed into pellets for transportation. Water is sprayed or caused to flow over the surfaces of
plates, tubes, concentric cylinders or drums that are cooled on their opposite sides by a refrigerant
fluid. The formation of ice creates an additional thermal resistance to heat transfer. This necessitates
an evaporator temperature of some -15 to -30°C giving rise to coefficients of performance in the
range 2.3 to 3.5, lower than might be expected from a well designed water chiller.

The ice is usually removed from the cold surfaces by mechanical scrapers or by periodic cycling of
hot refrigerant through the freezer unit. In the production of flake ice, a thin film of ice is removed
continuously from the surface of a rotating drum or metal belt. The particles of ice fall into a hopper
that feeds into a screw or belt conveyor for removal from the unit.

As an example of large-scale particulate ice manufacture, a plant at East Rand Proprietary Mines
(South Africa) produced 6000 tonnes of ice per day from six 1000 tonne/day units. Each tubular unit
consisted of eighty double walled tubes with ice formation on both the inner (99 mm dia) and outer
(508 mm diameter) surfaces of the 4.5 m long tubes. The refrigerant passed through the annulus of
each tube. The 15 minute cycle consisted of 13.5 minutes of freezing and 1.5 minutes harvesting
(Hemp, 1988). The refrigerant was ammonia and ice harvesting was achieved by passing hot
ammonia liquid through the annuli in the icemaker tubes. This arrangement also improved the
efficiency of the unit by subcooling the liquid refrigerant before it returned to the evaporators.

Slurry icemakers promote the formation of microcrystals of ice within a stream of water or brine and
are at an earlier stage of development for mine cooling systems. Slurry ice has one significant
advantage over particulate ice. All industrial and domestic supplies of water contain many impurities
including dissolved salts of calcium, magnesium and sodium. The freezing process favours pure
water. Hence, if the freezing occurs sufficiently slowly or if the ice/water interface is continuously
washed with water, then the ice crystals will have a greater purity than the water in which they grow.
The dissolved salts remain in the liquid and, hence, become more concentrated. In contrast, the
formation of plate, tube or flake (particulate) ice occurs quickly and with a more limited washing action
by the water, giving rise to the entrapment of salts within the ice matrix. If the microcrystals, usually of
less than 1 mm in size, are removed from the ice slurry and washed, then they will be relatively free
from impurities. This process is known as freeze desalinization. The provision of purified water to a
mine cooling system assists greatly in minimizing corrosion and scaling within pipes and heat
exchangers.

There are at least three methods that have the potential for large-scale manufacture of slurry ice
(Shone, 1988). In the indirect process, water or brine is passed through tubes that are surrounded by
cold refrigerant. Microcrystals of ice are formed within the moving stream of water. Careful control of
the salinity, flowrate and temperature is required to prevent the formation of solid ice on the sides of
the tube. Scraper devices can also be used to prevent ice from accumulating on the walls.

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The vacuum ice-making process involves the evacuation of water vapour from a vessel that contains
brine. The triple point of water is reached at 0.6 kPa and 0 °C when boiling and freezing occur
simultaneously (ref. Figure 18.1). Ice, liquid water and vapour coexist at this point. The ice slurry that
is formed is kept in motion by an agitator until it is pumped from the vessel. About 1 kg of water
vapour must be removed for each 7.5 kg of nucleated ice. The vapour is compressed and condensed
for recycling. In the vacuum ice-making process, the water acts as its own refrigerant fluid (Section
18.2.2).

An even less developed method is the direct process in which a mixture of brine and immiscible liquid
refrigerant are sprayed through a nozzle into a receiving chamber. The evaporation of the refrigerant
cools the mixture and promotes the nucleation of ice crystals within the brine. The ice slurry collects
at the bottom of the vessel and is pumped out. The refrigerant vapour is evacuated from the top of the
vessel for compression, condensing and recycling.

In all three processes, the salinity of the brine has an important influence on the manufacture of ice
slurry. In general, a higher concentration of dissolved salts will give a smaller production of ice
crystals but at greater purity. The freezing temperature will also be lower, resulting in a reduced
coefficient of performance for the unit. For mine cooling systems, a salt concentration between 5 and
15 percent would appear to be appropriate. However, the optimum salinity for any given installation
should be determined from tests on the actual water to be used.

Future employment of ice slurries in mine cooling systems may be combined with energy recovery
devices. The duties of direct-contact heat exchangers are considerably enhanced when the sprays
are supplied with ice slurry of up to 20 percent ice (Gebler, 1988). Droplets in the spray chamber
remain at 0°C until the ice crystals are melted. Tests have indicated that with an ice fraction of only 40
percent, pipeline pressure drops are about three times those for water (Shone, 1988).

Transportation of ice
The mass of ice required for a mine cooling system is such that it must be supplied continuously
rather than in a batch transportation system. While slurry ice can be pumped through pipes,
particulate ice must be transported from the ice-making plant to the shaft by conveying systems or by
a hydraulic or pneumatic pipeline. In the latter case, the supply air temperature should be not more
than 8°C in order to prevent undue agglomeration of the ice particles.

The particulate ice falls through the shaft pipeline either as dilute flow in which the particles are
separated and retain their individual identity or as dense or slug flow. In the latter case, the ice
particles agglomerate into discrete slugs separated by air spaces. If the ratio of ice to air is too great,
then extrusion flow will develop accompanied by a greatly increased risk of pipe blockage. The
factors involved in the type of flow through an ice pipeline are the ice/air ratio, the shape, temperature
and size of the particles, and the type and size of pipe. Unplasticised (U) PVC has been found to be a
satisfactory pipe material for ice lines. However, changes in cross section or lips at expansion joints
should be avoided. At shaft stations, radii of curvature of 3 m or more allow the pipelines to be
extended horizontally for several hundred metres. To cite the East Rand Mines example again, four
uninsulated UPVC pipes of inside diameter 270 mm and wall thickness 22.5 mm were employed
(Hemp, 1988). The longest pipe extended through a vertical distance of approximately 2900 m. Each
pipe was capable of carrying 200 tonnes per hour (55.6 kg/s) allowing for considerable future
expansion of the mine cooling duty.

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Incorporation into the mine cooling system

Figure 18.25 gives a simplified representation of one layout that utilizes particulate ice.

pre-cooling
tower

ice-making water
plant pre-chiller
condenser
evaporator

hot water dam

ice silo

cold water
dam 0°C
to mine from mine

Figure 18.25 Layout of an ice system. Ice silos may be located on several levels.

Return water pumped from the mine passes through a surface pre-cooling tower and is further cooled
in a water pre-chiller. This may be supplied by "coolth" from the ice-making refrigeration plant or,
alternatively, be a separate water chiller package. The particulate ice falls through the shaft pipeline
and is discharged into an ice/water mixing dam or a silo with a perforated base. Water from the hot
water dam is also sprayed into the ice silo. The discharge from the silo enters the cold water dam at
0°C.

The bed of ice in the silo should be maintained at a thickness of 1 to 2 m. The supply of ice to each
silo must be matched to the required cooling duty at that level. Position transducers can be used to
monitor the ice level in each silo. The transmitted signals may be employed to control ice feed rates.
It is advisable to provide sufficient ice bunkerage to handle short term fluctuations in demand. Longer

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term variations can be handled by activating an appropriate number of individual sets in the ice-
making plant or by compressor control on the refrigeration units (Section 18.2.3).

Economics of ice systems

The benefits of ice as a medium of heat transfer in mines may be listed as follows:

• greatly reduced water flow in shaft pipelines; therefore - smaller pipes and lower pumping costs

• water is available at 0°C underground rather than the 3 to 6°C common with conventional
chilled water systems; therefore there is less flow and reduced pumping costs in the subsurface
(secondary) circuits, and improved performance of heat exchangers.

• “coolth" is stored in ice bunkers and silos to satisfy short term variations in demand

• the system is more easily capable of being uprated for future increases in cooling load

• the subsurface system is simpler having reduced or eliminated the need for turbines

• the quality of the water is improved by ice-making.

The major disadvantage of the system is the considerable increase in both capital and operating
costs of the ice-making plant. As the depth of a mine increases and the heat load and associated
pumping costs both rise, then, at some point, it becomes economically advantageous to convert from
water chilling to an ice system. A study in South Africa showed that the crossover point occurs at a
depth of approximately 3000 m (Sheer, 1984). However, this will be influenced not only by the cost of
hardware but also power charges, surface climate, geothermic gradient, rock properties and heat
from equipment or stored materials (in the case of subsurface repositories). It is, therefore, prudent to
conduct a site-specific economic study on any proposed ice system.

18.3.6. Summary of design process

Although this chapter has concentrated on the hardware associated with mine air conditioning
systems, it is pertinent to remind ourselves that the design of such systems cannot be separated from
ventilation planning (Sections 9.1 and 16.3.5). In particular, the initial question is how much heat can,
or should, be removed by ventilation and how much by cooling systems.

This leads us into the first stages of the design procedure for a mine cooling system.

1. Establish the expected heat load for the entire mine and for each identifiable district, level or
zone in the mine. The techniques for doing this are discussed in Chapters 15 and 16.

2. Again, for the whole mine and each individual area, determine the airflows required to deal with
dust and polluting gases, taking into account air velocity limits (Section 9.3). Ventilation network
analyses should be conducted in order to establish airflow distribution and leakage patterns
(Chapter 7).

3. Determine the heat removal capacities of the airflows (Section 9.3.4). If this is greater than the
corresponding heat loads for individual sections of the mine, then the heat can be removed
entirely by ventilation and there is no need to consider a cooling system.

4. Conduct exercises to determine the feasibility of removing the excess heat by increased airflows
without exceeding velocity limits set by physiological, economic or legislative considerations

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(Section 9.3.6). If the additional airflows are unacceptable, then the need for air conditioning is
established and the design of the cooling system can proceed.

5. Determine the heat to be removed by cooling as the difference between the heat load and the
heat removal capacity of the air (Section 9.3.4). Preferably, a climatic simulation program should
be used in order to conduct a detailed analysis of the positions and duties of heat exchangers
and application of chilled service water (Chapter 16).

Interactive studies should also be conducted to optimize between ventilation and air conditioning
(Figures 9.1 and 16.4) (Anderson, 1986). These investigations will establish the required
distribution of air cooling devices. If this is limited to a few localized areas, then the feasibility of
employing spot or district coolers (Section 18.3.1) should be investigated. If, however, the heat
problem is more widespread, then the study should be widened to examine centralized
refrigeration plant.

6. Investigate the alternative locations of refrigerating plant (Section 18.3.5.1) and the feasibility of
employing energy recovery devices (Section 18.3.4).

7. By summing heat exchanger capacities and allowing for line losses, establish the duty of the
refrigeration plant.

8. Estimate evaporator and condenser temperatures on the basis of the desired temperature of the
cooled medium and the heat rejection facilities respectively.

9. Determine the required flowrates of chilled water and, hence, the sizes of pipelines (Section
18.3.3.1) and pumping duties.

10. Invite tenders from manufacturers of refrigeration plant and ancillary equipment, including
valves, pipelines, pumps, heat exchangers, instrumentation and controls.

11. Establish capital, installation and operating costs of the cooling system.

18.4. AIR HEATING

In the colder countries of the world, the temperature of intake air entering a mine may fall well below
0°C for a major part of the year. This can result in severe problems along intake routes, and
particularly in surface connecting downcast shafts, slopes or adits. First, a build-up of ice on shaft
walls and fittings can cause a significant increase in resistance to airflow. Furthermore, large pieces
of ice dislodged by shaft operations or melting can present a hazard to personnel working in or near
the shaft. Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing occurring on a daily or seasonal basis can result
in severe damage to concrete linings in shafts or other intake airways, particularly when there is a
seepage of ground water through the lining.

Secondly, sub-zero temperatures can have adverse effects on the operation and maintenance of
equipment. This may result in poor productivity as well as a reduction in safety.

Thirdly, personnel who are inadequately protected against a cold environment will suffer the
symptoms described in Section 17.6. Here again, this will lead to diminished levels of productivity and
a deterioration in safety standards.

Winter temperatures can fall below -40°C at the surfaces of mines in cold climates (Hall, 1988;
Moore, 1985). In these conditions, it becomes necessary to heat the intake air. This is the situation
that obtains at many Canadian mines (Hall, 1989).

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The methods of air heating suitable for mine applications may be listed as follows:

• utilization of waste heat produced from plant or processes on the mine surface
• heat recovery from warm return air
• direct heating
• indirect heating
• ice stopes
• geothermal or cycled storage heating.

Each of these techniques is examined in the following subsections. To choose the method most
applicable for any given facility, it is necessary to consider technical feasibility, reliability, flexibility and
economics. Because of the large airflows that are usually involved, the costs of heating may far
exceed those of producing the ventilation (Hall, 1985). In very cold climates, it is often the aim simply
to increase the intake air temperature to about 0°C and to allow autocompression, geothermal and
other sources of heat to produce more comfortable temperatures in the main working areas.

In order to minimize operating costs, air heating systems might be employed only during main
working shifts and when the surface temperature drops below a preset value. Furthermore, two or
more of the systems listed above may be combined to minimize energy demand or to provide
additional capacity for periods of abnormally low temperature.

There is, however, one situation in which air heating should be avoided or used with great caution.
This occurs when the mine workings are in permafrost. Allowing air temperatures to exceed 0°C may
cause partial melting of the permafrost and give rise to problems of ground control in the mine.
Indeed, at the Polaris Mine, 1400 km from the North Pole, refrigeration techniques have been
employed during the short summer in order to maintain the intake temperatures below the melting
point of permafrost (Van der Walt, 1984).

18.4.1. Utilization of waste heat

The first matter to investigate for any proposed air heating project is whether heat is available from
other plant or processes on the surface of the mine. Secondly, the costs and technical feasibility of
using that thermal energy to raise the temperature of intake air should be studied. Common sources
of waste heat are compressor stations, generators and mineral processing operations (de Ruiter,
1989). If the waste heat is in the form of hot water or steam, then it may be pumped directly through
insulated pipes to heat exchanger coils located within all, or part, of the intake airstream. Ice
accumulations on the heat exchanger can be avoided by using a single array of coils only.

In water systems, an automatic procedure should be incorporated in order to empty the coils and
associated pipework during a shut-down period or if the water temperature approaches freezing point.
A further safeguard against frost damage is to employ a glycol-water mixture. A 50 percent glycol
mixture lowers the freezing point to -40°C.

If the available heat source provides relatively low temperature thermal energy, then it may be
necessary to employ a heat pump (Section 18.2). Heat pumps may also allow the utilization of natural
heat sources such as a large lake or the ocean, provided that these remain unfrozen through the
winter months.

18.4.2. Heat recovery from exhaust air

This method may be considered if the downcast and upcast shafts are close to each other and there
is a significant difference between the intake and return air temperatures. Figure 18.26 shows that
during cold periods, the warm air returning from the mine is diverted through a direct contact spray
chamber, transferring useful heat to the descending water droplets. Water from the sump is pumped

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

through a heat exchanger located within the intake airstream. Again, it is advisable to employ a single
array of coils to minimize ice build-up, and to allow for automatic dumping of water from the heat
exchanger and pipework when the flow ceases.

cooled water
spray
chamber
intake heat
air exchanger

summer
external
heat
source

fan
winter
heat
sump exchanger

warmed water
warm air from downcast
upcast shaft shaft

Figure 18.26 Heat recovery from return air augmented from an external heat source.

The spray chamber may be replaced by a tube coil heat exchanger. However, this reduces the overall
heat transfer efficiency of the system and also introduces the dangers of ice accumulation and
corrosion of the tubes, particularly if the return air is humid.

Heat exchange from upcast to downcast airflows is seldom practicable by itself. However, it may be
employed in combination with an external source of heat as shown on Figure 18.26. If that source is
waste heat from other plant, then it may be kept in continuous operation. However, if the external
source of heat is gas, oil or electricity, then it may be used only during working shifts and when the
surface air temperature falls below a set value.

A more direct means of recovering some of the heat from warm return air is by controlled partial
recirculation (Hall, 1988, 1989). This technique gives one hundred percent efficiency of heat transfer
from return to intake for that fraction of the air which is recirculated. This is limited by the rate at which
gaseous and particulate pollutants are added to the mine air. The system should be capable of
reverting to normal through-flow ventilation should monitors indicate a trend towards unacceptable
concentrations of pollutants or following blasting operations. The volume of air that is recirculated
may be controlled automatically by the pollutant concentrations in the return air or set at a fixed

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

fraction of the return airflow. The recirculating cross-cut should be located as close to the surface
connection as practicable in order to take advantage of the pollutant dilution arising from air leakage.

If the level of contamination by airborne pollutants is sufficiently low to allow a reduction in the
through-flow of fresh air, then the costs of heating the intake air will also be reduced. However, any
proposed system of controlled partial recirculation must incorporate all of the safeguards and
precautions discussed in Section 4.5.

18.4.3. Direct heating

The employment of electrically heated elements to raise the temperature of mine air is limited by high
operating costs. It is practical only for very light duties or where electrical power is particularly cheap.

Natural gas, propane or other light hydrocarbon fuels may be injected through nozzles and burned in
flame jets within the intake airstream. As no intermediate heat exchangers are involved, this is the
most efficient way of using the fuel. The products of combustion, carbon dioxide and water vapour,
are added to the airstream in relatively small amounts. However, the gas nozzles should be well
maintained to prevent the formation of carbon monoxide through incomplete combustion. A prudent
precaution is to locate a gas monitor downstream from the jets with alarms and automatic fuel cut-off
at a predetermined concentration of carbon monoxide.

The rate of fuel consumption for any given heating duty may be calculated from the calorific value of
the fuel. At the temperatures to which the products of combustion are cooled in mine air, the majority
of water vapour will condense. Hence, it is the gross calorific value that should be used. Table 18.4
gives the gross calorific values of several gases. For natural gas and other mixtures, an approximate
value may be obtained by summing the calorific values of the constituents weighted according to
percentage composition.

Gas Gross calorific value

MJ/m3
carbon monoxide 11.8
hydrogen 11. 9
methane 37.1
ethylene 58.1
ethane 64.5
propylene 85.7
propane 93.9
butane 121. 8
natural gas 26 to 56
(depends upon composition)

Table 18.4. Gross calorific values of gases

based on a temperature and pressure of 15°C and 101.3 kPa respectively.
For petroleum fuel oils, gross calorific values vary from 42 to 47 MJ/kg.

Example
An airflow of 100 m3/s and density of 1.4 kg/m3 is to be heated from -20°C to 2°C by propane jets.

(a) Determine the rate of fuel consumption in m3 per hour.

(b) If the air is supplied at 21 percent oxygen and 0.03 percent carbon dioxide, determine the
corresponding concentrations downstream from the jets.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Solution
(a) Mass flow of air ma = Qρ
= 100 x 1.4 = 140 kg/s

Heat required, qa = ma x Cp x ∆t
= 140 x 1005 x (2 - (-20))
= 3.095 x 106 W
or 3.095 MW.

[To be precise, we should take the presence of water vapour into account. However, the effect is
very small at these low temperatures and may be neglected.]

The gross calorific value of propane is selected from Table 18.4 as 93.9 MJ/m3. Hence, heat
produced at the jets

MJ m 3
q p = 93.9 × propane flowrate or MW
m3 s

As qp = qa = 3.095 MW, the required propane flowrate = 3.095/93.9 = 0.0330 m3/s

or 0.0330 x 3600 = 118.7 m3 per hour at standard temperature and pressure.

(b) The chemical balance for burning propane is

C3H8 + 502 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

1m3 propane + 5m3 oxygen 3m3 carbon + 4m3 water

dioxide vapour

Therefore 0.0330 m3/s of propane will consume

5 x 0.0330 = 0.165 m3/s oxygen to produce

3 x 0.0330 = 0.099 m3/s carbon dioxide

At entry, the airflow includes

100 x 0.21 = 21 m3/s oxygen and 100 x 0.0003 = 0.03 m3/s carbon dioxide.

Downstream from the jets,

oxygen flowrate = 21 - 0.165 = 20.835 m3/s and

carbon dioxide flowrate = 0.03 + 0.099 = 0.129 m3/s

As the airflow is 100 m3/s these same values give close approximations to the concentrations of
the gases downstream from the jets.

18.4.4. Indirect heating

In order to prevent products of combustion from entering the mine ventilation system, fuels may be
used in a separate burner to heat a glycol-water mixture. This is then recirculated through an indirect
heat exchanger located within the intake air. Again, a single array of coils will minimize the risk of ice
accumulation on the tubes. This technique of indirect or offline heating inevitably gives a lower
thermal efficiency than open flame jets within the intake air. However, the flowrate of the glycol
mixture provides an added measure of control and flexibility.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

18.4.5. Ice stopes

Figure 18.27 illustrates a metal mining technique that allows air to be heated from sub-zero
temperatures to approaching 0°C at very low cost. Water is sprayed into the top of an abandoned
open stope. Cold air coming directly from the downcast shaft or slope enters near the top and
circulates through the stope, freezing the water droplets, before exiting at the other end.

spray level

sub 0°C air from

downcast shaft or
ramp
to mine

drainage level

Figure 18.27 Depiction of an ice stope.

The air is heated by three mechanisms:

(a) directly from the liquid water droplets,

(b) by latent heat of fusion (333.5 k/Jkg) as the water freezes, and

(c) by strata heat from the wall rock.

The ice particles fall and form an ice bed that gradually accumulates in the stope through the winter
months.

In summer, warm intake air may be cooled by circulating it through the same stope and melting the
ice. A drain level at the base of the stope carries water to a main sump. However, the air cooling may
be enhanced by circulating the liquid melt back through the sprays.

The ice stope technique has been used very successfully at the Stobie Mine of Inco Ltd. in Canada
(Stachulak, 1989). In this mine an airflow of 307 m3/s is heated in two ice stopes at a cost estimated
at about one-ninth that for equivalent gas heating. In that installation, water is supplied to the nozzles

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

at a pressure of between 550 and 760 kPa. Compressed air is added to the line shortly before the
nozzles. This provides a finely divided spray and prevents icing up of the jets. The compressed air is
also used to clear water from the pipes when the system is to be shut down.

The disadvantages of the ice stope technique are that it requires the availability of large open
excavations and also necessitates an increased pumping capacity for the mine drainage system.

Example
Water at 7°C is sprayed at a rate of 30 litres per second into an ice stope. Air enters the stope at -22 °C
and is required to be heated to -2 °C. Calculate the maximum air flowrate through the stope that can
attain this 20 C° increase in air temperature.

Solution
Mass flowrate of water, mw = 30 kg/s

Heat released by water in cooling from 7°C to 0°C

qw = mw Cw ∆tw

30 × 4187 × 7
= = 879 kW
1000

Heat of fusion released by ice formation (latent heat of fusion, Li = 333.5 kJ/kg)

qi = Li mw = 333.5 x 30 = 10 005 kW

Total heat transferred to air

qa = qw + qi = 879 + 10 005 = 10 884 kW

(This illustrates the dominant effect of the latent heat of ice formation.)

However, this is also equal to ma Cp ∆tair

10 884 × 1000
giving ma = = 541 kg/s
1005 × 20

If the air density were 1.3 kg/m3, this would give an air volume flowrate of 541/1.3 = 417 m3/s.

18.4.6. Geothermal and cycled storage heat

Another low cost method of controlling the temperature and humidity of intake air is to course it
through one or more sets of old workings or fragmented strata before admitting it to current work
areas. This takes advantage of a combination of natural geothermal energy and the "thermal
flywheel" effect of heat storage within the envelope of rock surrounding a mine opening (Section
15.2.2).

The flow of geothermal heat into a mine airway is greatest at the moment of excavation and reduces
with time until near equilibrium is attained when temperatures in the surrounding envelope of rock no
longer change significantly with respect to time (Figure 15.3). If, however, the inlet air is cycled
between hot and cold, then the surrounding rock will act as a storage heater, absorbing heat during
the hot periods and emitting it during the cold periods. This cyclic behaviour is superimposed upon
the longer term flux of geothermal heat.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Let us assume a situation in which the virgin rock temperature (VRT) at a given level is higher than
the mean annual dry bulb temperature of air entering that level from the downcast shaft or slope. In
order to moderate the extremes of winter temperature, the air is passed through a set of old workings
that we may refer to as the control district. Figure 18.28 illustrates the seasonal variation of air
temperature at inlet and exit of a control district, and ignoring the shorter-term diurnal changes. The
moderating effect of the control district is shown clearly. The inlet peaks and troughs of summer and
winter temperatures are damped very considerably by the time the air reaches the exit.

summer peaks at inlet

winter troughs at inlet

Figure 18.28 Example of the variation in air temperature at the inlet and exit of a
climate control district

However, the figure also shows a longer term trend over which the average exit temperature falls until
a repeated cyclic variation is attained. If the winter temperatures of the air leaving the control district
are acceptable in this condition of dynamic equilibrium, then that district can be used indefinitely to
moderate the extremes of seasonal variations. If, however, after a few years the winter exit
temperatures fall below tolerable levels, then the intake air should be diverted through a younger
control district.

Control districts that are no longer effective may be allowed to regenerate by sealing them off. The
surrounding rock temperature will gradually tend towards the VRT. After a regeneration period which
may be several years, the panel can again be opened up as a control district. If several old districts
are available, then some of them may be used as control districts at any one time while others are
regenerating (Moore, 1985).

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

The actual form of Figure 18.28 for any given mine depends upon the extremes of surface climate,
the rate of airflow through the control district and the thermal properties of the surrounding strata.
Simulation programs (Chapter 16) are most helpful in predicting the cyclic behaviour of the air
temperatures (Moore, 1985; MVS, 1990). Manual methods of estimating the effects of varying inlet
temperatures on strata heat flow have also been developed (Hemp, 1982) .

Although the use of a control district can yield a useful degree of air conditioning, it does have some
disadvantages and limitations. First, the passage of air through old workings requires additional fan
energy. This can be minimized by arranging for the air to move fairly slowly along multiple flow paths,
requiring only a small applied pressure differential. Simulation tests coupled with site-specific
measurements allow the optimum layout to be determined.

Secondly, old workings are liable to changes in resistance due to strata closure and falls of roof.
Hence, in order to ensure continuity of ventilation, control districts should be capable of being
bypassed at short notice. Neither should they be relied upon as emergency escapeways.

Thirdly, the conditioning of intake airflow through old workings is untenable where there is a danger of
spontaneous combustion or significant emissions of strata gases.

In addition to moderating temperatures, control districts can also serve a useful purpose where
variations in intake humidity cause roof control problems. This can occur in deposits of salt or some
shales. The hygroscopic nature of these rocks results in absorption of water vapour and a loss of
mechanical strength (Robinson et al, 1981).

Where caving techniques in a metal mine have left a fragmented and permeable rock mass that
extends to the surface, then winter air may be heated and summer air cooled by drawing intake
ventilation through the broken rock. This technique can combine the phenomena of storage heating
and the latent heat of ice formation. One of the best known examples of this essentially free form of
air conditioning is at the Creighton Mine in the Sudbury Basin of Canada (Stachulak, 1989). Intake air
is drawn through a bed of broken rock that is approximately 244 m by 183 m in plan and 137 m high.
Precipitation and seepage results in ice formation during the winter and melting in the summer. The
air progresses through old drawpoints, slusher drifts and ore passes where it is regulated according
to its temperature. This technique results in intake air of near constant temperature reaching the
deeper current workings throughout the year.

References
Anderson, J. and Longson, I. (1986). The optimization of ventilation and refrigeration in British coal
mines. The Mining Engineer. Vol. 146, pp 115-120.

Arkle, K. et al (1985). Use of thermal insulation materials in mines. Jnl. Mine Ventilation Soc. of S.
Africa. Vol. 38, No.4, April, pp 43-45.

ASHRAE (1988). Handbook on Equipment. Ch. 20. Cooling towers. American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers.

Baker-Duly, C. et al (1988). Design of a large flexible underground refrigeration installation. 4th Int.
Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 443-449.

Bluhm, S.J. (1980). Predicting performance of spray chambers for cooling air. Heating, Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning, S. Africa, pp 27-39.

Bluhm, S.J. (1981). Performance of direct contact heat exchangers. Jnl. Mine Ventilation Society of
S. Africa. Vol. 34, Aug. and Sept., Nos. 8 and 9.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Bluhm, S.J. (1983). Spot cooling of air in direct contact heat exchangers. Report of Environmental
Engineering Lab. Chamber of Mines Research organization, South Africa.

Burrows, J. (1982). Refrigeration - theory and operation. Environmental engineering in S. African

mines. Chapter 23. Published by Cape and Transvaal Printers (Pty), Cape Town.

deRuiter, H. et al (1989). Geothermal heat recovery at Lac Minerals Ltd., Macassa Division. 91st
CIMM Annual General Meeting. May, Quebec, Canada.

Gebler, W.F. et al (1988). The design and evaluation of a large direct-contact ice-air cooler for Vaal
Reefs Gold Mine. 4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 425-432.

Hall A.E. (1985). The use of controlled recirculation ventilation to conserve energy. 2nd U.S. Mine
Ventilation Symposium, Reno, Nevada, pp. 207-215.

Hall, A.E. et al (1988). The use of controlled recirculation to reduce heating costs in Canada.
4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 301-307.

Hall, A.E. et al (1989). Controlled recirculation investigation at Central Canada Potash Division of
Noranda Minerals, Inc. 4th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, Berkeley, CA, pp 226-233.

Hancock, W. (1926). Local air-conditioning underground by means of refrigeration. Trans. Inst.

Mining Engrs., Vol. 72, pp 342-366.

Heller, K. et al (1982). Development of a high performance, low maintenance, in-line water spray
cooler for mines. 1st US Mine Ventilation Symposium, Tuscaloosa, AL.

Hemp, R. (1967). The performance of a spray-filled counterflow cooling tower, Jnl. Mine Ventilation
Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 25, pp 159-173.

Hemp, R. (1972). Contribution to the design of underground cooling towers by A. Whillier. Jnl. Mine
Ventilation Society of S. Africa, Vol. 25, No.6, June, pp 85-93.

Hemp, R. (1982). Environmental engineering in South African mines, Chapter 22. Sources of heat in
mines, pp 569-612. Published by Cape and Transvaal Printers (Pty), Cape Town.

Hemp, R. (1988). A 29 MW ice system for mine cooling. 4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane,
Australia, pp 415-423.

McAdams, W.H. (1954). Heat transmission. McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd. ed.

Moore, D.T. (1985). Geothermal air heating in a southwestern Wyoming trona mine. 2nd U.S. Mine
Ventilation Symposium, Reno, Nevada, pp 561-570.

Mücke, G. and Uhlig, H. (1984). Performance of finned coil and water spray coolers. 3rd Int. Mine
Ventilation Congress, Harrogate, England, pp 231-237.

MVS (1990). Investigation of geothermal air heating for General Chemical's Green River soda ash
operations. Mine Ventilation Services, Inc. Report to General Chemical Corp., May, pp 1-33.

Ramsden, R. and Bluhm, S.J. (1984). Air cooling equipment used in South African gold mines.
3rd Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Harrogate, England, pp 243-251.

Ramsden, R. and Bluhm, S. (1985). Energy recovery turbines for use with underground air coolers.
2nd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, Reno, Nevada, pp 571-580.

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Chapter 18 Refrigeration Plant and Mine Air Conditioning Systems Malcolm J. McPherson

Ramsden, R. (1985). Insulation used on chilled water pipes in South African gold mines. Jnl. Mine
Ventilation Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 38, No.5, May, pp 49-54.

Reuther, E.U. et al (1988). Optimization of spray coolers for cooling deep coal mines.
4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, pp 451-458.

Robinson, G., Weller, R.C and McPherson, M.J. (1981). Underground environmental planning at
Boulby Mine, Cleveland Potash Ltd. Trans. Inst. of Mining and Metallurgy (U.K.), July. Reprinted in
the Jnl. of S. African Mine Ventilation Soc., Vol. 35, No.9, Sept. 1982, pp 73-88.

Rose, H. (1989). Personality Profile. Jnl. Mine Ventilation Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 42, No.6, June, pp
110-113.

Sheer, T.J. et al (1984). Research into the use of ice for cooling deep mines. 3rd Int. Mine Ventilation
Congress, Harrogate, U.K., pp 277-282.

Shone, R.D.C. and Sheer, T.J. (1988). An overview of research into the use of ice for cooling deep
mines. 4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 407-413.

Stachulak, J. (1989). Ventilation Strategy and Unique Air Conditioning at Inco Limited. 4th U.S. Mine
Ventilation Symposium, Berkeley, CA, pp 3-9.

Stroh, R.M. (1980). Refrigeration practice on Anglo American gold mines. Mine Ventilation Soc. of S.
Africa Symposium on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. Published by Cape and Transvaal Printers
(Pty), Cape Town.

Stroh, R.M. (1982). Refrigeration practice, Chapter 24, and Chilled water reticulation, Chapter 25.
Environmental engineering in S. African mines. Published by Cape and Transvaal Printers (Pty),
Cape Town.

Thimons, E.D. et al (1980). Water spray vent. tube cooler for hot stopes. US Bureau of Mines Tech.
Progress Report TPR 107.

Van der Walt, J. (1984). Cooling the world's coldest mine. Jnl. S. African Mine Ventilation Society.
Vol. 37, No. 12, Dec., pp 138-141.

Van Vuuren, S.P.J. (1975). The optimization of pipe sizes in a refrigeration system. Jnl. Mine
Ventilation Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 86-90.

Weuthen, P. (1975). Air coolers in mines with moist and warm climatic conditions. 1st Int. Mine
Ventilation Congress, Johannesburg, S. Africa, pp 299-303.

Whillier, A. (1967). Pump efficiency determination from temperature measurements. South African
Mechanical Engineer, Oct., pp 153-160.

Whillier, A. (1977). Predicting the performance of forced draught cooling towers. Jnl. Mine Ventilation
Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. 30, No. 1, Jan., pp 2-25.

Whillier, A. (1982). Heat transfer: Environmental engineering in S. African mines, Chapter 19.
Published by Cape and Transvaal Printers (Pty), Cape Town.

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Part 5

Dust
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

CHAPTER 19. THE HAZARDOUS NATURE OF DUSTS

19.1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................1

19.2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF DUST ....................................................................2
19.2.1. Size of aerosol particles................................................................................................... 2
19.2.2. Physiological effects of dusts........................................................................................... 3
19.3. DUST IN THE HUMAN BODY .....................................................................4
19.3.1. The respiratory system .................................................................................................... 4
19.3.2. Mechanisms of dust deposition in the respiratory system ............................................... 6
19.3.2.1. Impaction................................................................................................................... 6
19.3.2.2. Sedimentation ........................................................................................................... 6
19.3.2.3. Diffusion .................................................................................................................... 6
19.3.2.4. Interception................................................................................................................ 6
19.3.2.5. Electrostatic precipitation .......................................................................................... 7
19.3.3. Dust diseases .................................................................................................................. 7
19.3.3.1. Fibrogenic effects ...................................................................................................... 7
19.3.3.2. Coal workers' pneumoconiosis (black lung).............................................................. 7
19.3.3.3. Silicosis ..................................................................................................................... 7
19.3.3.4. Asbestosis ................................................................................................................. 8
19.3.3.5. Precautions against dust diseases............................................................................ 8
19.3.4. Threshold limit values ...................................................................................................... 9
19.4. THE ASSESSMENT OF AIRBORNE DUST CONCENTRATIONS ...........10
19.4.1. Background.................................................................................................................... 10
19.4.2. Particle count methods .................................................................................................. 11
19.4.3. Gravimetric methods...................................................................................................... 12
19.4.4. Photometric (light-scattering) methods .......................................................................... 13
19.4.5. Personal samplers ......................................................................................................... 15
19.4.6. Other methods of airborne dust measurement.............................................................. 16
19.4.7. Discrimination of quartz particles................................................................................... 16
19.4.8. Sampling strategy .......................................................................................................... 16
References ........................................................................................................18

19.1. INTRODUCTION

The natural atmosphere that we breathe contains not only gaseous constituents but also large
numbers of liquid and solid particles. These are known by the generic name aerosols. They arise
from a combination of natural and industrial sources including condensation, smokes, volcanic
activity, soils and sands, and microflora. Most of the particles are small enough to be invisible to
the naked eye. Dust is the term we use in reference to the solid particles. The physiologies of air-
breathing creatures have evolved to be able to deal efficiently with most of the aerosols that occur
naturally. However, within closed industrial environments, concentrations of airborne particulates
may reach levels that exceed the ability of the human respiratory system to expel them in a timely
manner. In particular, mineral dusts are formed whenever rock is broken by impact, abrasion,
crushing, cutting, grinding or explosives. The fragments that are formed are usually irregular in
shape. The large total surface area of dust particles may render them more active physically,
chemically and biologically than the parent material. This has an important bearing on the ability
of certain dusts to produce lung diseases.

Respiratory problems caused by dust are among the oldest of industrial ailments. The first
legislation for mine dust appears to have been formulated in 1912 when the Union of South Africa

19 - 1
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

introduced laws governing working conditions in the gold mines of the Witwatersrand. Other
countries introduced similar legislation in the 1920's and '30's. However, those laws were
concerned primarily with silicosis and required proof of employment in siliceous rock mining
(Carver, 1975). The early legislation reflected medical opinion of the time, namely, that hardrock
dust caused silicosis which led to tuberculosis and eventual death. At that time coal dust was not
regarded as particularly harmful. However, the number of recognized cases of coal workers'
pneumoconiosis (CWP) increased dramatically through the 1930's. The British Medical Research
Council initiated an investigation into respirable disease within the anthracite workers of South
Wales. In 1936, the need for protective legislation in the United States was acknowledged by a
National Silicosis Conference. Both in Europe and the United States the hazards of coal dust
were identified first in anthracite mines but by 1950 it was confirmed that workers in bituminous
coal mines were also subject to coal workers' pneumoconiosis (known, also, in America as black
lung).

It took many years for a quantitative and definitive link to be established between the "dustiness"
of mine atmospheres and respiratory disfunction. In retrospect, there were three reasons for this.
First, it may take several years of exposure before the victim becomes aware of breathing
impairment. Secondly, the lung reactions to dust are often similar to those of naturally occurring
ailments and, thirdly, the commonly used measure of dust concentration was the number of
particles in a unit volume of air. Correlations between dust concentration measured in this way
and the incidence of pneumoconiosis were not clear.

A turning point occurred in 1959 at the International Pneumoconiosis Conference held in

Johannesburg, South Africa (Orenstein, 1959). Recommendations were made at that conference
which resulted in a re-direction of pneumoconiosis studies, particularly with regard to the methods
and strategies of dust sampling. It was recognized that those particles of equivalent diameter less
-6
than 5 x 10 m (5 microns) were the ones most likely to be retained within the lungs. These were
named respirable dust. It was further established that the mass concentration of respirable dust in
any given atmosphere was a much better measure of the potential health hazard than the earlier
particle count methods. Instruments began to be developed that mimicked the dust retention
selectivity of the human lung and, furthermore, could be used continuously to give the integrated
effect over an 8 hour period.

In this chapter we shall concentrate on the effects of mineralogical dusts on the human
respiratory system and the techniques that are now employed for the sampling and measurement
of airborne dust.

19.2. CLASSIFICATIONS OF DUST

There are a number of ways to classify aerosol particles depending upon the purpose of any
given study. Two such classifications are particularly relevant to the subsurface environmental
engineer, first with regard to size distributions of the particulates and, secondly, in terms of
physiological effects.

19.2.1. Size of aerosol particles

Mine dusts vary widely in shape, dependent largely upon the prevalent mineral constituents. The
simplest method of quantifying the size of a non-spherical particle is the projected area or
equivalent geometric diameter. This is the diameter of a sphere that has the same projected area
as the actual particle. Other measures of equivalent diameter are defined in Chapter 20.

Typical size ranges of some common aerosols are given in Table 19.1. In general, the size
distribution within each range follows a lognormal curve. Particles do not become visible to the
naked eye until they are more than 10 microns equivalent diameter. It follows that the harmful

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

respirable dusts are invisible. Nevertheless, it must be assumed that heavy visible concentrations
of dust in a mine atmosphere are accompanied by high levels of respirable dust (Section 20.3.1.).
Another unfortunate aspect of the small sizes of respirable dusts is that they have a very low
settling velocity and, indeed, can remain suspended in air indefinitely.
Type of aerosol Size range in microns
(10-6 m)
Lower Upper
Respirable dust - 7
Coal and other rock dusts 0.1 100
Normal atmospheric dusts 0.001 20
Diesel particulates 0.05 1
Viruses 0.003 0.05
Bacteria 0.15 30
Tobacco smoke 0.01 1
Pollens causing allergies 18 60
Fog 5 50
Mist 50 100
Light drizzle 100 400
Table 19.1. Size ranges of common aerosols.

19.2.2. Physiological effects of dusts

A classification of dusts with respect to potential hazard to the health and safety of industrial
workers may be divided into five categories.
1. Toxic dusts. These can cause chemical reactions within the respiratory system or allow toxic
compounds to be absorbed into the bloodstream through the alveolar walls. They are poisonous
to body tissue or to specific organs. Some metalliferous ores fall into this category. The most
hazardous include compounds of arsenic, lead, uranium and other radioactive minerals, mercury,
cadmium, selenium, manganese, tungsten, silver and nickel (Walli, 1982).
2. Carcinogenic (cancer causing) dusts. The cell mutations that can be caused by alpha, beta and
gamma radiation from decay of the uranium series make radon daughters the most hazardous of
the carcinogenic particulates (Chapter 13). A combination of abrasion of lung tissue and surface
chemical action can result in tumour formation from asbestos fibres and, to a lesser extent,
freshly produced quartz particles. Exposure to arsenic dust can also cause cancers. Diesel
exhaust particulates are a causative factor in lung and other types of cancer.
3. Fibrogenic dusts The scouring action of many dusts causes microscopic scarring of lung
tissue. If continued over long periods this can produce a fibrous growth of tissue resulting in loss
of lung elasticity and a greatly reduced area for gas exchange. The silica (quartz, chert) and
some silicate (asbestos, mica, talc) dusts are the most hazardous of the fibrogenic dusts and may
also produce toxic and carcinogenic reactions. Welding fumes and some metalliferous ores
produce fibrogenic dusts. Long and excessive exposure to coal dusts also gives rise to fibrogenic
effects.
4. Explosive dusts. These are a concern of safety rather than health. Many organic materials,
including coals other than anthracite, become explosive when finely divided at high
concentrations in air. Sulphide ores and many metallic dusts are also explosive. Hazards
associated with the explosive nature of some dusts are discussed more fully in Chapter 21.
5. Nuisance dusts. Quite apart from adverse effects on the health of personnel, all dusts can be
irritating to the eyes (Gibson and Vincent, 1980), nose and throat and when in sufficiently high
concentration may cause reduced visibility. Some dusts have no well-defined effects on health
but remain in the category of a nuisance dust. These include the evaporites (halite, potash,
gypsum) and limestones. The soluble salts of halite (NaCl) and potash (KCl) can occasionally
cause skin irritations, particularly around hatbands or tightly fitting dust masks.

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 The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

19.3. DUST IN THE HUMAN BODY

The lungs are the organs where the oxygen necessary for metabolic activity is introduced into the
body. Through repetitive inhalations and exhalations air is brought into very close proximity to
flows of blood, the two being separated by a very thin membrane of about 0.5 microns in
thickness. Oxygen diffuses across the membrane from the air to the blood while carbon dioxide
diffuses in the other direction. The exchange is maintained by a difference in concentration
across the membrane for each of the two gases.

The respiratory system is equipped with defence mechanisms against gaseous or aerosol
pollutants that may exist in the inspired air. However, these mechanisms can be defeated by toxic
or carcinogenic agents. Furthermore, after years of exposure to unnaturally high concentrations
of dust, the defence system can simply become overloaded allowing the lungs to become much
less efficient as gas exchangers and, also, more susceptible to bronchial infections and
pulmonary illnesses.

In this Section, we shall outline the structure and normal operation of the human respiratory
system, the mechanisms of dust deposition within that system, and the processes that lead
towards those ailments known collectively as dust diseases.

19.3.1. The respiratory system

Figure 19.1 is a simplified

illustration of the human respiratory
nasopharynx system. Air enters through the
nostrils where it passes through a
mat filter of hairs in order to enter
the nasopharynx. This filter is the
larynx first line of defence and removes
the larger dust particles. Those
trachea remain trapped until they are blown
out or pass back through the
bronchi nasopharynx to be swallowed.
Within the larger volume of the
nasopharynx, the air velocity is
bronchioles reduced. In this zone and, indeed,
throughout all of the branched air
passages leading to the alveoli, the
walls are lined with ciliated and
mucous-secreting cells. The
hairlike cilia wave to and fro with a
directional bias that promotes
movement of the mucous towards
the throat where it can be
swallowed. Most dust particles
greater than 10 microns in size are
clusters of alveoli captured by the hair filter or
covered by blood mucous before inhaled air reaches
capillaries the larynx. Air that is breathed
through the mouth bypasses the
protection offered by the nostrils
Figure 19.1 Diagrammatic representation of the human and nasopharynx.
respiratory system.

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

The air then progresses through the trachea, a tube some 20 mm in diameter, 120 mm long and
comprised of a series of tough cartilage rings. This divides into the left and right bronchi
averaging about 12 mm in diameter and 48 mm long. There are, of course, considerable
variations in these dimensions between individuals. The air passages continue to subdivide
repeatedly into the bronchioles in a manner that is analogous to the roots of a tree. After sixteen
subdivisions the bronchiole diameter is about 0.6 mm. The total number of branched passages in
human lungs may be over 80 million.

Although the diameter of individual air passages decreases with branching, their greatly
increased number produces a significant rise in total cross sectional area available for flow.
Hence, the air velocity decreases to the extent that airflow is completely laminar in the smaller
bronchioles. All of these passages are coated with mucous which is continuously expelled
upwards towards the trachea by the motions of cilia. The mucous secretions and any captured
particulates are usually expelled by coughing or swallowing within one day. Mucous coatings
within the air passages are normally quite thin. However, bronchial ailments can cause an
increase in both the viscosity and thickness of mucous layers to the extent that they can restrict
air movement significantly. The higher air velocities through constricted passages can lead to
audible noise (wheezing).

The smallest bronchioles terminate in clusters of air sacs or alveoli some 0.2 to 0.6 mm in size.
The walls of the alveoli provide the 0.5 micron thick membrane, or epithelium, across which gas
exchange occurs. There are an estimated three to four hundred million alveoli in the average
2
human lungs with a total area of some 75 m available for gas exchange in a healthy adult.
Involuntary muscular movements of the diaphragm and ribcage induce rhythmic changes of
pressure differential between the alveoli and the external atmosphere giving rise to normal cycles
of inhalation and exhalation. Breathing rates vary from 12 to 40 inhalations per minute depending
upon the level of activity. Table 11.2 indicates corresponding gas exchange rates for oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

Few dust particles of sizes greater than 3 microns reach the alveoli. Numerous models have been
proposed to indicate the relationship between particle size and sites of deposition (e.g. Walli,
1982; Schröder, 1982; National Research Council, 1980). For very small captured particles,
clearance from the alveoli may be slow or non-existent. Particles of 0.2 micron diameter have a
25 percent probability of retention while, for 0.02 micron particles, the retention rate rises to about
55 percent.

Mucous producing cells within the alveoli lubricate the surfaces and facilitate their freedom to
dilate and contract. Removal of dust particles from the alveoli is undertaken by relatively large (10
to 50 micron) cells known as macrophages or phagocytes. These nomadic cells originate in some
white blood cells, are free to move over the alveolar walls and are capable of engulfing particles
up to 10 microns in diameter. A commonly accepted view is that the macrophages and any
encapsulated dust particles migrate out of an alveolar cluster into the bronchioles where they can
be expelled by ciliary motion. Another theory is that macrophages are transported from the alveoli
through fluid filled capillaries that lead to lymphoids at bronchiole junctions (Brundelet, 1965).

The average life expectancy of a macrophage is about one month. However, these scavenger
cells may die rapidly if they engulf toxic particles. The number of macrophages increases when
the lungs are subjected to increased entry of dust particles. However, there remains considerable
doubt about the relationship between respirable dust concentration and macrophage production.
It appears to depend upon the mineralogical composition of the particles. Furthermore, dust
loaded cells are cleared less rapidly than the normal turnover of dust-free cells (National
Research Council, 1980).

Soluble particles dissolve in mucous. The resulting ions are either removed in the mucous or
diffuse through the epithelium for elimination through the bloodstream.

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

19.3.2. Mechanisms of dust deposition in the respiratory system

Deposition of dust particles within the zones of the respiratory system varies with the size and
aerodynamic characteristics of the particles, the geometry of the air passages and the patterns of
airflow. The three most important mechanisms of deposition are impaction, sedimentation and
diffusion, while interception and electrostatic precipitation can become significant for particular
types of dust. These five modes of deposition are discussed in the following subsections.

19.3.2.1. Impaction
The density and, therefore, the momentum of dust particles are greater than that of a comparable
volume of air. At each bend of the tortuous paths followed by air as it pulses in and out of the
lungs, dust particles will tend to follow a straight line and impact into the mucous coated walls of
the air passages.

The effectiveness of deposition by impaction increases with the acuteness of the bend and the
velocity of the air. There appears to be considerable anatomical variation between individuals in
the tortuosity of the branching bronchioles. Velocities are greater in the upper air passages.
However, the latter also have a larger diameter and particles must travel further across the
streamlines before impact occurs. During exertion, breathing rates and, hence, air velocities
increase throughout the system. The subject takes air deeper into the lungs and, furthermore, the
resistance of the nostrils and hair filter will promote breathing through the mouth. For all of these
reasons, heavy physical labour will increase deposition by impaction in the respiratory system.

Constriction of air passages by thickening of the mucous layer, bronchial infections or lung
damage will also result in higher air velocities and, hence, increased deposition by impaction.

19.3.2.2. Sedimentation
This term refers to the gravitational settlement of particles and is effective at low air velocities for
dust particles greater than 0.5 microns. Smaller particles become subject to Brownian motion and
diffusion effects. Sedimentation assists in the deposition of larger particles in the nasopharynx
during the reversal points of the breathing cycle. More importantly, however, sedimentation is an
effective mechanism of deposition in the low velocity laminar flows within the finer bronchioles
and the alveoli.

Another factor is that the full capacity of the lungs is seldom used. During normal quiescent
breathing the tidal volume may utilize some 65 to 75 percent of lung capacity. Sedimentation of
dust particles will occur in the near stagnant air of the unused dead-space. A phase of heavy
breathing followed by a quiescent period will first draw dust particles into the deeper recesses of
the lung and then encourage deposition by sedimentation in the dead-space as breathing
becomes more shallow.

19.3.2.3. Diffusion
Submicron particles are subject to random displacement by bombardment from gas molecules
(Brownian motion). The effect increases as the size of the particles decreases and becomes
significant for particle diameters of less than 0.5 microns. Although Brownian motion occurs
throughout the respiratory system, it becomes an effective mode of dust deposition only when the
mean displacement becomes comparable with the size of the air passage. Hence, it is particularly
important in the alveoli and finer bronchioles.

19.3.2.4. Interception
Interception becomes significant for fibrous particles. A dust fibre is often defined as a particle
where the length to diameter ratio exceeds 3. Such particles tend to align themselves with the
direction of airflow and fibres 200 microns long can penetrate deeply into the lung. Nevertheless,
the ends of fibres are likely to contact the walls of air passages, particularly at bends and
bifurcations, and accumulations of fibres can occur at these locations. This is the mechanism of

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

interception. The effect is accentuated by curly fibres such as those of chrysotile asbestos while
the straight fibres of amphibole asbestos have a greater probability of penetrating to the alveoli.

19.3.2.5. Electrostatic precipitation

Within the working areas of a mine, newly produced particles of mineral dust may carry a
substantial electrostatic charge. The moving electromagnetic fields that surround such particles
can induce charges of opposite sign on the walls of air passages in the respiratory system. This
results in the electrostatic precipitation of particles on to the walls and capture by the film of
mucous.

19.3.3. Dust diseases

Pneumonoconiosis, now more usually shortened to pneumoconiosis, is a generic term for

damage to cardio-respiratory organs caused by the inhalation of dust. More specific names have
been given to illnesses caused by particular types of dust. Some of those are discussed in this
Section and are often known as the dust diseases.

While the toxic and carcinogenic properties of some dusts cause specific physiological reactions
(Section 19.2.2.), most dusts that occur in mines are not in themselves fatal. However, through
progressive incapacitance of the lungs, they render the victim more susceptible to respiratory
ailments such as colds or influenza as well as tuberculosis, chronic bronchitis and emphysema
which may result in hastened death. Chronic bronchitis is an inflammation of the linings of the
respiratory system and is accompanied by periodic or constant coughing. Emphysema involves
the rupture of inter-alveolar walls caused by excessive pressure within the alveoli. This is often a
result of constrictions in the bronchioles. The rupture frequently occurs during bouts of coughing.
Adjacent alveoli break through into each other. This leads to progressive abnormal
breathlessness, particularly on even light exertion. Respiratory difficulties may also cause
excessive strain on the heart with resultant cardiac complications

19.3.3.1. Fibrogenic effects

The fibrogenic dusts introduced in Section 19.2.2. promote the abnormal development of fibrous
tissue within the alveolar clusters. They may commence at discrete foci with fibrous tissue that
may then radiate outwards to form fibroblasts. These, in turn, can merge into nodules and
conglomerates. The permanent scarring and change in the alveolar structure can have severe
secondary effects. Gas exchange across the alveolar walls is inhibited and the loss of natural
elasticity can cause a significant reduction in tidal volume. Furthermore, the production of
macrophages is reduced allowing uncontrolled accumulations of dust particles to occur in the
alveoli. Large fibrous masses can also distort or damage blood vessels, causing functional
impairment of the heart (National Academy of Sciences, 1976).

19.3.3.2. Coal workers' pneumoconiosis (black lung)

Many dusts, including coal, produce a low biological response. However, over sufficiently long
periods of exposure a build-up of retained dust occurs in the form of soft plaques within the lung
tissue. These can be observed as small black spots on chest x-rays. Similar early diagnoses can
be made for other mineral dusts including ores of iron (siderosis), tin (stannosis) and aluminium
(aluminosis). In the case of coal, such indication of coal workers' pneumoconiosis may not be
revealed for some 10 to 15 years after initial employment in coal mines. Furthermore, the
subjects may not be aware of any incapacitance during that time. In more advanced cases, the
opacities grow in size and number until they coalesce. This is likely to be accompanied by fibrosis
and all of the consequences described in the previous subsection.

19.3.3.3. Silicosis
This is one of the most dangerous of the dust diseases and is caused by particles of free
crystalline silica (quartz, sandstones, flint) but not by the silicates in clays or fireclay. The hazard
is greatest from freshly produced dust in operations involving mining or comminution of silica

19 - 7
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

bearing rocks, or from sandblasting. It is suspected that the more severe cases of coal workers'
pneumoconiosis may be associated with quartz particles mixed with coal dust.

The early stages of the disease produce, again, local foci of dust accumulations that may be
observed on x-ray films. However, there appears to be a level of silica accumulation above which
progressive massive fibrosis occurs. A number of theories have been advanced to explain this
behaviour (Schröder, 1982). It is probable that the initial accumulations cause simple microscopic
abrasion from the hard cutting edges of the particles. The initiation of progressive fibrosis may be
the result of a toxic reaction to silicic acid or electro-chemical surface energy on newly cut and
charged particles. A further suggestion is that the breakdown of poisoned macrophages may
invoke an auto-immune reaction that produces fibrous antibody structures.

19.3.3.4. Asbestosis
Asbestos is an inorganic mineral fibre comprised mainly of silicate chains. The two common
forms of asbestos are chrysotile containing tough curly fibres, and amphibole with long, straight
and brittle fibres. Asbestos fibres are captured in the respiratory system primarily by interception
(Section 19.3.2.4.) and accumulations are most likely to occur at bends and bifurcations.
However, the aerodynamic characteristics of fibres are determined by their diameter rather than
length and long fibres may reach the alveoli.

Asbestosis is associated with fibrosis, but of a different type from that given by advanced cases of
silicosis or coal workers' pneumoconiosis. The initial plaques are more brittle and contain sharp
raised ridges that may become calcified. During further progression of the disease, fibrous bands
radiate throughout the lungs and cause a significant loss of elasticity. This reduces the tidal
volume and, together with the fibrotic loss of gas exchange area, leads to abnormal
breathlessness. The reduction in oxygen transfer causes blood pressure in the pulmonary artery
to rise putting the right ventricle of the heart under strain. Cardiac failure may follow.

Cancers of the bronchial system, lung tissue and abdominal organs have been linked with
excessive exposure to asbestos fibres. However, it is considered that it is not the silicate chains
themselves that cause these cancers but rather carcinogens that are adsorbed on the fibre
surfaces prior to inhalation.

19.3.3.5. Precautions against dust diseases

The problems of dust diseases have probably attracted more research funding than any other
environmental hazard in underground mining. Three distinct areas of research have been
undertaken in countries with major mining industries, namely·medical studies into the
development, treatment and diagnosis of dust diseases, the techniques of sampling and
measurement of airborne dust, and dust suppression and control in mines.

The primary precautions against dust diseases mirror those same three areas. Experience has
shown that although highly skilled interpretation of x-ray films is required, this remains the most
important tool in discovering the onset of a dust disease and in monitoring its progress. Personnel
who are required to work in atmospheres that contain any of the toxic, carcinogenic or fibrogenic
dusts should be given free access to chest x-ray examinations. An examination should be given
before the commencement of employment in order to identify any existing condition. Further
chest x-rays are recommended at intervals of not more than two years. Workers should be
assured that early identification of coal workers' pneumoconiosis or silicosis does not necessarily
imply physical impairment nor loss of employment but should be regarded as an indication that
reassignment to work in less dusty conditions would be prudent. Legislation may guard against
significant reductions in financial remuneration.

The second group of precautions concerns organized and routine procedures of dust sampling,
preferably by means of instruments that measure mass concentration of respirable dust. This
area is discussed further in Section 19.4. and is intended to test compliance with set threshold
limit values. In most countries the latter are mandatory values enforced by law.

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

The most effective means of protecting mine personnel against dust diseases is control of the
dust. This involves minimizing the production of dust, suppressing it at the source, removing
airborne dust and separating workers from dusty areas. Great improvements have been made in
these areas since the 1950's. The subject is handled in greater detail in Chapter 20.

19.3.4. Threshold limit values

National experience of mining systems, geological conditions, legislation, litigation, labour

organizations, research and social consciousness in various countries has resulted in wider
variations in recommended or mandated threshold limit values for dusts than for other airborne
contaminants in mines. The threshold limit values given in Table 19.2 are based primarily on
recommendations of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
and are simply a guide to airborne concentrations that are currently thought to produce no
adverse effects from a daily working time exposure.

Aerosol TLV (TWA) mg/m3 unless Comments

otherwise stated*
Aluminium oxide 10
Arsenic 0.01 carcinogen
Asbestos 0.1 fibres/ml carcinogen,
for fibres longer than 5 microns
Borates
decahydrate 5
others 1
Calcium carbonate 10 marble, limestones
Calcium sulphate 10 gypsum
Carbon black 3.5 carcinogen
Coal 2 respirable (<5% quartz)
10/(% quartz) for >5% quartz)
Fibrous glass 10
Fluorides 2.5
Graphite (natural) 2 respirable fraction
Iron oxide fumes 5.0 (>1% quartz)
Kaolin 2 respirable, no asbestos, <1% silica
Magnesite (magnesium oxide) 10 (total), 5(respirable)
Mica 3 respirable fraction
"Nuisance" dusts 10 non-hazardous materials
Oil mist
mineral 5 excluding vapour
vegetable 10
Perlite 10 (total), 3 (respirable)
Portland cement 10(total), 5 (respirable)
Radon daughters 4 WLM/year see Section 13.3.3
Quartz 0.05 respirable fraction
Silicon Carbide 10 respirable, no asbestos, <1%silica
Soapstone 3 respirable fraction
Talc 2 respirable fraction
Welding fumes 5
Table 19.2. Guideline threshold limit values for selected aerosols given in milligrams per cubic
metre of air (based primarily on recommendations of the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists). Considerable variations occur in the laws of
other countries.
See Section 11.2.1. for definitions of Threshold Limit Value and Time Weighted Average.

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

The comments made in Section 11.2.1. on threshold limit values for gases apply equally well
here. In particular, subsurface ventilation engineers must become familiar with limiting
concentrations mandated by their own national or state laws.

There is a further reservation that applies to the use of threshold limit values for dust
concentrations. Despite the move from particle count to gravimetric methods of measurement,
there remain considerable variations in the results given by differing instruments (e.g. Phillips,
1984). These arise from differences in the design of instruments, the particle size distribution
curves they are intended to follow and the efficiency of dust capture. Even a single instrument
can indicate a different result if the rate of sample airflow through the device is altered. For these
reasons, individual countries or mining industries have tended to "adopt" a particular instrument
as a standard and to employ empirical conversion factors in order to compare data obtained by
other devices (Rogers, 1991). It follows that while such variations in instrument performance
exist, the application of dust threshold limit values for purposes of legislation or enforcement
should be referred to a particular instrument used according to a specified procedure.

Another factor should be borne in mind when comparing threshold limit values imposed by
differing legislative authorities. Laws governing dust concentrations usually specify not only the
limiting concentrations of respirable dust but also the sampling locations. Hence, a measurement
required to be taken in a return airway should not be compared to one that is obtained at the
position of a machine operator.

For coal mines, legislation may require reduced threshold limit values in certain areas. For
3 3
example, the 2 mg/m TLV for respirable dust in American coal mines is reduced to 1 mg/m for
intake airways within 61 m (200 ft) of a working face. Further restrictions are applied when quartz
particles are present in the coal dust. One method is to reduce the TLV to 10 divided by the
quartz percentage when the quartz content in the dust exceeds 5 percent. This is based on a
quartz TLV of 0.1 mg/m3.

19.4. THE ASSESSMENT OF AIRBORNE DUST CONCENTRATIONS

19.4.1. Background

The accurate assessment of dust concentrations in relation to the health of personnel in mines is
beset with difficulties. First, the fact that physiological consequences develop very slowly is
compounded by dust concentrations varying across wide limits with respect to both time and
place in a mine. Readings of dust concentrations measured over a short time interval have very
little relevance to the long term health of the workforce. It was this difficulty that masked
correlations between most particle count data and incidence of pneumoconiosis until the 1959
Johannesburg Conference. Secondly, as indicated in the previous Section, it is not only the
concentration of particles that matters but also their size distribution and mineralogical
composition. It is not surprising, therefore, that even modern instruments may vary quite
significantly in the quality and type of data they produce.

In choosing dust instrumentation it is important to define the primary purpose of the intended
measurements. These may be part of long term investigations with the aim of establishing
environmental standards. Other research surveys may be aimed at the spatial and temporal
variations of dust concentration to which specific groups of personnel are exposed, or to
investigate the effects on airborne dust of particular mining equipment or dust suppression
techniques. Routine measurements in a mine are made to protect the health of the workforce and
to check or ensure compliance with mandatory standards.

The earliest attempts to measure airborne dust quantitatively are reported to have occurred in the
eighteenth century using observations of dust deposition on a polished surface (Walli, 1982).

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The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

However, the major developments in this field have taken place since the introduction of the
konimeter, a hand held jet-impact device invented by Kotz, a South African government mining
engineer, in 1916. Modern versions of the konimeter remain in use in that country although its
remaining life must be very limited.

Since the Johannesburg Conference of 1959, the vast majority of new instruments measure the
mass concentration of respirable dust (<5 microns). Most of these instruments pass the dust in a
continuous air sample through combinations of elutriators (settling chambers), cyclones, or jet-
impactors and filters. Furthermore, in order to meet the need for longer term readings, most
gravimetric instruments have been designed to operate over several hours. Such data are
necessary from the viewpoint of health protection but mitigate against rapid readout, continuous
monitoring and short term control. Alternative methods of dust assessment combined with
modern electronic integrating circuitry allow short term and long term data collection to proceed
simultaneously. Many such instruments have utilized the principle of light beam scattering by dust
particles (the Tyndall effect).

A recognition of the differing objectives of health protection and more immediate concerns such
as dust explosibility, visibility and nuisance effects have led to two distinct applications of dust
monitors. First, lightweight personal samplers are increasingly being worn by underground
workers. These give a record of the respirable dust concentrations to which the person has been
exposed, on a shift by shift basis. Secondly, heavier and more sophisticated instruments may be
set up to measure dust concentrations either for several hours or, on a more permanent basis, to
allow continuous monitoring for local indication and recording or transmission to a central control
station.

Modern trends in dust instrumentation are toward:

• an increase in the use of personal samplers,

• cascade devices or other means of selection to indicate mass concentrations in each of a
number of particle size ranges,
• an immediate indication of mineral content (particularly quartz) in addition to mass
concentration and
• an increase in light scattering methods for continuous monitoring.

In the following subsections, we shall introduce the main principles employed in instruments for
the assessment of airborne dust. However, because of the rapid evolution and number of new
devices, we shall not attempt detailed descriptions of individual monitors. For these, the reader is
referred to trade journals and manufacturers' literature.

19.4.2. Particle count methods

Although particle count methods were used for many years and models were produced in a
number of countries, they are now nearing obsolescence for use in mines. There were essentially
two families of particle count instruments. One of these relied on the impact principle in which a
short-lived but high velocity pulse of air was induced through a jet and directed at a receiving
surface of treated glass, film or liquid. The most enduring of this type of instrument is the
konimeter (Section 19.4.1.).

The second type of particle count instruments was the thermal precipitator. Molecular
bombardment from a heated wire diverted dust particles from a moving sample stream on to an
adjacent glass slide (Section 20.2.4.). The slides, films or liquids produced by particle count
instruments were subjected to microscope analysis for counting the number of particles in each
size range. For many years this was carried out manually and was somewhat subject to individual
bias. Latterly, it has been conducted by "light assessors" that really measure surface area
(Martinson, 1982). Computer controlled particle analyzers are now available that can perform
such a task much more rapidly and efficiently.

19 - 11
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

19.4.3. Gravimetric methods

Figure 19.2 illustrates the operation of one of the earlier and very successful gravimetric
samplers, the MRE, developed at the Mining Research Establishment of the then National Coal
Board in the United Kingdom (Dunmore et al, 1964). This instrument continues to be a standard
in several countries. Air passes through the instrument at a rate of 2.5 litres/min under the action
of a diaphragm pump. The air velocity between the parallel plates of the elutriator drops to the
extent that particles larger than 7 microns settle out. The remaining finer particles pass on to be
collected on a 5 micron membrane filter. The filter is weighed before and after a sampling period
which may, typically, be eight hours.

elutriator filter
paper

motor
flow
counter meter

pulsation
damper diaphragm
pump

Figure 19.2 Schematic of an MRE Gravimetric Dust Sampler

The specifications of the elutriator are such that it gives a particle removal characteristic which
resembles the BMRC curve on Figure 19.3. This curve was defined by the British Medical
Research Council as representing the penetration rates of respirable dust to the alveoli of the
human lungs. An alternative model adopted by the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists is illustrated for comparison on the same figure. The MRE instrument
achieved the rare distinction of being specified, by name, as a standard in American mine
legislation.

Many other gravimetric samplers have been produced since the 1960's. Some have replaced the
elutriator with a nylon or metal cyclone as illustrated on Figure 19.4. The small dimensions and
light weight of these cyclones make them particularly suitable for personal samplers.

Other types and sizes of filters are also employed. While the filter should be efficient in trapping
respirable dust, it should not restrict the airflow to the extent that it inhibits the required constant
airflow throughout the sampling period. Silver metal filters have been shown to be useful if the
sample is subsequently to be heated in order to determine combustible content or if x-ray

19 - 12
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

diffraction is used to measure the amount of quartz present (Knight and Cochrane, 1975). The
maximum period of sampling through any given filter is reduced because of premature blockage
in the presence of diesel fumes or mists of water or oil (Gardiner, 1988).

100

90

80
penetration (per cent)

70 BMRC

60

50

40

30 ACGIH

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Particle aerodynamic diameter (microns)

Figure 19.3 Lung penetration curves for respirable dust as defined by the
British Medical Research Council (BMRC) and the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenists (ACGIH).

19.4.4. Photometric (light-scattering) methods

It was the English physicist John Tyndall (1820-'93) who first explained the scattering of sunlight
by dust particles in the atmosphere. The blue component of white light is scattered most which
explains why the sky appears blue. The same effect is utilized in the photometric methods of
measuring dust concentration. The corresponding instrumental techniques have been developed,
particularly in Germany, although devices using the same principle are now also produced in the
United Kingdom and the United States of America.

The early Tyndalloscope split the beam from a white light source. Half proceeded through
polarizing filters to the eye- piece. The other half was diverted through a sample chamber where
light reflected by the dust particles was collected and directed to the eyepiece. The filters were
rotated until the two half beams that were visible simultaneously in the eyepiece appeared to
have the same intensity. The angle of filter rotation was employed as an indication of the dust
concentration. Modern Tyndallometers use photosensors to detect the deflected light and
produce an electrical output for visual display, recording or transmission. Preferred angles of
forward light scatter can be chosen to minimize the effects of particle shape or index of refraction.

19 - 13
 The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

There are two techniques of particle size

to pump discrimination used in these devices. Some
photometric dust instruments eliminate the non-
respirable particles by passing the sample
through a pre-classifier comprised of an elutriator
filter
or a cyclone. A number of cyclones in cascade
can be used to give several size ranges. The
other method of particle size discrimination is to
fine dust use a laser or monochromatic light source. The
choice of wavelength gives a means of
discriminating in favour of the desired size range
of particles. The angle between the light source
air and the photodetector is another method of
selecting a preferred size range (Breuer et al,
1973; Thaer, 1975).

Although photometric dust instruments really

respond to light reflected from particle surfaces,
using them for selected size ranges enables the
readings to be interpreted in terms of total
volume of those particles and, hence, mass
concentration (assuming constant density of the
particle material). Figure 19.5 illustrates an
instrument that combines a forward scattering
laser unit with an 8 hour filtration system. This
permits direct calibration of the light unit with
respect to mass concentration of respirable dust.

The major advantage of modern light scattering

instruments is that the addition of electronic
circuitry permits a combination of immediate
readout and integration over any chosen time
interval. Hence, they can be employed for both
coarse dust short term and long term sampling. Coupled with
cascade (sequential) interrogation of a sample
stream they can indicate, record and transmit
information for each of a series of particle size
Figure 19.4 Cyclone head of a personal dust filter. ranges (Breuer, 1975; Oberhalzer, 1987).

handle
exhaust

memory unit elutriator

monitor
detector laser diode
signal
battery
detector
light trap
pump
filter

Figure 19.5 Schematic of a SIMSLIN II dust sampler.

19 - 14
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

19.4.5. Personal samplers

Stationary gravimetric dust monitors provide a means of sampling over an extended time period
(typically an eight hour shift) and are useful for assessing average dust concentrations at
specified locations. However, they do not measure the actual dust inhaled by individual workers.
Neither are they capable of showing temporal variations of dust concentrations to which the
worker is subjected. For many years attempts were made to develop practical and wearable dust
monitors. Personal monitors should be unobstrusive to the worker and capable of giving reliable
indications of dust level either instantaneously or over short time intervals. Furthermore, they
should also be capable of recording full shift average dust concentrations for subsequent entry
into a data log for the individual worker.

Early versions of personal dust monitors included a small lightweight cyclone (Figure 19.4) that
was pinned to the lapel of the worker’s clothing. The unit was powered by a battery worn on the
belt. The position of the cyclone inlet could result in non-representative readings caused by dust
from clothing. The device was also incapable of giving short-term readings.

Figure 19.6. The NIOSH 2004 tapered-element oscillating microbalance personal dust sampler.
Reproduced from Volkwein, J.C. et al (2004). Performance of a new personal
respirable dust monitor for mine use. Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, Report of
Investigations 9663. NIOSH Publication No. 2004-151.

A determined multi-year effort funded by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
1
Health (NIOSH) produced a personal dust monitor that overcame many of the drawbacks of
earlier models (Volkwein et al (2004), Volkwein et al (2005)). The heart of this monitor is a
tapered-element oscillating microbalance. Air is drawn into the unit via an inlet located close to
the lens of the wearer’s caplamp, i.e. representative of the air being inhaled. A continuous sample
passes through a 48mm diameter tube alongside the caplamp cord down to the sampler which is
incorporated into a casing that also holds the caplamp battery (Figure 19.6).

1
Development work was conducted by Rupprecht and Patashnick Co., Inc of Albany, New York.

19 - 15
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

Within the sampler the air passes through a cyclone to separate out the respirable fraction of
dust. The latter passes along the hollow tapered element and through an exchangeable filter
which is located on the narrow end of the element. Electronic components are employed to
oscillate the element and filter at resonant frequency. As the mass of dust collected by the filter
increases, the resonant frequency decreases. From that change the monitor evaluates the mass
captured by the filter over a given time period. The readings given by a screen display on top of
the beltworn unit include the average respirable dust concentration since the start of the shift and
a running average over the past 15 or 30 minutes. Data from the sampler can be downloaded into
a personal computer after the end of a shift.

19.4.6. Other methods of airborne dust measurement

In addition to the principles of dust measuring units outlined in the preceding subsections, there
are several other types of devices that are available or under development. The impact principles
employed in some of the old particle count devices still have a role as classifiers to remove non-
respirable dust. This may further reduce the weight of personal samplers. A series of jet orifice
sizes can be used to simulate a lung penetration curve (National Research Council, 1980).

Another type of device utilizes a carbon-14 radioactive source to pass beta rays through a mass
of dust particles on a filter or impact collection plate. A detector measures the attenuation of the
beta rays. In use, the device is run for a predetermined time. The difference between the flux of
beta rays before and after sampling is processed by internal circuitry to indicate the mass of
particles collected (National Research Council, 1980). A similar device developed in Poland
employs strontium-90 as the radioactive source and measures reflected back-scatter of beta rays
from the surface of the sample (Krzystolik et al, 1985).

A technique that may find further application is to measure the change in resonant frequency of a
piezo-electric quartz crystal as a mass of sampled dust collects on it. Here again, such units
arranged in cascade with interstage cyclones or impactors can be used to indicate a number of
particle size ranges (Sem et al, 1977).

19.4.7. Discrimination of quartz particles

Mine dust is seldom composed of a single mineral. As quartz particles occur commonly and are
particularly dangerous (Section 19.3.3.3.), efforts have been directed at quantifying the quartz
content of dust samples. This is of concern not only in hardrock mines but also because of the
increased use of mechanized extraction and roof bolting in coal mines.

The employment of x-ray diffraction gives well defined peaks for quartz on the output spectrum.
This method has been used for a number of years as a means of mineralogical analysis of mine
dust (Knight and Cochrane, 1975; Bradley, 1975). A further development is to incorporate the
principle into dust monitoring equipment in order to display the quartz content concurrently with
respirable dust concentration.

19.4.8. Sampling strategy

Throughout the history of organized dust measurements in mines, investigators have been faced
with problems of large variations in the observed results. Furthermore, the significance of these
results has often been subject to debate and interpretation. The very real variations in the
concentration and mineralogical content of dusts that exist with respect to time and location in
any mine are compounded by the differing efficiencies with which alternative instruments simulate
the dust retention characteristics of the human lung. These difficulties have led to coining of the
phrase of sampling strategy which really means the "why, where, when and how" dust samples
are taken.

19 - 16
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

The "why", i.e. the objectives of dust sampling, were outlined in Section 19.4.1. It is, indeed,
important to have a clearly defined purpose for any given set of dust measurements, particularly
where the setting or checking of mandatory standards is involved. The objectives of a dust survey
will then usually influence the "where, when and how."

When checking compliance with threshold limit values, the locations of area measuring points are
normally dictated by law - for example at specific points in intake and return airways or with
respect to the positions of machine operators. Research into dust minimization techniques in
various countries has been greatly influenced by the wording of the relevant national law. For
example, spray fan or other air diversion techniques can produce significant reductions in dust
concentrations at the operator position of a continuous miner but may have little or no effect on
respirable dust counts in the return airway. If, on the other hand, the purpose of a measurement
is to check the dust production of a particular piece of equipment or operation, then the
instruments should be located at specified distances upwind and downwind from that equipment
or operation.

The times and durations of area sampling will, again, usually be specified by law, often at
intervals of two or three months at each mandatory sampling point. The samples may be required
to be submitted for analysis to specified laboratories operated or authorized by government
agencies. Furthermore, check samples may be taken by government inspectors.

For short term sampling, it is all too easy to introduce conscious or inadvertent bias into dust
measurements. The maximum dust make from a machine will be obtained when the equipment is
running at full load. However, the measured concentration of non- toxic dust should not
necessarily be interpreted as an epidemiological (health) hazard. It becomes so only if personnel
are working in or downstream from the dust make and are exposed to concentrations that exceed
the set standards on the basis of an 8 hour time weighted average.

The importance of adhering to agreed types of instruments and sampling procedures was
emphasized in Section 19.3.4., particularly when checking compliance with statutory
requirements. Indeed, the instruments and measurement procedures may be specified within the
regulations. A factor that is often overlooked is the effect of air velocity on the sampling ports of
the instrument. At the higher air velocities, dust particles can be diverted around the sampling
ports (Baskhar and Ramani, 1987). Isokinetic devices can be fitted to the instrumentation in order
to match the inlet port sampling velocity with that of the approaching airstream.

The variability of measured dust concentrations coupled with the intrinsic uncertainties of
instrumentation and sampling procedures should dictate that those measurements be subjected
to statistical analysis. In practice this is often relegated to a rejection of "unrepresentative or
suspect" samples and the straight averaging of the remainder (National Academy of Sciences,
1976; Martinson, 1982). Such a procedure is clearly open to bias and is not to be recommended.
Where any given sampling practice or location consistently yields a significant number of suspect
samples, then an investigation should be carried out in order to determine whether the
unexpected variations are, indeed, real and, if not, the weaknesses of the sampling technique.
Statistical examinations can be carried out to test whether the number of samples is sufficiently
large to be representative of the particular type of work, time or location. The data produced by
wider use of personal samplers, together with computer based records and statistical analyses,
facilitate such tasks.

This returns us to the utilization of personal samplers. The question of sampling strategy became
of particular importance with the advent of 8 hour gravimetric sampling units and the relationship
between the results given by these instruments and the earlier, short term, particle count units.
Personal samplers have revolutionized the philosophy of dust sampling strategy. Provided that a
correlation has been established between the results given by specified types of personal
sampler and corresponding levels of epidemiological hazard, then there appears to be little

19 - 17
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

reason why those types of personal sampler should not be used for both individual exposure
monitoring and compliance with appropriately worded regulations. This separates sampling for
health reasons from those measurements that may be taken for purposes of control or planning.

The question arises on how many underground personnel should be asked to wear personal
samplers. This would appear to depend upon the degree of perceived exposure to dust and the
type of mining. In heavily mechanized workings, there may be relatively few persons within the
more dusty areas. Furthermore, the mobility and differing occupations of some workers may
subject them to wide variations of dust exposure. In such circumstances, it would be in the
interests of those workers to wear personal samplers. The initiation of the practice should be
accompanied by suitable explanations of the benefits of the devices, how they should be treated,
and the manner in which the data will be used.

In labour intensive mines with much larger numbers of personnel, many of them engaged in
similar occupations, it may be unnecessary to ask all persons to wear personal samplers. A
minimum number that is deemed to be representative of each work group should be decided,
including the more mobile supervisory staff (Quilliam, 1975). The actual persons wearing the
samplers may be changed on a rota basis. However, after each shift the exposure record of each
individual should be updated according to the relevant representative value for that group and
location. Provided that the instruments are compatible, the data obtained can be used to compare
dust indices for differing occupations, locations and mines (van Sittert, 1988).

The modern approach is to combine full-shift personal samplers with both long and short term
dust monitoring that is incorporated into mine environmental electronic surveillance systems. The
data obtained from such means will help to safeguard the health of workers and be valuable in
the planning and design of future mining operations.

References

Baskhar, R. and Ramani, R.V. (1987). A comparison of the performance of impactors and
gravimetric dust samplers in mine airflow conditions. 3rd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, Penn
State, pp 502-508.

Bradley, A.A. (1975). The determination of the quartz content of gravimetric mass samples of
airborne dust by an x-ray technique. 1st Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Johannesburg, South
Africa, pp 455-458.

Breuer, H. (1975). TBF 50 and Tyndallometer TM digital - two instruments supplementing each
other for the occupational hygienic and technical assessment of dust conditions. 1st Int. Mine
Ventilation Congress, Johannesburg, South Africa, pp 445-452.

Breuer, H., Gebhart, J. and Robock, K. (1973). Photoelectric measuring apparatus for
determination of the fine dust concentration. Staub Reinhaltung der Luft (in English), Vol 33.

Brundelet, P.J. (1965). Experimental study of the dust-clearance mechanism of the lung. Acta
Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. Suppl. 175, pp 1-141.
st
Carver, J. (1975). Respirable dust regulations in the United Kingdom. 1 Int. Mine Ventilation
Congress, Johannesburg, South Africa, pp 399-405.

Dunmore, J.H., Hamilton, R.J. and Smith, D.S.G. (1964). An instrument for the sampling of
respirable dust for subsequent gravimetric assessment. Journ. Sc. Instruments, Vol. 41, pp 69-
672.

19 - 18
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

Gardiner, L.R. (1988). Personal gravimetric dust sampling for the South African gold mining
industry. 4th International Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 507-515.

Gibson, H. and Vincent, J.H. (1980). An investigation of "fly-dust" nuisance in mines. 2nd Int.
Mine Ventilation Congress, Reno, USA, pp 620-622.

Knight, G. and Cochrane, T.S. (1975). Gravimetric dust sampling with quartz analysis and its
use in metal and mineral mines. 1st Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Johannesburg, S. Africa, pp
407-414.

Krzystolik, P.A. et al (1985). Portable coal dust/stone dust analyzer. 2nd U.S. Mine Ventilation
Symposium, Reno, USA, pp 171-179.

Martinson, M.J. (1982). Sampling pathogenic airborne particulates. Chap. 14, Environmental
engineering in South African mines. Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa, pp 357-378.

National Academy of Sciences (1976). Mineral resources and the environment: Coal workers'
pneumoconiosis - medical considerations, some social implications. Washington, D.C.

National Research Council (1980). Measurement and control of respirable dust in mines. U.S.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., NMAB-363.

Oberhalzer, J.W. (1987). Assessment of colliery dust levels using a computerized dust
measuring system. 3rd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp. Penn State, pp 617-624.

Orenstein, A.J. (editor) (1959). Proc. of the International Pneumoconiosis Conference,

Johannesburg, South Africa. Published by Churchill, London, 1960, pp 632.

Phillips, H.R. (1984). New methods and standards for respirable dust monitoring in the New
South Wales coal industry. 3rd Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Harrogate, U.K., pp 203-208.

Quilliam, J.H. (1975). A review of dust sampling techniques in South African gold mines. 1st Int.
Mine Ventilation Congress, Johannesburg, S. Africa, pp 419-421.

Rogers, W.G. (1991). Silica; Crystalline quartz exposure standards... What is the most
appropriate standard to use? Journ. of the Mine Ventilation Society of South Africa, March, pp 38-
43.

Schröder, H.H.E. (1982). The properties and effects of dust. Chapter 12, Environmental
Engineering in South African Mines, Mine Ventilation Soc. of S. Africa, pp 313-336.

Sem, G.J., Tsurubayashi, K. and Homma, K. (1977). Performance of the piezo-electric

microbalance respirable aerosol monitor. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. Jour., Vol. 38, p 580.

Thaer, A. (1975). The Leitz Tyndallometer TM digital as applied to the determination of fine dust
concentration under the auspices of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Presented at the
Kungl Arbetarskyddsstyrelsen Seminar, Stockholm, April 23.

Van Sittert, J.M.O. (1988). An overview of the proposed guidelines to standardize the respirable
dust sampling strategy for risk determination in collieries. 4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress,
Brisbane, Australia, pp 527-531.

Volkwein, J.C. et al (2004). Performance of a new personal respirable dust monitor for mine use.
Pittsburgh Research Laboratory, Report of Investigations 9663. NIOSH Publication No. 2004-151.

19 - 19
The hazardous nature of dusts Malcolm J. McPherson

Volkwein, J.C. et al (2005). Implementing a new personal dust monitor as an engineering tool.
International Occupational Hygiene Association, 6th International Scientific Conference,
Pilanesberg, South Africa.

Walli, R.A. (1982). Mine dusts. Mine ventilation and air conditioning (ed. Hartman), Chap. 5, pp
84-130.

19 - 20
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

CHAPTER 20. THE AERODYNAMICS, SOURCES AND

CONTROL OF AIRBORNE DUST

20.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 2

20.2. THE AERODYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF DUST PARTICLES................................. 2
20.2.1. Gravitational settlement ................................................................................................................ 2
20.2.1.1. Stokes' Law and terminal velocities. ...................................................................................... 3
20.2.1.2. Slip flow .................................................................................................................................. 5
20.2.2 Brownian motion ............................................................................................................................ 9
20.2.2.1. Brownian displacements ........................................................................................................ 9
20.2.2.2. Brownian diffusivity .............................................................................................................. 10
20.2.3. Eddy diffusion ............................................................................................................................. 11
20.2.4. Other forms of dust transportation .............................................................................................. 12
20.2.5. Coagulation................................................................................................................................. 13
20.2.6. Impingement and re-entrainment................................................................................................ 15
20.2.7. Computer models of dust transport ............................................................................................ 16
20.3. THE PRODUCTION OF DUST IN UNDERGROUND OPENINGS ...................... 16
20.3.1. The comminution process........................................................................................................... 16
20.3.2. Mechanised mining ..................................................................................................................... 19
20.3.3. Supports...................................................................................................................................... 20
20.3.4. Blasting ....................................................................................................................................... 20
20.3.5. Loading operations ..................................................................................................................... 21
20.3.6. Transportation and crushing ....................................................................................................... 21
20.3.7. Workshops .................................................................................................................................. 22
20.3.8. Quartz dust in coal mines ........................................................................................................... 22
20.4. CONTROL OF DUST IN MINES.......................................................................... 23
20.4.1. Dust suppression ........................................................................................................................ 23
20.4.1.1. Pick face flushing and jet-assisted cutting ........................................................................... 23
20.4.1.2. Water infusion ...................................................................................................................... 24
20.4.1.3. Wetting agents, foams and roadway consolidation.............................................................. 25
20.4.2. Removal of dust from air............................................................................................................. 25
20.4.2.1. Water sprays ........................................................................................................................ 26
20.4.2.2. Wet scrubbers ...................................................................................................................... 30
20.4.2.3. Dry filters and separators ..................................................................................................... 33
20.4.2.4. Personal respirators ............................................................................................................. 37
20.4.3. Dilution and layout of the ventilation system .............................................................................. 37
20.4.4. Separation of personnel and dust............................................................................................... 38
References .................................................................................................................. 38

20 - 1
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

20.1. INTRODUCTION
The physical characteristics of aerosols have been subjected to intensive study for the free
surface atmosphere. This is an important area in meteorology and investigations of the behaviour
of contaminant plumes in the atmosphere. Somewhat less attention has been paid to the
aerodynamic characteristics of dust when the carrying airstream is confined within the boundaries
of ducts or tunnels.

The first main section in this chapter outlines the several phenomena that govern the manner in
which airborne dust is transported through the branches of a ventilation network and the
deposition of dust particles on the roof, floor and sides of mine airways.

A prerequisite to the successful control of airborne dust in a mine is an understanding of the

potential sources of the dust. These are discussed in the second main part of the chapter. While
some sources are obvious such as a power loader or tunneling machine, others are less so
including the crushing of immediate roof strata by modern powered roof supports. The final
section outlines the methods of dust control in mining operations. These include prevention of the
formation of dust, suppression and removal of dust particles from the air, isolating personnel from
concentrations of dust and the diluting effects of airflow. The latter was introduced in Section
9.3.3.

Readers who are interested only in the practical aspects of the topic are advised to
concentrate on Sections 20.3.2 to 20.4.1 and 20.4.2.2 to 20.4.4.

20.2. THE AERODYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF DUST PARTICLES

The very large size range of dust particles that exist in the ventilation system of an active mine
results in a variety of differing phenomena influencing the behaviour of the particles. The smallest
particles act almost as a gas and react to molecular forces while the larger particles are
influenced primarily by inertial and gravitational effects. In this section we shall consider the
influence of gravitational settlement, molecular diffusion, turbulent or eddy diffusion, coagulation,
impingement, re-entrainment and computer simulations.

20.2.1. Gravitational settlement

The rate at which a particle falls through air under the action of gravity depends not only upon the
size and density of the particle but also its shape. In Section 19.2.1., the concept of an equivalent
geometric diameter based on projected area was introduced. This is the diameter of a sphere that
has the same projected area as the actual particle.

The majority of analyses in this subject assume that each particle is a homogeneous sphere. In
the study of particle aerodynamics this has given rise to further alternative definitions of
equivalent diameter including:

• Stokes' diameter: the diameter of a sphere that has same density as the actual particle
and falls through air at the same rate

• aerodynamic diameter: the diameter of a sphere of density 1 g/cm that falls through air at
3

the same rate as the actual particle.

Despite these additional definitions, the geometric diameter remains the one that is most
commonly used in practice.

20 - 2
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

weight 20.2.1.1. Stokes' Law and terminal velocities.

drag When any body is suspended in a fluid, at
1
ρs π d 3 g 3π d µ u
least two forces act upon it (Figure 20.1).
One is the weight of the body within the
6 prevailing gravitational field. The volume of a
1
sphere of diameter d is π d 3 m3. If this has
6
a density of ρs (kg/m3 ) then its weight
becomes

upthrust 1
ρs π d 3 g N (20.1)
6
1 where g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
ρa π d3 g
6 However, the sphere displaces its own
volume of fluid and will experience an
opposing upthrust equal to the weight of
Figure 20.1 Forces on a particle falling in air. fluid displaced, i.e.

π d 3 g (ρ s − ρ a ) = 3 π d µ u
1
At equilibrium 1
6 ρa π d 3 g N (20.2)
6

where ρa = density of the fluid (kg/m3)

The net force causing downward movement is the combination of the two:

π d 3 g (ρ s − ρ a )
1
N (20.3)
6

If the particle is moving relative to the fluid then it will experience a further resistance or drag
because of viscous shear and conversion of some of its kinetic energy into turbulent eddies within
the fluid. A general expression for drag was given in Section 5.4.6.2. as

u2
Drag = C D Ab ρ a N (20.4)
2

where CD = coefficient of drag (dimensionless)

u = relative velocity between the particle and the fluid, m/s
and Ab = projected area (= πd 2/4), m2

Many investigators have investigated relationships between CD and Reynolds' Number, Re, for
fully submerged bodies (e.g. Prandtl 1923). In the case of spheres, the diameter is used as the
characteristic length in the calculation of Reynolds' Number. For the particular case of laminar
flow around a particle, Sir George G. Stokes (1819-1903), the Cambridge physicist, showed that

24
CD = (20.5)
Re

20 - 3
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

ρa u d
Now, as Re = where µa = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m2 ),
µa

24 µ a
CD =
ρa u d

Substituting for Ab and CD equation (20.4) gives

24 µ a π d 2 u2
Drag = ρa = 3 π µa d u N (20.6)
ρa u d 4 2

As the particle accelerates downwards, its velocity, u, increases until the drag equals the
downward force quantified in equation (20.3

π d 3 g (ρ s − ρ a ) = 3 π µ a d u
1
N (20.7)
6

At that point of dynamic equilibrium, the velocity of fall becomes constant and is renamed the
terminal velocity, ut. Equation (20.7) may now be rearranged as

d 2 g (ρ s − ρ a )
ut = m/s (20.8)
18 µ a

Equations (20.6 to 20.8) have all been referred to as Stokes' Law.

Stokes' Law applies with good accuracy to particles that are above the respirable range (5
microns). Smaller particles become sensitive to slippage and molecular forces. Stokes' Law is
based on the assumption of laminar flow. If the terminal velocity is sufficiently high to cause the
onset of a turbulent wake then the transfer of kinetic energy from the particle to the fluid (inertial
effects) can no longer be ignored. The upper limit of Stokes' Law occurs at a Reynolds Number,
Re, of about 0.1 which, for many mineral particles falling at their terminal velocity through air, is
equivalent to geometric diameters of approximately 20 microns.

For larger particles at their terminal velocity, ut , we may balance equations (20.3) and 20.4):

π d2
2
u
π d 3 g (ρ s − ρ a ) = C D
1
ρa t
6 4 2
giving
4 d g (ρs − ρa )
ut = m/s (20.9)
3 CD ρ a

For dust particles in air, ρs >> ρa and the term (ρs – ρa) is usually truncated to ρs. Flagan and
Seinfeld (1988) suggest the approximations for coefficients of drag, CD given in Table 20.1.

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Reynolds’ No., Re CD

< 0.1 24
(Stokes’ Law)
Re
0.1 < Re < 2 24  
Re 2 ln(2 Re)
3 9
1 + Re +
Re  16 160 
2 < Re < 500 24
Re
[
1 + 0.15 Re 0.687 ]
500 < Re < (2 x 105) 0.44

Table 20.1 Approximations for coefficients of drag for spherical particles (after Flagan
and Senfeld, 1988)

20.2.1.2. Slip flow

Stokes' Law applies to dust particles that are large in comparison to the mean free path of the
gas molecules. Hence, those particles see the gas as a continuum. As the particle size
approaches the mean free path of the gas molecules this no longer holds. Two effects are then
observable; first the jerky dislocations caused by molecular bombardment, known as Brownian
motion and discussed in Section 20.2.2., and secondly, the drag force reduces as the small
particle becomes more able to move or "slip" through intermolecular voids.

In order to quantify the very small distances now being considered, let us recall that the mean
free path of a gas molecule is defined as the average distance it moves between collisions with
other gas molecules. Although air is a mixture of gases, it is convenient to treat it as a single gas
of equivalent molecular weight 28.966 and gas constant 287.04 J/kgK.

From the kinetic theory of gases it can be shown that the mean free path, λ , is given by

µ
λ = 1
m (20.10)
0.499 P (8 / πRT )
2

where µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid (Ns/m2 )

P = pressure (N/m2 )
R = gas constant (J/kgK)
and T = absolute temperature (K)

For air at P = 100 kPa, T = 293 K (20 °C),

R = 287.04 J/kgK and µa = 17.9 x 10-6 Ns/m 2 (Section 2.3.3.),

17.9 × 10 −6
λ = 1
= 6.52 × 10 −8 m or 0.0652 microns.
0.499 × 10 5 {8 / (π 287.04 × 293 )}
2

When particle diameters fall below 5 microns, the effect of slippage becomes significant. In order
to extend the applicability of Stokes' Law, a correction factor, Cc, can be introduced to reduce the
calculated value of drag. Thus, for small particles equation (20.6) is corrected to

3 π µa d u
Drag = N (20.11).
Cc

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

A number of relationships between Cc and d have been suggested (e.g. Allen and Raabe, 1982),
based mainly on a series of classical experiments on liquid aerosols carried out by Millikan
between 1909 and 1923. Values of the slip correction factor for air at 25 °C and 101 kPa are
given in Table 20.2.

d (microns) 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0

Cc 22.7 5.06 2.91 1.337 1.168 1.034 1.017

Table 20.2. Slip correction factor for dust particles in air (after Flagan and Seinfeld, 1988).

9.56 × 10 −8
The equation C c = + 0.99 , with d expressed in metres, gives Cc within an accuracy
d 1.045
of 2 percent.

Incorporating the slip correction factor into Stokes' Law for terminal velocity, equation (20.8) gives
a relationship that can now be extended down to a particle size of 0.01 microns:

d 2 g (ρ s − ρ a )C c
ut = m/s (20.12)
18 µ a

Figure 20.2 gives a graphical representation of this equation for particles of varying diameter and
density falling through air of temperature 20°C. The curvature of the lines on this log-log plot is
due to the effects of slippage.

Example
Determine the terminal velocities and time taken for particles of geometric equivalent diameter
0.1, 1, 10 and 100 microns to fall a distance of 2m through air of density ρa = 1.1 kg/m3 and
dynamic viscosity, µa = 18 x 10-6 Ns/m2 . The density of the dust material is 2000 kg/m3 .

Solution
The terminal velocities for the 0.1, 1, and 10 micron particles can be estimated from the ρs = 2000
kg/m3 curve on Figure 20.2. For more precise values the slip corrected Stokes' equation (20.12)
gives
d 2 g (ρ s − ρ a )C c 9.81(2000 − 1.1) d 2 C c
ut = = = 6.052 × 10 7 d 2 C c
18 µ a 18 × 18 × 10 −6

Applying this relationship to each of the given particle diameters and reading corresponding
values of Cc from Table 20.2 (remembering to multiply microns by 10-6 to convert diameters to
metres) gives

d (microns) 0.1 1 10 100

Slip correction, Cc 2.91 1.168 1.017 1
ut (m/s)
calculated 1.761 x 10-6 7.069 x 10-5 6.155 x 10-3 0.605
-6 -5 -3
estimated from Figure 20.2 1.75 x 10 7.1 x 10 6.0 x 10 out of range

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 The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

1.0E-02

1.0E-03
and Brownian displacement m in each sec
terminal velocity m/s

1.0E-04

9000
1.0E-05 7000

5000 ρs = 800 kg/m3

4000
1200
3000
1600
1.0E-06
2000

2500

1.0E-07
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle geometric diameter microns
Figure 20.2 Slip corrected terminal velocities and Brownian displacements of dust particles
falling through still air of viscosity 17.9 x 10-6 Ns/m2 (20°C). Based on equations
(20.12) and (20.17 with barometric pressure of 100kPa and g = 9.81 m/s2.

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

These terminal velocities for the 0.1, 1.0 and 10 micron particles are acceptable as the diameters
fall into the range of applicability of the slip-corrected Stokes' equation. The 100 micron particle,
however, is well above the 20 micron limit for laminar flow and we must revert to the more
general equation (20.9). This requires a value of coefficient of drag, CD. Table 20.1 would allow
us to calculate CD if we knew the Reynolds' Number. Unfortunately, that depends upon the
terminal velocity which we are trying to find. The problem can be solved iteratively, starting from
the approximation ut = 0.605 m/s given by the Stokes' equation, (20.8).

ρa d ut 1.1 × 100 × 10 −6 × u t
Re = = = 6.111u t (20.13)
µa 18 × 10 −6
= 6.111× 0.605 = 3.7

Table 20.1 gives the appropriate expression for coefficient of drag as

CD =
24
Re
(
1 + 0.15 Re 0.687 )= 24
3 .7
(1 + 0.15 × 3.7 0.687 ) = 8.882 (20.14)

Equation (20.9) now gives an improved value of ut

4 d g (ρ s − ρ a ) 4 100 × 10 −6 × 9.81(2000 − 1.1)

ut = =
3 CD ρ a 3 1.1× C D
1.5417 1.5417
= = = 0.517 m/s (20.15)
CD 8.882

Equations (20.13, 20.14 and 20.15) can readily be entered into a programmable calculator or
spreadsheet software for iterative solution. The values of the variables over eight iterations are as
follows.
u (m/s) Re CD The procedure converges to ut = 0.463 m/s
0.605 3.70 8.88 The time taken for each of the particles to fall through
0.517 3.16 10.10 2 m can now be determined as t = 2/ut .
0.485 2.96 10.66
0.472 2.89 10.90 diameter ut (m/s) t
0.467 2.85 11.00 (microns)
0.465 2.84 11.05 0.1 1.761 x 10-6 315 hours
0.464 2.84 11.06 1.0 7.069 x 10-5 7.9 hours
0.463 10 6.155 x 10-3 5.41 minutes
100 0.463 4.32 seconds

It is clear from this example that little gravitational settlement of respirable dust (< 5 microns) can
be expected within the retention times of ventilated areas underground. Coupled with the effects
of Brownian motion, submicron particles can be considered to remain in permanent suspension.
Indeed, Figure 20.2 indicates that for the 0.1 micron particle Brownian displacement is the
dominant effect.

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

20.2.2 Brownian motion

For very small particles, the bombardment by fluid molecules is no longer balanced on all sides.
The result is that the particles undergo random and jerky displacements. This is known as
Brownian motion and can be seen under an optical microscope.

20.2.2.1. Brownian displacements

As Brownian movements are random, it is necessary to analyze their effect statistically on a
complete population of particles. If we consider a vertical plane in still air of uniform dust
concentration and with only Brownian motion causing horizontal movement of the particles, then
the average displacement of particles moving through the plane in one direction (+ x ) will be
equal to the average displacement of particles in the opposite direction (- x ). Hence, the net
displacement is zero - not a very useful result. However, if we square the displacements (positive
or negative) then the sum is always a positive number. We can then quantify Brownian motion in
terms of mean-square displacement, ( x )2

A relationship for mean-square displacement was first derived by Einstein in 19051 (see, also,
Seinfeld, 1986) and has been verified by numerous observers:

MR Cc
(x)2 = 2 T t m2 (20.16)
A 3π µ d

where M = molecular weight of gas

R = gas constant (J/kgK)
(note that MR = Ru = universal gas constant, 8314 J/K kg-mole, Section 3.3.1.)
A = Avagadro's constant (6022 x 1023 molecules in each kg-mole)
and t = time over which the displacement takes place (s)

Ru 8314 J
(The ratio = = 1.381 × 10 − 23 is known as Boltzmann's constant.)
A 6022 × 10 23 molecule K

For air at 20°C (T = 293 K), the viscosity is 17.9 x 10-6 Ns/m2. Equation (20.16) can then be
simplified to

(x )
2
=
2 × 1.381× 10 −23 × 293 C c t
3 π × 17.9 × 10 −6 d
or
Cc t
x = 6.925 × 10 −9 m (20.17)
d

Using the values of Cc given in Table 20.2 and Cc = 1 for d > 10 microns, equation (20.17) has
been superimposed on Figure 20.2 with t set at 1 second. This allows the Brownian displacement
to be compared with the terminal velocity curves. Inspection of the Figure indicates that at some
point, as particle diameter decreases, Brownian displacement becomes predominant. This occurs
within the range 0.2 to 0.6 microns, dependent upon the density of the material. At all lower
diameters gravitational settlement is effectively nullified.

1
Historical note: In 1905 Albert Einstein completed his doctoral thesis. It described his studies into the existence and behaviour of
atoms and molecules. He rapidly applied this work to explain the phenomenon of Brownian motion. Later that same year he
published his groundbreaking Theory of Special Relativity.

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 The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

20.2.2.2. Brownian diffusivity

A consequence of random Brownian displacements is that migration of particles will occur from
regions of higher to lower dust concentrations. We can describe the process as a form of diffusion
and obeying Fick's Law:

dc
N b = Db (20.18)
dx
where
Nb is the flux of particles through an area of 1 m2 in one second [particles/(m2 s)]
by Brownian diffusion
c is the concentration (particles/m3 )
x is distance (m) in the direction considered
and Db is a coefficient known as the Brownian diffusivity (m2/s).

Let us now attempt to find a relationship

that will allow us to quantify the Brownian
diffusivity. Consider the 1 metre cube shown
on Figure 20.3. It contains c particles, i.e. a
concentration of c particles/m3 . In time ∆t, a
net number of those particles, ∆c, will diffuse
across a 1 m2 plane by Brownian
dislocations and as a consequence of the
concentration gradient dc/dx.

Let us take the average Brownian

concentration dislocation, x, to be the distance through
which the particles move in time ∆t. Hence,
∆c = c particles in 1 m3 their average velocity in the x direction will
be x/∆t. Furthermore, the flux across the 1
m2 plane will be the number of particles
involved multiplied by their average velocity,
i.e.

x particles
x N b = ∆c (20.19)
∆t m2 s

Combining equations (20.18) and (20.19)

x dc
gives ∆c = Db
Figure 20.3 ∆c particles diffuse from a concentration of ∆t dx
c particles/m3 through an orthogonal area of
1 m2 and over a Brownian dislocation
distance of x metres.

Now, over the very small distance of a Brownian dislocation, x (= x ), we can state that ∆c = dc
and ∆t = dt, giving x dx = Db dt
Integrating both sides between corresponding boundary limits

x2
= Db t m2 (20.20)
2

As we chose the distance x to be the average Brownian dislocation, x , we can combine with
equation (20.16) to give

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

2M R T C c
( x ) 2 = 2 Db t = t m2 (20.21)
A 3π µ d
from which

M R T Cc
Db = m2/s (20.22)
A 3π µ d

Again, for air at 20 °C, inserting the values

MR/A = 1.381 x 10-23 J/(molecule K),
T = 293 K
and µ = 17.9 x 10-6 Ns/m2
gives
C
D b = 2.398 × 10 −17 c m2/s (20.23)
d

Note, also, from equation (20.20) that the mean dislocation is related to the Brownian coefficient
of diffusion

x = 2 Db t m (20.24)

20.2.3. Eddy diffusion

The previous two sections have considered the effects of gravity and molecular bombardment on
dust particles. In ventilated areas, a larger influence is exerted on dust particles by the turbulent
nature of the airflow. The transport of dust particles by eddies can also be described by a
diffusion equation
dc particles
Ne = ∈ (20.25)
dx m2 s
where
∈ = eddy diffusivity (m2/s)
2 2
and Ne = flux of particles through an area of 1 m in one second (particles/m s)
by eddy diffusion.

The total rate of diffusion by both Brownian action and eddies is given by combining equations
(20.18) and 20.25). Then
dc particles
N = N b + Ne = (Db + ∈) (20.26)
dx m2 s

[A glance back at equations (A15.2) and (A15.5) reveals the analogy with diffusion for both heat
and momentum.]

The flux of particles passing from the turbulent core of an airflow through the buffer boundary
layer to the laminar sublayer is of particular interest as these are particles that have a high
probability of being deposited on the solid surfaces. Gravitational settlement will, of course, add to
such deposition on floors or other upward facing surfaces. Eddy action can impart sufficient
inertia to a dust particle to carry it into the laminar sublayer. Within the sublayer there are no such
eddies. Hence only Brownian bombardment can superimpose further transverse forces. Ignoring
any effects of re-entrainment, Brownian dislocations at the surface and away from the surface will
be zero. Hence there will be a Brownian concentration gradient towards the surface. Coupled with
the initial transverse inertia, this will tend to produce deposition of particles that enter the laminar

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

sublayer. As may be expected, this phenomenon is influenced by the same factors that affect the
boundary layers of fluid flow through rough ducts, i.e. fluid density, viscosity and velocity
(Reynolds' Number) as well as the roughness of the surface.

The average size of eddies grows from zero at the edge of the laminar sublayer to a maximum
within the turbulent core and, hence, varies with distance, y, from the surface. In order to take the
other variables into account, a dimensionless distance, y* is defined as
u ρ
y∗= y (20.27)
2f µ

where y = actual distance from the surface (m)

u = average velocity of fluid (m/s)
f = coefficient of friction for the surface (dimensionless
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3 )
and µ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

Note that yuρ / µ has the form of a Reynolds' Number. (The group u/2f is sometimes referred to
as the friction velocity.) Values of eddy diffusivity are suggested in Table 20.3.

Dimensionless distance from Eddy diffusivity ∈ (m2/s)

surface
0 < y* < 5 (laminar sublayer) ρ 3
0.001 y∗
µ
5 < y* < 20 (buffer layer) ρ
0.012 [y ∗ − 1.6]2
µ
y* > 20 (turbulent core) ρ
0. 4 (y ∗ − 10 )
µ

Table 20.3. Expressions for eddy diffusivity, ∈ , as a function of dimensionless distance from a
surface, y* (after Owen, 1969).

In order to track the combined Brownian and eddy transverse transportation of dust particles
across an airway, it is necessary to carry out integrations of equation (20.26) across each of the
zones specified in Table 20.3 (Bhaskar and Ramani, 1988). This is accomplished in a manner
similar to that used for convective heat transfer in Appendix A15.3.

20.2.4. Other forms of dust transportation

The processes of sedimentation, Brownian and eddy diffusion, coupled with coagulation, are the
predominant mechanisms leading to the deposition of dust particles. There are, however, other
phenomena that play a secondary role in governing the behaviour of airborne dust.

Many particles gain an electrical charge during formation. The effects of frictional flow as air
moves through a duct or airway can also induce electrical charges on dust particles. Even
particles that are initially uncharged may gain dipole characteristics due to Van de Waal's forces.
The primary effect of electrostatic forces is to increase rates of coagulation (Section 20.2.5).

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Suppose a dust particle of charge, q, moves through an electrical field of strength E, then it will
experience an electrostatic force, qE. This may occur particularly around electrical equipment. At
equilibrium velocity, this force is balanced by fluid drag (equation (20.11) for laminar flow around
the particle), giving

3π µa d
ue = qE N (20.28)
Cc

where ue = the electrical migration velocity relative to the air (m/s).

The induction of an electrical charge on dust particles to assist in deposition is utilized in

electrostatic precipitators (Section 20.4.2.3.) and in the control of paint or powder sprays.
However, the high voltages that are required impose a limit on the use of such devices in
underground openings.

Phoretic effects refer to phenomena that impart a preferential direction to Brownian motion.
Thermophoresis is the migration of particles from a hotter to a cooler region of gas and is caused
by the enhancement of Brownian displacement at higher temperatures (equation (20.16)). The
dust particles are subjected to greater molecular bombardment from the side of higher
temperature. The temperature gradient must be considerable to produce a significant effect and
the phenomenon has little influence on dust deposition in mine airways. However, it is utilized in
instruments such as the thermal precipitator (Section 19.4.2.).

Photophoresis occurs when an intense light beam or laser is employed in a dusty atmosphere.
The absorption of light by the particle causes an uneven temperature field to exist around that
particle. The resulting excitation of nearby gas molecules causes thermophoresis to occur in a
direction that depends upon the induced temperature field around the surface of the particle.

An effect that encourages dust deposition on wet surfaces is diffusiophoresis. The migration of
water vapour molecules away from an evaporating surface will result in a replacing flux of the
more massive air molecules towards the surface. The result will be a net Brownian force on dust
particles also towards the surface.

20.2.5. Coagulation

In any concentration of dust particles, collisions between the particles will occur due to Brownian
motion, eddy action or differential sedimentation. Dependent upon the surface properties of any
two such particles, they may adhere together to form a larger single particle. As the process
continues, some particles will grow to the extent that their terminal velocity becomes significant
and they will flocculate out of suspension. This phenomenon of coagulation is influenced by the
number and size distribution of the particles (large particles are more likely to be struck by other
particles), temperature and pressure of the air (governing Brownian displacements) and electrical
charge distributions. The shape of the particles and the presence of adsorbed vapours on their
surfaces also affect the probability of their adhering upon collision.

Analysis of coagulation is, again, an exercise in statistics. Consider, first, a concentration of n

3 3
particles in 1m . The average frequency of collisions (dn/dt particles involved in collisions per m
per second) clearly depends upon the number of particles in that space. We can write

dn particles
= −an (20.29)
dt s m3

where a = the probability of any two particles colliding. (Negative as the number of discrete
particles is decreasing with time.)

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

However, the probability of collision is itself proportional to the number of particles

a = Kn 1/s (20.30)
dn particles
giving = − Kn 2 (20.31)
dt sm 3
3
K is known as the coagulation coefficient or collision frequency function (m /(particles.s)).

Equation (20.31) can be integrated readily:

∫n ∫ − K dt
dn
2
=

1
= Kt + constant
n

At t = 0, n = no = original concentration of particles, giving

1
constant = so that
no
−1
1 1  particles 
= Kt +   (20.31a)
n no  m3 

i.e. at any given time, t, the particle concentration is given as

no particles
n = (20.31b)
no K t + 1 m3

Values of the coagulation constant can be found for any given dust cloud by plotting the variation
of particle concentration with respect to time. For Brownian coagulation of equal sized particles in
a continuum, K is given by

8 MR T m3
K = (Flagan and Seinfeld, 1988) (20.32)
3 A ηa particles.s

Hence for air at 20°C ,

23
MR = 8314 J/K kg-mole, A = 6022x10 ,
-6 2
T = 293 K and µa = 17.9 x 10 Ns/m
-15 3
giving K = 0.6 x 10 m /(particle. s) (20.33)

Ranges of size distribution and the other matters that influence coagulation result in considerable
variations being found in observed values of the coagulation coefficient.

There is a further problem that limits the applicability of this analysis; not only has it taken no
account of the differing sizes of particles, K changes as the agglomerates grow larger. A
somewhat more sophisticated approach concentrates on one size range at a time and considers
the appearance of particles of that size by agglomeration of smaller particles. Additionally, their
progression out of the size range as they continue to grow should be taken into account. Let us
assume, for the sake of explanation, that diameters are additive. (Actually, we should use particle
volume rather than diameter.) Then, for example, particles of size 10 microns can appear by
coagulation of smaller particles. If we employ subscripts to denote the size of particles, then

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

61 and 69 ⇒ 610

i.e. 6 (1 micron particles) agglomerating with 6 (9 micron particles) yields 6 (10 micron particles).
Similar examples are

32 and 38 ⇒ 310
53 and 57 ⇒ 510
34 and 36 ⇒ 310
25 and 25 ⇒ 210
Totals: 38 particles collide to yield 19 particles of size 10 microns.

In each of these groups, the collisions result in the number of particles being halved. Using the
concept of coagulation coefficient and the form of equation (20.31), we can write that the rate of
formation of particle size k (10 microns in our example) is:

dn k (formation ) 1
k −1

∑K
particles formed
= ij ni n j (20.34)
dt 2 i =1 m3 s

where Kij is the particular coagulation coefficient for colliding particles of size i and j
and nk is the number of particles of size k that are formed from the collisions of ni particles
(size i) and an equal number of nj particles (size j).

However, while all of this is going on, particles of size k are disappearing because further
coagulation causes them to grow out of that size range. This can occur by each particle size k
agglomerating with another particle of any size. In this case, we count the number of k size
particles that are disappearing rather than being formed. Hence, we no longer require the factor
of 1/2 and can write:

max

∑
dn k (disappearance) particles lost
=− K km n m n k (20.35)
dt m =1 m3 s

where max = largest size of particle to be considered relevant to the processes of coagulation

As nk has a single value at any given time, t, it can be brought outside the summation sign.

Combining equations (20.34) and 20.35) gives the overall rate of change of concentration of
particle size k:

k −1 max

∑ ∑K
dn k 1 particles
= K ij n i n j − n k km n m (20.36)
dt 2 i=1 m =1 m3 s

This result was reported by Chung (1981) but attributed to Smoluchowski. Even more complex
analyses have been conducted for liquid aerosols involving not only particle size changes by
coagulation but also by evaporation. These are of relevance in meteorology and surface
atmospheric pollution.

20.2.6. Impingement and re-entrainment

The phenomena of impingement and re-entrainment become significant only in situations of high
velocity or excessive turbulence such as may occur in and around ventilation shafts or fan drifts.
In such cases, the momentum gained by some dust particles may cause them to be ejected from

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

the curved streamlines of eddies and impinge on the walls or other solid objects. Deposition by
impaction of the particles on the walls can then occur. This is the principle employed in impact
dust samplers such as the konimeter (Section 19.4.2.).

Impact deposition in mine airways is counteracted to some degree by re-entrainment in those

same conditions of high velocity and turbulence. A particle on any surface and submerged within
the laminar sublayer can be made to roll over the surface by viscous drag of the air when a
sufficiently high velocity gradient exists across the sublayer. An accelerated rolling action may
cause the particle to bounce until it momentarily escapes beyond the sublayer where capture by
eddies can re-entrain it into the main airstream. Chaotic turbulence can have the same effect by
transient thinning of the sublayer. The phenomena associated with these boundary layer effects
are, again, influenced by Reynolds' Number and surface roughness. Re-entrainment can be
analyzed by considering the drag and frictional forces on particles on or very close to solid
surfaces (Ramani and Bhaskar, 1984).

20.2.7. Computer models of dust transport

The earlier mathematical models developed to describe dust transport in mine airways were
empirical in nature (e.g. Hamilton and Walton, 1961). The growing availability of digital computers
since the 1960's, combined with a better understanding of aerosol behaviour, led to the
development of mathematical models to simulate the behaviour of dust particles in mine
ventilation systems (Bhaskar and Ramani, 1988). Such a model may be based on a form of the
convective diffusion equation

dc ∂ 2c dc partic les
= Ex −u + sources − sinks (20.37)
dt ∂x 2 dx m3 s

3
where c = concentration (particles/m ) t = time (s)
x = distance along the airway (m) u = air velocity (m/s)
2
and Ex = turbulent dispersion coefficient in the x direction (m /s)

This can be solved numerically between given boundary limits of time and distance
(Bandopadhyay, 1982) to track the temporal variations of dust concentration along a mine airway.
The "sinks" term is determined from the relationships given in the preceding subsections and, in
particular, the effects of gravitational settlement, Brownian motion, eddy diffusion and
coagulation. The "sources" must be defined as a dust production - time curve or histogram that
characterizes the make of dust from all significant sources along the length of airway considered.

20.3. THE PRODUCTION OF DUST IN UNDERGROUND OPENINGS

The majority of dust particles in mines are composed of mineral fragments. Oil aerosols may
become significant when drilling operations are in progress. Diesel exhaust particulates can also
form a measurable fraction of airborne dust in those mines that utilize internal combustion
engines. However, in this Section we shall concentrate on the manner and processes through
which mineral dusts are formed. Although the primary means of controlling mine dusts are
discussed in detail in Section 20.4 we shall introduce some of these, for particular operations, in
this Section.

20.3.1. The comminution process

Mineral dusts are formed whenever any rock is broken by impact, abrasion, crushing, cutting,
grinding or explosives. For any given material, the energy input required to break the rock is

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 The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

proportional to the new surface area produced. As dust particles have a large surface area
relative to their mass, it follows that any fragmentation process which produces an excessive
amount of dust involves an inefficient use of energy. Before discussing specific operations that
produce dust, a valuable insight into particles size distribution can be gained from a brief analysis
of the comminution process.

Suppose a given brittle material is broken into fragments and the particles classified into a series
of size ranges. Commencing with the mass of finest particles and progressively adding on the
mass of each next coarser range, a table of cumulative "mass finer than" can be assembled. If
this is plotted against particle diameter on a log-log basis (Figure 20.4) then a straight line is
obtained for the smaller particles and curving over at larger sizes. The curve of Figure 20.4
m
  x  
r

follows an equation of the form M = 1 − 1 −   kg (20.38)
  xo  
where x = particle diameter, (m) - we use x here, temporarily, in order not to confuse
diameter with the differential operator, d
xo = diameter of the initial fragment (m)
M = cumulative mass finer than size x (kg)
r is a constant that depends upon the particular comminution process and
m is a characteristic of the material having values in the range 0.5 to 1 and varying
only slightly with the method of comminution. (This is known as the Gaudin
Meloy Schuhmann equation (Marshall, 1974; Gaudin and Meloy, 1962).)

If the term [1 – x/xo]r is

1 expanded by the
binomial theorem, then
for x << xo
m
x 
(fraction of initial mass)

M = r  kg (20.39)
Cumulative mass M

0.1  xo 

For dust particles, x is

certainly very much
smaller than xo. Equation
0.01 (20.39) quantifies the
straight line portion of
Figure 20.4 and has
been shown to hold for
particle sizes down to
0.01 microns (National
0.001 Research Council, 1980).
0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Particle diameter as fraction of original fragment

Figure 20.4 Typical size distribution graph of “cumulative

mass finer than” against particle size.

Let us now try to find a means of determining (i) the mass and (ii) the number of particles in each
size range:

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

(i) mass
Consider the mass, dM, of particles contained within the incremental range x to x + dx.
Differentiating equation (20.39) gives
rm
dM = m x m −1 dx = C x m −1 dx kg (20.40)
xo

where C = constant for that particular material, process and initial size.
Now let us take a finite size range from, say, D/10 to D (e.g. 0.5 to 5 microns). Then integrating
equation (20.40) between those limits gives the corresponding mass for that range.

M (D / 10 to D ) = [ ]
C m
x
D
D / 10 =
C m 1 
D 1 − m 
m m  10 
or M (D / 10 to D ) = constant × D m (20.41)

As m is always positive this equation shows that the mass in each size range increases with
particle diameter. In practice this means that only a small part of the total rock broken will be
produced as dust particles. For coal, values in the range 5 to 9 kg per tonne (0.5 to 0.9 percent)
of particles less than 7 microns have been reported (Qin and Ramani, 1989). However, only a tiny
fraction of this will become airborne as respirable dust.
(ii) number of particles
Returning to our infinitely small increment of particle size range, x to x + dx, the volume of each
particle is π x 3 / 6 . If the material is of density, ρ , then the mass of each particle becomes
ρ π x 3 / 6 . For dn particles in that range, the total mass becomes
ρ π x3
dn = dM = C x m −1dx (from equation (20.40))
6
giving dn = C ' x m − 4dx particles (20.42)
where C' = constant for that material, process and initial size.
Integrating over the finite size range D/10 to D gives

n(D / 10 to D ) =
C'
m−3
[ ] D
x m −3 D / 10 =
C'
m −3
 1 
D m −3 1 − m −3 
 10 
i.e
constant
n(D / 10 to D ) = particles (20.43)
D 3−m
As m lies in the range 0.5 to 1.0, this shows that the number of particles rises logarithmically as
the particle diameter decreases.
Equations (20.41) and (20.43) indicate that in any rock breaking process, the bulk of mass will
appear as larger fragments. However, the number of fine dust particles produced may be
enormous. Fortunately, most of those particles remain attached to the surfaces of larger
fragments. The degree to which dust particles are dispersed into the air would seem to depend
upon the nature of the rock as well as the comminution process. For brittle materials, the
fragmentation becomes more 'explosive' in nature; the resulting surface vibration causes an
enhanced dispersion of dust particles into the air. Hence, although comminution of softer
materials may generate more dust particles, a greater proportion of those will remain adherent to
the surfaces of larger particles and will not become airborne. The production of airborne
respirable dust has been reported in the range 0.2 to 3.0 grams per tonne (Qin, 1989; Knight,
1985).

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 The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

20.3.2. Mechanised mining

crushing abraded dust Machines that break rock from the solid have the
potential to be prolific sources of dust. These include
longwall power loaders, continuous miners,
α roadheaders, tunnelling machines, raise borers and
drills. Figure 20.5(a) illustrates a pick point acting against
breaking off β a rock face. Compressive forces induce a zone of
pulverized material immediately ahead of the pick point.
As the pick moves forward into that zone, the resultant
α = rake angle wedging action produces tensile failure along a curved
β = clearance angle plane - a chip is broken away. The process is repeated
continuously as the pick advances. The majority of the
pulverized material is abraded onto the surfaces of the
(a) Shallow cut rock face and the chip. The amount of dust produced at
the tensile failure plane itself may be quite small in
homogeneous brittle material and is influenced by the
presence of preformed dust in natural cleavage planes.
However, the explosive nature of that tensile failure is a
major factor in determining the amount of dust that is
projected into the air.

A machine that takes a greater depth of cut will require

higher torque and may be subject to greater vibration
and bit breakage. However, a comparison of Figures
20.5(a) and (b) indicates that more of the broken
material will be in the form of chips and, hence, the
amount of dust produced in terms of grams per tonne will
be reduced. The specific energy (per tonne mined) will
also fall. Figure 20.5(c) shows that the greater area of
contact given by a blunt pick will create additional dust in
the pulverized zone. If such wear causes a significant
(b) Deep cut reduction in the rake angle (Figure 20.5(a)) then the
back of the bit will rub against the newly formed face,
absorbing additional energy and producing further
pulverized rock. Furthermore, as the clearance angle
reduces, the chip may not be ejected efficiently but
remain in place to be crushed against the unbroken rock.
The design of a rock cutting bit is a compromise between
the efficiency of cutting (energy absorbed per tonne),
wear characteristics and dust production. Considerable
diversity of opinion exists on preferred bit geometries for
given machines and rock types.

Another factor that influences the proportion of dust which

becomes airborne is the speed at which the pick moves.
For any given depth of cut, an increased speed results in
greater rate of comminution and, hence, dust production.
Additionally, movement of the cutter drum causes a higher
(c) Blunt pick relative velocity to be induced between the local airstream
and the material on the face (or fragments broken from the
Figure 20.5 A zone of pulverized rock forms face). This assists in entrainment of dust particles into the
ahead of a cutter pick. air (Section 20.2.5.). The effect of pick speed on airborne
dust is illustrated on Figure 20.6.

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

10 20.3.3. Supports
Pick speed
Crushing of roof and floor
3 m/s
strata by roof supports
may liberate significant
8 amounts of dust when the
support is moved. This
2 can be a particular
problem on mechanized
longwall faces that are
6 1 equipped with powered
hydraulic supports. As
setting and yield loads of
the supports increase so,
also, does the amount of
4
dust produced. The
repeated lowering and
0.25 raising of these supports
can give a near
continuous source of dust
2 on longwall faces. Unless
roof coal is left, this may
be high in quartz content.
The effect can be
0 minimized by using wide-
0 5 10 15 web roof beams or
cushioning materials.
Sheets of flexible material
linking adjacent canopies
have also been used to
Figure 20.6 An illustration of the effects of pick speed and pick
mitigate against roof dust.
depth of cut. Actual dust makes also depend on other factors
including sharpness of picks, effectiveness of dust suppression and
air velocities around the cutting head.

20.3.4. Blasting

Drill and blast remains the predominant method of mining in metal (hardrock) mines. The peak
concentrations of dust and gases (Section 11.3.4.) that are produced by the larger blasts are
usually too high to be diluted effectively by the normal ventilating airflow. This necessitates the
mine, or part of the mine, being evacuated of personnel for a re-entry period during and after the
blast. The length of the re-entry period can vary from half an hour to several hours for stoping
areas, dependent upon the layout of the ventilation network and the velocities of the air. This is a
classical example of isolating personnel from the dust.

The amount of dust produced depends upon a number of factors including

• the mining method

• the type of rock
• the choice of explosive
• the charge density and drilling pattern and
• the type of stemming.

Blasts that eject the fragmented material into an air space (e.g. open stoping) will tend to produce
sharper but shorter lived peaks of dust than caving techniques. However, the latter may result in

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

more pulverized material capable of being entrained into the airstream during subsequent loading
and transportation operations. Water ampoules have been employed as stemming in an attempt
to reduce dust emissions from blasting operations.

Another technique is to place very fine but high capacity water sprays (fog machines) upwind of
the blast before and during the re-entry period. The combination of increased humidity and fine
water droplets assists in the agglomeration and sedimentation of dust particles. Spraying the
muckpiles produced by blasting is advisable before loading commences.

Secondary blasting also produces short peaks of dust concentration. This is yet one further
reason for employing methods of mining that minimize the need for secondary blasting.

20.3.5. Loading operations

This is another part of some mining cycles that can produce a great deal of dust whether the
loading operations are carried out by slushers, load-haul-dump (LHD) vehicles or loading
machines in headings. The dust arises from a combination of particles produced previously from
the mining process and held within the muckpile, and those that are generated by further
comminution during loading.

In addition to adequate (but not excessive) airflows, the primary means of combatting dust from
loading operations are water sprays and ensuring as little disturbance as possible to the loaded
material. The air velocity should not be less than 0.5 m/s at loading points. Abrasion of the floor
by heavy slusher buckets should be minimized. It is preferable to employ lighter buckets in
tandem operating at a speed of some 0.6 m/s (Sandys and Quilliam, 1982). Spray bars should be
located at intervals along slusher paths and, particularly, at points of transfer between buckets.

Muckpiles in headings should be sprayed with water continuously or frequently during mucking
operations except where hygroscopic minerals inhibit the copious use of water. In hot mines, pre-
chilling of this water produces cooling as well as dust suppression (Section 18.3.5.2.). Steam
injection into muckpiles and the addition of wetting agents into the water has also been found to
be beneficial in some cases (Knight, 1985). Exhaust auxiliary ventilation is preferred for dusty
operations in headings, employing a force overlap, if necessary, to deal with gas emissions at the
face (Section 4.4.2.).

The skill of the driver of an LHD can have considerable influence on dust production. Choosing
the best point to insert the bucket into the muckpile will result in filling the bucket with a minimum
number of thrusts and with least disturbance to the material. Similarly, at the dump point, the
muck should be tipped gently and not dropped from a height. This should also be borne in mind
during the design of tipping operations from rail-mounted dump cars. Cones and chutes at dump
points should be designed to minimize impact forces on tipped material.

20.3.6. Transportation and crushing

Dust is produced throughout most mineral transportation routes, including conveyors, transfer
points, bunkers, skips, airlocks and vehicular traffic. Dust on the surfaces of conveyors may be
re-entrained into the air due to vibration of the belt as it passes over rollers. Spillage returning on
the bottom belt, if not cleared, will generate dust as the material is crushed against rollers.
Similarly, an excessive use of water can result in dust adhering to the belt surface. This may
subsequently be deposited under the conveyor during the return journey of the bottom belt. Belt
scraper devices or brushes at the drive heads should be properly maintained and all
accumulations of debris or dust should regularly be cleaned from under the conveyor and at
return rollers. Conveyor structure should be inspected routinely and attention paid to damaged
idlers and centering devices.

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Vehicle arrestors on rail transportation systems should incorporate deceleration devices in order
to avoid impact loads on either the vehicles or the transported material. Tracks should be
adequately maintained and not allowed to develop sudden changes in direction or gradient.

The mineral transportation routes and mine ventilation system should be planned together in
order to avoid, wherever possible, minerals being transported through an airlock. The high
velocities that can occur over belt conveyors at airlock leakage points can cause excessive
production of dust. This can be minimized by employing side plates and attaching a length of
flexible material (such as old belting) on the conveyor discharge side of the airlock so that it drags
over the surface of the conveyed material.

Unless the mineral is hygroscopic, it should be kept damp throughout its transportation through
the mine. Bunkers and, wherever possible, conveyor transfer points and stage loaders should be
shrouded and fitted with internal sprays. It is also useful to duct the air from such shrouds directly
into return airways. Sprays or dribbler bars onto conveyors some 5 to 10 m before a transfer point
are often more effective than sprays actually at the transfer point itself.

Ore passes in metal mines should avoid lengthy segments of free fall. Air leakage at dump and
draw points should be into the ore pass and, hence, pull dust laden air away from personnel. This
can be arranged by an opening into the ore pass and connected either directly or via ducting to a
return airway. If this is not practicable then dusty air drawn by a fan from an intermediate point in
an ore pass can be filtered and returned to the intake system.

Crushers in any mine are prolific sources of dust. Here again, sprays may be used on the
material before, during and after the crushing process. This is another situation where it is
particularly valuable to draw air from the crusher enclosure and filter it.

20.3.7. Workshops

Aerosols produced in underground workshops are likely to occur as oil mists, diesel particulate
matter and welding fumes. The latter may be handled by exhaust hoods extracting air from
welding bays and directing it into a return airway. Indeed, all of the airflows through workshops
should, preferably, pass into return airways. The general arrangements for diluting and removing
airborne contaminants from workshops are discussed in Section 9.3.5.

20.3.8. Quartz dust in coal mines

The availability of instrumentation that can discern the quartz content of mine dusts within each of
a range of particle sizes (Section 19.4.7.) has led to the observation that airborne dust in coal
mines often has a quartz content that is significantly higher than that of the coal seam being
worked. Furthermore, the percentage of quartz becomes particularly high in the finer sizes
including the respirable range (Ramani et al, 1988; Padmanabhan and Mutmansky, 1989).
Coupled with the special danger to health of quartz dust, this has led to research aimed at
discovering the causes of such anomalous appearances of quartz in airborne dusts of coal mines.

There would appear to be at least two explanations. First, roof and floor strata usually have a
higher quartz content than the coal seam. Hence any fragmentation of those strata will cause
emissions of quartz dust. This can occur by rock-winning machines cutting into the roof or floor,
cross-measures drilling for roof-bolting or other purposes, development drivages out of the seam
or exceeding the height of the seam, hydraulic roof supports and fracturing of roof or floor strata.

A second, less obvious, cause of the apparently anomalous percentages of quartz in the dust of
coal mines is hypothesized to be the different comminution characteristics of coal and quartz
(Section 20.3.1.). Fragmentation of the stronger and more brittle quartz minerals may result in a
greater proportion of that dust being ejected into the air than is the case for coal. The greater
degree of entrainment would favour the finer particles.

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The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

20.4. CONTROL OF DUST IN MINES

The initial decisions that affect the severity of dust problems are made during the stages of
design and planning for the mining of any geological deposit. The methods of working, rate of
mineral production and equipment chosen all influence the amount of dust that is generated and
becomes airborne. The layout of the mine, sizes and numbers of airways, and the efficiency of
the ventilation system dictate the rate at which airborne contaminants, including dust, are diluted
and removed from the mine.

For an existing mine, there are four main methods of controlling the production, concentration and
hazards of airborne dust:

• Suppression - the prevention of dust becoming airborne

• Filtration and scrubbing - the removal of dust from the air
• Dilution by airflow , and
• Isolation - separation of personnel from the higher concentrations of dust.

In general, good management and housekeeping at a mine assist greatly in maintaining control of
the dust problem. These measures include planned maintenance schemes for equipment,
quantitative ventilation planning, cleaning up spillage, rock debris and local accumulations of
dust, and adequate supervision of work practices.

20.4.1. Dust suppression

It is difficult and often expensive to remove respirable dust from the air. Hence, every attempt
should be made to prevent it from becoming airborne in the first place. Methods of achieving this
are known collectively as dust suppression and are discussed in this section.

20.4.1.1. Pick face flushing and jet-assisted cutting

Figure 20.5 gives a visual impression of how a rock face is pulverized in advance of a moving
cutter pick. Pick face flushing involves directing a jet of water at the pick point during the cutting
process. This has been found to give markedly improved dust suppression when compared to
conventional water sprays on the drums of shearers, continuous miners or tunnelling machines.
The water that feeds each jet can be channeled through conduits drilled in the bit holder and via a
phasing valve that activates the jet only while the bit is cutting rock. Water filters are required to
prevent blockage of the nozzles. A further advantage of pick face flushing is that the streak of
incendiary sparks that often appears behind the pick in dry cutting is quenched. Hence, the
incidence of frictional ignitions of methane is reduced greatly. Interlock switches may be
employed to ensure that the machine cannot operate without the dust suppression water being
activated.

A number of researchers have investigated the extension of pick face flushing to much higher
water pressures, not only to further improve dust suppression but also in an attempt to produce a
higher efficiency of rock cutting. The use of high pressure water jets alone, with or without the
addition of abrasive particles, has had only limited success as a practical means of mining.
However, combining the mechanism of cutter picks with high pressure water jets directed at the
pick point has led to significant improvements in machine performance and the extension of
mechanized mining to much harder material that, previously, could be mined only by drill and
blast techniques. This technique is known as jet assisted cutting.

In addition to environmental enhancements, jet assisted cutting permits the same rate of
comminution with reduced loading on the cutter pick. This results in a significant reduction in wear
and, hence, less production time lost because of picks having to be changed. Furthermore, the
total specific power (per tonne mined) required by the combination of a high pressure water pump
and the cutting machine can be less than that of a conventional machine.

20 - 23
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

The benefits of jet assisted cutting are attainable by increasing the water pressure but reducing
the nozzle size in order to keep the flow rate no greater than that employed in conventional pick
face flushing. This can be important in hot mines or where floor strata react adversely to water.
However, it has been reported that there is little apparent improvement in levels of airborne dust
until the water pressure attains some critical value (Taylor et al, 1988). This would appear to be in
the range 10 to 15 MPa for cutting coal. After the critical water pressure is attained, a dramatic
reduction in airborne dust can be expected. However, this levels out again at water pressures in
excess of 20 MPa. Indeed, if the velocities of the jet and resulting spray are too high then re-
entrainment can exacerbate dust concentrations. Work continues on the preferred location of the
jet. Distances as small as 2 mm between the nozzle and the pick point have been suggested
(Hood et al, 1991).

The environmental and operational benefits of jet assisted rock cutting arise from at least seven
mechanisms (Hood, 1991).

(a) The pulverized rock immediately ahead of the pick point is wetted before it has an opportunity
to become airborne.

(b) The cooling action of the jet reduces wear: the bits remain sharp for significantly longer
periods of time and bit breakage is less frequent.

(c) Impact of the high velocity jet will produce an aerosol of very fine water droplets around the
cutting head, thus enhancing the agglomeration and capture of airborne dust particles.

(d) The washing action of the high-energy jet removes the cushion of pulverized material quite
efficiently. This allows the pick point to act on a much cleaner surface. The effect of a
cushion of pulverized rock is to distribute the force exerted by the pick over a broader front,
i.e. similar to that of a blunt pick, Figure 20.5(c). It is to be expected that the total amount of
finely crushed rock would be reduced.

(e) Penetration of the water into natural cleavage planes in the material and ahead of the
mechanical effect of the bit assists in pre-wetting dust particles that already exist within
those planes.

(f) Frictional ignitions of methane are virtually eliminated.

(g) The total specific energy required for the rock cutting process may be reduced.

20.4.1.2. Water infusion

A technique of dust suppression that has been employed by some coal mining industries since
the 1950's is pre-infusion of the seam by water, steam or foam. One or more boreholes are drilled
into the seam in advance of the workings through which the fluid is injected. The migration of
water through the natural fracture network of the coal results in pre-wetting of included dust
particles. The success of the method is dependent upon the permeability of the seam and the
type of coal-winning equipment employed. Good results have been reported where coal ploughs
are used - these relying more upon coal breakage along natural cleavage than the cutting and
grinding action of shearers or continuous miners (Heising and Becker, 1980).

In practice, some in-situ experimentation is usually necessary to determine the optimum injection
pressure and flowrate, and the time period of injection. Water pressures in the range 2 to 34 MPa
have been reported with water volumes of 7 to 20 litres per tonne in South African coal mines
(Sandys and Quilliam, 1982). Best results are obtained at fairly modest pressures but applied
over as long a period as possible. British experience in coals of limited permeability indicated
water pressures of 1.5 to 2.5 MPa and flowrates of 0.2 to 2 litres/min. If too high a pressure is
used then the water flows preferentially along major planes of weakness. Hydrofracturing may

20 - 24
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

occur, resulting in weakened roof conditions during mining and, possibly, backflow along bed
separation routes to give water inflows at the current working faces. Water infusion is not
recommended in areas of weak roof/floor strata or in the proximity of faults or other geological
anomalies. Steam and wetting agents have been employed in attempts to improve pre-saturation
of the zone. Water infusion must also be expected to influence the migration of strata gas
(Section 12.3.2.3.). Holes drilled initially for in-seam methane drainage may subsequently be
used for water infusion (Stricklin, 1987).

20.4.1.3. Wetting agents, foams and roadway consolidation

Worldwide experience of surfactants used as wetting agents in dust suppression water has been
highly variable. The technique has been employed since at least 1940 (Hartman, 1940). In
addition to the use of wetting agents to enhance the effects of water infusion, they may be
employed to improve the performance of sprays and also, at sufficiently high concentration, to
produce a foam around a rock fragmentation process.

Rocks vary considerably in their wettability characteristics. If surfactants added to muckpile

sprays are to be effective then they must be at a high enough concentration to cause penetration
of the fragmented material within an acceptable time period (Knight, 1985). The potential effects
of such concentrations on mineral processing should be considered carefully. Wetting agents
added to sprays are considered to have three beneficial effects. First, the reduced surface
tension allows greater atomization of the water - the droplets are smaller and greater in number,
hence, improving the probability of capturing dust particles (Section 20.4.2.1.). Secondly, the
existence of a liquid coating on dust particles will improve the chances of coagulation when two
particles collide. Third, the molecular structure of surfactants tends to counteract electrostatic
forces that may keep particles apart (Wang, 1991).

If a wetting agent is in sufficient concentration within a spray directed at a rock cutting device then
a foam can be formed that enshrouds the comminution process. This assists in coating the
fragments with a wetting fluid and in inhibiting entrainment of the dust into the air. Again, this
approach has met with mixed success (Bhaskar, 1991). It also interferes with ventilation of the
cutting head and should be used with caution in gassy conditions.

Accumulations of dust on roadway floors used for travelling in both underground and surface
mines can become airborne when disturbed by traffic. Roadway consolidation involves the use of
water, hygroscopic salts and binders to encapsulate the dust and maintain the floor in a firm but
moist state. Flakes of calcium chloride or magnesium chloride may be employed with lignin
sulphonate as a binder. The process involves raking and levelling the surface dust, and spraying
it lightly with water until it is wetted to a depth of some 2 to 3 cm. The addition of a wetting agent
may be necessary. The total amount of water required can be of the order of 40 litres per m2.
Free-standing pools of water should be avoided. The hygroscopic salt should be spread evenly at
a rate that depends upon the mean humidity of the air. For flake calcium chloride this will vary
from about 3.8 kg/m2 at a relative humidity of 40 percent down to 0.1 kg/m2 for a relative humidity
of 90 percent. It is advisable to apply three quarters of the salt during the initial application and
the remainder about one week later. The treatment will normally last for about six months
although re-spraying with water may be required after three months. Sodium chloride (common
salt) will be effective while the relative humidity remains above 75 per cent. In all cases, care
should be taken against corrosion of equipment and, in particular, within the vicinity of electrical
apparatus.

20.4.2. Removal of dust from air

The larger dust particles will settle out by gravitational sedimentation in the air velocities typical of
most branches in a mine ventilation system. Unfortunately, the more dangerous respirable
particles will effectively remain in suspension. Removing these from the air for large flowrates can
be expensive. The choice of a dust removal system is dictated by the size distribution and

20 - 25
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

concentration of particles to be removed, the air flowrate and the allowable dust concentration at
outlet. The size of any unit is governed primarily by the air volume flow to be filtered. Operational
costs can be determined from the product of the pressure drop and air flowrate through the unit,
pQ (Section 5.5.), and the means of supplying and filtering water in the case of wet scrubbers.
Where high efficiency is required for large flowrates over a wide range of particle sizes such as
the emergency filters needed on nuclear waste repositories (Section 4.6.), two or more types of
filters may be arranged in series, each taking out progressively smaller particles. This prevents
the finer filters from becoming clogged quickly and, hence, prolongs the life of the system before
cleaning or renewal of filters becomes necessary.

The efficiency of any dust removal facility, η , may be expressed either in terms of number of
particles per m3 of air:
No. of particles in /m 3 − No. of particles out /m 3
ηp = (20.44)
No. of particles in /m 3 )

or in terms of mass of particles:

Mass of particles in /m 3 − Mass of particles out /m 3
ηm = (20.45)
Mass of particles in /m 3

In both cases, it is usual to further restrict the count of particles or mass to a specified size range.
Hence, for protection against pneumonconiosis, it is preferable to employ equation (20.45) for
respirable particles only, i.e. less than 5 microns equivalent diameter.

Devices to remove dust from air may be fitted to other pieces of equipment such as rock cutting
machinery, along transportation routes, within ventilation ducting or as free-standing units to filter
dust from the general airstream. In this section, we shall discuss principles of the devices that are
most commonly employed to reduce concentrations of airborne dust in mine atmospheres,
namely, water sprays, wet scrubbers and dry filters or separators.

20.4.2.1. Water sprays

Water is by far, the most widely used medium for conditioning mine air, whether it be for cooling
(Section 18.3), dust suppression or dust filtration. Open sprays can also be employed to direct,
control or induce airflows in order to protect machine operators from unacceptable concentrations
of dust (Section 20.4.4.).

The important parameters governing the efficiency of a spray can be highlighted through an
analysis of the capture of dust particles by water droplets. Consider Figure 20.7 which illustrates
air passing over a water droplet with a velocity relative to the droplet of ur. The streamlines of air
bend around the droplet. However, the inertia of dust particles causes them to cross those
streamlines. Particles that lie closer to the centre line of motion will impact into the droplet and be
captured by it.

We can conceive a flow tube of diameter y from which all particles are captured while particles
that are further from the tube centreline will be diverted around the droplet. The efficiency of
capture by a single droplet, E, can be defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of the
capture tube to the facing area of the droplet:

y2
E = (20.46)
Dw2
where Dw = droplet diameter (m)

20 - 26
 The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

If there is a uniform dust

Air streamlines concentration of n
Path of dust particles particles/m3 then the rate
of capture of particles by
one droplet of water is
n × u r × area of capture tube
particles m 2
m
m3 s
or particles/s; that is:

particles collected per droplet per

Dw y D2
second = E n u r π w (20.47)
4

In order to maintain consistency

with the definition of dust
concentration that we are using
here (particles/m3), it is
preferable to restate this latter
expression in terms of particles
collected per cubic metre of air
rather than particles captured
Figure 20.7 A water droplet of diameter Dw captures dust particles from a
per second. We can do this by
tube of air of diameter y. The relative velocity between the
dividing by the air flowrate Q
droplet and the air is ur (m/s).
(m3/s).

Then rate of capture by one droplet (dn/dt = rate of change of dust concentration) becomes

dn π Dw2 1 particles s particles

− (one droplet ) = E n u r or (20.48)
dt 4 Q droplet.s m 3 droplet.m 3
where
t = time (s) (negative as concentration is falling).

Now if water is dispersed in the spray at a volume flowrate of W (m3/s) and the volume of each
droplet is π Dw3 / 6 , m3 , then the rate at which droplets are formed and pass through the spray is

W 6W m 3 droplet droplets
= = (20.49)
π Dw3 / 6 π Dw3 s m3 s

Multiplying by the particle capture for one particle, equation (20.48), gives the total rate at which
particles are captured per cubic metre of air:

dn πDw2 1 6W particlesdroplets
− (all droplets ) = Enu r
dt 4 Q πDw3 droplet m 3
s
(20.50)
3 W 1 particles
= Enu r
2 Dw Q m3 s

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 The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Now consider Figure 20.8. Dust particles and air pass each other effectively in counterflow with a
relative velocity of ur such that they move through a separation distance dx in time dt, i.e.
dx m
ur =
dt s

dx

Figure 20.8 Section through a water spray. Dust particles and water droplets pass each
other in counterflow with a relative velocity such that they move through a
separation distance dx in time dt, over which the dust concentration falls by
dn particles per m3 of air.

During that time, the dust concentration changes from n to n - dn, i.e. the rate of change of dust
concentration is -dn/dt (particles/m3s).

dn dn dx dn particles
But − = − = − ur
dt dx dt dx m3 s

Combining with equation (20.50) gives

dn dn 3 n W 3 n W particles
− = − ur = E ur or dn = − E dx
dt dx 2 Dw Q 2 Dw Q m3

Integrating over the complete effective length of the spray, L (distance moved by particles plus
distance moved by droplets (in counterflow) in the x direction), gives the total number of particles
removed between the inlet concentration, Nin, and outlet concentration, Nout (particles/m3 )
N out L

∫ ∫ dx
dn 3 E W
= −
n 2 Dw Q
N in 0

ln{N out / N in } = −
3 E W
L
2 Dw Q

20 - 28
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

N out  3 E W 
= exp− L (20.51)
N in  2 Dw Q 

Reference to equation (20.44) shows that the particle removal efficiency of the spray is given by

N in − N out N
ηp = = 1 − out
N in N in

 3 E W 
i.e. η p = 1 − exp− L (20.52)
 2 Dw Q 

Examination of this equation is most instructive in understanding the performance of sprays. The
dust removal capacity of the spray increases with E, the capture efficiency of each droplet. To be
precise, this depends upon the nature of the flow and the relative sizes of dust particles and water
droplets. However, a coarse approximation for fully developed turbulence, based on work
reported by Jones (1978), can be assessed as

E = 0.266 ln(K ) + 0.59 (20.53)

over the range 0.2 < K < 4 where ln means natural logarithm and the dimensionless parameter K
is:
u r ρ D p2
K = (20.54)
9 µ Dw

where ρ = particle density (kg/m3 )

Dp = particle diameter (m)
and µ = kinematic viscosity of the air (Ns/m2).

In particular, the capture efficiency increases with the relative velocity between the dust particles
and droplets (ur), the diameter (Dp) and density (ρ) of the particles (these three governing particle
inertia) and increases further as the water droplets become smaller (Dw).

Returning to equation (20.52) reinforces the fact that the overall efficiency of the spray improves
with smaller water droplets. A coarse spray of large water droplets will have very little effect on
airborne respirable dust.

A parameter of basic importance in equation (20.52) is the water to air ratio (W/Q). Values in the
range 0.1 to over 2 litres of water per cubic metre of air have been reported. The lower values
produce poor efficiency of dust capture. However, if too high a value is attempted then the
concentration of droplets may become so large that coalescence occurs. The larger droplets then
lead to decreased efficiency. A practical range of W/Q for sprays and wet scrubbers in mines is
0.3 to 0.6 litres/m3 . Tests on compressed air-powered atomizing nozzles have indicated an
optimum W/Q value of 0.45 litres/m3 (Booth- Jones et al, 1984).

The last point to be gleaned from equation (20.52) is confirmation of the intuitive expectation that
the spray efficiency is improved as the length (L) and, hence, time of contact between the air and
the water droplets is increased.

In order to produce the finely divided sprays necessary to affect respirable dust, a number of
methods are employed. The simplest technique is to supply high pressure water to the nozzles.
Pressures of some 3000 to 4000 kPa applied across suitable nozzles give smaller droplets at

20 - 29
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

spray velocities high enough to cause air induction - surrounding dust laden air is drawn into the
spray and thus improves the dust removal capacity of the unit. A variety of nozzle designs are
available commercially. These control the shape as well as influencing the atomization of the
spray. Full cone and hollow cone sprays have good air induction characteristics while fan shaped
sprays are excellent at confining the dust clouds produced by shearers and continuous miners.
Atomization is further improved in some nozzles by impinging the high velocity jet against an
impact surface located facing and close to the orifice. Another arrangement causes the water to
rotate rapidly around an orifice before ejection. In all cases, it is particularly important in mining
that nozzle designs should mitigate against blockage from particles either in the water supply or
(in the case of machine- mounted sprays), thrown forcibly against the jet from an external source.

Compressed air-assisted sprays can produce fine atomization with droplets in the respirable size
range. The water feed is connected into the compressed air supply close to the nozzles. The
water enters the compressed airstream either by its own applied pressure or by venturi action. It
is advisable to insert non-return valves into the water line. The combination of very high
turbulence at the nozzles and expansion of the compressed air into the ambient atmosphere
produces fine droplets.

Compressed air-assisted sprays can be further enhanced by the addition of a sonic device to the
nozzle (Schröder et al, 1985). Air expands through the nozzle into a facing resonator cup where it
is reflected back to complement and amplify the initial shock wave at the mouth of the orifice. An
intense field of sonic energy is focused in the gap between the nozzle and the resonator cup.
Water droplets issuing from the nozzle and passing through the sonic field are further broken
down to respirable sizes and, indeed, to submicron diameters. Similar effects can be achieved by
high frequency oscillation of pairs of piezo-electric crystals.

A high degree of atomization can be achieved without high pipeline pressures through
impingement devices. A free-standing "fog machine" of this type may consist of a stainless steel
disc spinning at about 3000 rpm. A low pressure water supply is fed to the centre of the disc.
Centrifugal action causes the water to flow outwards over the surface of the disc to impact at high
velocity on a ring of stationary and closely spaced vanes around the perimeter. A fan impeller
located on the upstream side of the disc projects the fog-laden airstream forward. The same
principle is employed in wetted fan scrubbers and in some industrial humidifiers.

20.4.2.2. Wet scrubbers

As the name suggests, these are devices that also employ water to achieve dust removal.
However, in this case the water streams (or sprays) and the airflow are controlled within an
enclosure designed to maximize the parameters that improve the efficiency of dust capture
(equation (20.52)). Wet scrubbers bring dust particles into intimate contact with wet surfaces and
within a highly turbulent mixture of air, water droplets and dust. They have become popular for
mining applications as they require less maintenance than most other dust filters and can achieve
respirable dust capture efficiencies exceeding 90 per cent.

Here again, we shall restrict our discussion to the operating principles employed in the most
common wet scrubbers. Many competing devices are marketed and manufacturers' literature
should be consulted to match performance with required duties, and to compare capital and
operating costs.

20 - 30
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

filtered
water water
fibrous bed eliminator

fan
reject
water

Figure 20.9 Fibrous (flooded) bed filter.

The fibrous (or flooded) bed) scrubber illustrated on Figure 20.9 is one of the most widely used
devices employed in mine dust collectors. Stainless steel or other non-corrosive material is used
as the fibre material. Water is either admitted along the top of the fibrous bed and allowed to
trickle downwards through it or, preferentially, the water sprayed directly into the air upstream
from the fibrous bed. The air follows a tortuous path through the bed while the inertia of the dust
particles causes them to strike and adhere to the wet fibres. The efficiency of dust removal
increases with the fineness of the fibres, the thickness of the bed and the velocity of the air. This
must be balanced by the resistance of the unit to airflow and, hence, the operating cost.
Efficiencies exceeding 90 percent for respirable dust can be attained.

The dust laden water collects at the bottom of the fibrous bed from where it is drained, filtered
and recycled. Arrangements must be made to remove the effluent sludge and to supply make-up
water. In all cases, wet scrubbers can be supplied with chilled water to achieve simultaneous
cooling and dust collection. Again, filtration within the chilled water cycle is necessary.

A water eliminator is required by most designs of wet scrubber in order to remove residual
droplets of water. Several different systems of water elimination are available in practice including
a second fibrous mat, a series of wavy or inclined plates, turning vanes to induce swirl into the air
and, hence, throwing droplets outwards towards the duct walls, or an egg-tray arrangement. Here
again, droplet removal is achieved by impingement.

Figure 20.10 illustrates the principle of the wetted fan scrubber. Sprays upstream and/or at the
facing boss of a fan produce droplets that are mixed intimately and at high velocity with air across
and around the fan impeller blades. The polluted water collects around the internal surface of the
fan casing for removal and recycling. The addition of a fibrous bed downstream from the fan gives
a powerful combination of dust collection devices. A disadvantage of wetted fan scrubbers is the
pitting that may occur on the impeller blades and requiring additional fan maintenance. Designs
employing centrifugal as well as axial fans have been developed. Wetted fan scrubbers are well
suited to lower airflows and have an application as in-line dust collectors in auxiliary ventilation
ducting.

The venturi scrubber, depicted on Figure 20.11, has no moving parts. Sprays are located
upstream and/or at the throttled section of a venturi arrangement. Air velocities through the throat
are typically in the range 60 to 120 m/s with a high degree of turbulent mixing. This encourages
the impaction of dust particles into water droplets. Venturi scrubbers are compact, simple and
rugged, and can reach efficiencies of more than 90 percent. However, it is costly in operating
power and is suitable for limited airflows only.

20 - 31
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

filtered
water water
eliminator

fan
reject
water

Figure 20.10 Wetted fan scrubber.

additional
clean
(optional) water
water
water supply eliminator

Figure 20.11 Venturi scrubber

The flooded orifice scrubber, illustrated on Figure 20.12, also has no moving parts and has the
additional advantage that there are no nozzles that might become clogged. Air from the inlet duct
flows outwards beneath a lip that is submerged in water. Movement of the air causes extreme
agitation of the water and entrainment of droplets. Collection efficiencies of more than 80 percent
can be achieved with this system.

The preferred location for a dust collection device is as close as practicable to the source of the
dust. The types of wet scrubbers outlined in the previous paragraphs are suitable as free-
standing units or within ventilation ducts. However, attempts to attach them to coal or rock
winning machines have shown them to be somewhat bulky for that application and insufficiently
robust to withstand the rigours of a working face. A device that met increasing favour for shearers
and continuous miners through the 1980's was the simple high pressure spray fan or induction
tube (Jones, 1978; Sartaine, 1985; James and Browning, 1988; Jayaraman et al, 1989). This is
illustrated by Figure 20.13 and consists of a water jet spraying into a tube of some 100 mm
diameter. The water is supplied at pressures in the range of 6 to 12 MPa through a nozzle of
about 1.5 mm diameter. The momentum of the fine droplets induces an airflow through the tube
and is very effective in removing dust. A single spray within a relatively small tube appears to be
more effective than multiple nozzles within a larger induction tube. Furthermore, hollow cone
sprays give a better performance than solid cone sprays.

20 - 32
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

airflow airflow

water
water
outlet
inlet

Figure 20.12 Principle of the flooded (or wet) orifice scrubber.

A series of 9 to 12 high pressure spray fans

built into a longwall shearer drum is capable of
promoting an airflow of up to 2 m3 /s around
the drum and can give reductions in airborne
dust concentrations of 80 percent compared to
conventional pick face flushing using the same
amount of water (James and Browning, 1988).

The direction of induced airflow is away from

the coal face and towards the travelling track.
Hence, dust laden air is drawn around the
high cutter picks and down the face side to the tube
pressure inlets. At the outlet of the tubes, the dust-laden
water droplets are discharged against deflector
plates and fall on to the conveyor. Similarly, a
number of induction tubes can be mounted in
Figure 20.13 The high pressure spray
parallel on the boom of a continuous miner
fan or induction tube.
(Jayaraman, 1989). When employed in
headings, the air induction may cause local
recirculation and greatly improved ventilation of the cutter heads. Provided that adequate airflow
is supplied to the face end of the heading, this will enhance the overall safety of the environment.
However, legislative enforcement agencies should be consulted in industries where recirculation
is prohibited.

The advantages of the high pressure spray induction tubes are that:

• they are simple, robust and have no moving parts

• they can be built into the machine structure
• they promote ventilation of the cutter heads as well as removing dust
• they give a good efficiency of dust capture and
• provided that the water pressure is maintained, there is little chance of blockage.

20.4.2.3. Dry filters and separators

There are many situations in subsurface ventilation systems where increasing the humidity of the
air by the use of wet scrubbers is inadvisable. These include mines where heat and humidity is
already a problem although cycling chilled water through wet scrubbers will reduce temperature,
humidity and dust concentration simultaneously. Other difficulties that can arise from increases in
humidity include clogging of hygroscopic minerals during transportation, roof control where the
overlying strata is subject to rapid weathering, and where the mineral is subject to spontaneous
combustion. In such circumstances, it may be preferable to employ dry filters to remove airborne
dust.

20 - 33
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 20.14 illustrates a fabric

filter. The air passes through a
dust fabric leaving dust particles
bag clean air adhering to the material or to the
dust cake that builds up on the
high pressure side. Air may flow
from the inside to the outside of
the bags as illustrated or in the
opposite direction, in which case
dust the bags are supported on an
cake internal frame. The dust cake is
dislodged at intervals of time by
mechanical agitation or a
reversed air pulse and falls to be
collected in the hopper. The
collected dust is either removed
dry and bagged by a mechanical
cleaning system or as a slurry
dusty air produced by addition of water to
the hopper.

The dust cake itself accomplishes

most of the filtration and
efficiencies of over 99 percent can
be achieved in the submicron
range. Airflow through the fine
apertures of the dust cake is
hopper laminar. Hence, fabric dust
clean-out gate collectors tend to follow a linear
(p = RQ) relationship. The overall
resistance of the unit arises from
the combined effects of the dust-
impregnated fabric and the dust
Figure 20.14 Principle of a fabric filter. cake. It is a straightforward matter
to show that

µx m  Ns
R = R(fabric ) + R(cake ) =  +  (20.55)
A kf k c Aρ  m5

where µ = dynamic viscosity of air (Ns/m2)

A = surface area of filter (m2)
x = thickness of fabric (m)
kf = permeability of dust-impregnated fabric (m2)
kc = permeability of dust cake (m2)
m = mass of dust in the dust cake (kg)
and ρ = density of the dust cake (kg/m3)

[The definition and units of permeability are explained in Section 12.3.2. However, manufacturers
may assume a standard value of air viscosity and quote filter permeabilities in terms of m3/s of
airflow through each (m2 of area) for unit pressure gradient through the material (Pa/m), i.e. m3/s
per m2 per Pa/m.]

20 - 34
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Equation (20.55) quantifies the increase in resistance as the thickness and, hence, mass of the
dust cake builds up. This also increases the capture efficiency of the device. The pressure
developed by the unit fan will rise and the air quantity will fall. An excessive pressure may cause
rupturing of the filter fabric. The cake must, in any case, be dislodged before the airflow drops to
an unacceptably low value. A backward curved (non-overloading) centrifugal fan operating on a
steep pressure-quantity portion of its characteristic curve is advisable.

The simplest type of fabric cleaning mechanism is an electro-mechanical agitator. If operation of

the unit can be interrupted every few hours (dependent upon dust loading) then the fan can
automatically be switched off and the bags shaken by the agitator. More sophisticated units allow
continuous operation by cycling the filtration and cleaning around several separate
compartments.

Reverse flow cleaning involves a temporary reversal of air direction. This eliminates the
mechanical linkages of the agitator system and is preferred for some types of fabric such as glass
cloth where the severe flexing action of mechanical shaking may break the fibres. Pulsed jet
reverse flow increases the efficiency of cleaning. Acoustic methods have also been employed to
dislodge filter cakes.

The choice of fabric material usually lies between cotton weaves, felted fabrics or a synthetic
such as polypropylene. The felted fabrics give an initially higher efficiency but synthetics are
preferable where moist conditions or hygroscopic minerals may tend to produce a sticky dust
cake. A newly installed bag will have a relatively low resistance. The initial mechanism is that dust
particles will become lodged within the material. This increases both the resistance to flow and
capture efficiency. Subsequent cleaning cycles will remove the dust cake but will have little effect
on dust that has become impregnated in the material (more is dislodged from the smoother fibres
of synthetic material). It follows that performance tests on a fabric dust collector should be
delayed until dust impregnation of the material has reached steady state.

Two types of cyclone have been developed for dust removal, both of which can be operated dry
or with the addition of water to improve capture efficiency. The conical cyclone operates by the
dusty air being constrained into a helical vortex of reducing radius. Figure 19.4 was drawn to
illustrate the conical cyclones used in dust samplers. Larger versions can be used as dust
collectors. Dust particles are subjected to two opposing forces in a cyclone; the centrifugal force
that tends to throw the particles out toward the wall, and drag of the air which tends to pull them
inward toward the central air outlet tube. The greater the mass of the particle and the rotational
velocity the more efficient the cyclone will become. Hence, the performance is enhanced for
larger particles and as the physical size of the cyclone decreases. Cyclones are normally
employed in groups for air cleaning. The centrifugal action is improved by arranging for the air to
enter tangentially. It is essential to remove the dust from the base continuously in order to avoid
re-entrainment. The finer particles that escape in the outlet air may be removed by a second
cyclone or other filtration device connected in series.

The cylindrical cyclone imparts helical vortices to the airflow by means of turning vanes in a duct.
The dust which concentrates and moves in helical fashion along the walls is collected and
removed through an annulus formed by a second inner duct. The capital cost of cyclones is
relatively low. They have no moving parts and are easy to maintain. However, the power
requirements are such that they are constrained to applications of low airflow.

Electrostatic precipitators are used widely as air cleaners in buildings and for surface industrial
applications such as the removal of fly ash from power station stacks or capturing aerosols in the
chemical and metallurgical industries. Although a well designed electrostatic precipitator can
reach capture efficiencies of over 99 percent in the submicron range, their need for high voltages
prohibits their use in gassy mines and mitigates against their employment in other underground
facilities.

20 - 35
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

The principle of operation of an electrostatic precipitator is that when an aerosol is passed

through an electric field produced by a pair of electrodes then the particles will become charged
and migrate towards one of those electrodes. For industrial applications, the active electrodes are
charged to voltages between 20 and 60 kV while the dust collecting electrodes are earthed. The
electric field is considerably enhanced in regions of sharp curvature on the electrode surfaces.
For this reason, the active electrodes are often wires hanging vertically downward. The wires are
usually charged negatively as this gives a more stable performance for heavy duty performance
although ozone can be formed. High energy electrons are emitted from the negatively charged
wires. Each electron collision with a gas molecule causes the ejection of two further electrons
which go on to repeat the process. This escalating process produces an electron avalanche and
is often accompanied by a visible glow; hence, the phenomenon is termed a corona. The gas
molecules that have lost electrons become positive ions and migrate towards the negatively
charged wires. However, further away from the active electrodes, the free electrons lose their
kinetic energy to the extent that they are no longer capable of dislodging further electrons from
gas molecules but are, instead, absorbed into those molecules. The electron avalanche ceases
and the edge of the corona is reached.

The gas molecules are then negatively charged, i.e. negative ions, and migrate towards an
earthed electrode. During that migration they become attached to dust particles which are also,
therefore, drawn towards an earthed electrode and adhere by electrostatic attraction to the
surface of that electrode. Upon contact, the particles begin to leak their charge to the earthed
electrode. Other layers of charged particles arrive and build up progressively. They too will
gradually give up their charge. However, the outermost layer of dust is always the most heavily
charged and will be analogous to a skin compressing the underlying particles and causing the
build-up of a dust cake. The dust can be dislodged into a lower hopper by rapping the earthed
electrodes.

In tube electrostatic precipitators, a single wire forms the active electrode suspended in a metal
cylinder which acts as the grounded electrode. However, for the larger flows found in industrial
applications, the plate precipitator has become more common. This is illustrated in Figure 20.15.
Air passes over the charged wire electrodes which are suspended between a series of grounded
plates. The dust collects on the surfaces of the plates. For some applications, the mechanisms of
dislodgment by rapping may be replaced by running a film of liquid down the plate surfaces or by
periodically dipping the plates into a liquid bath.

The efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator can be determined by an equation first derived by W.

Deutsch in 1922:

 A ue 
η = 1 − exp−  (20.56)
 Q 

where A = area of plates (m2)

Q = airflow (m3/s)
and ue = electrical (ion) migration velocity (m/s) (see equation (20.28))

The electrical migration velocity depends upon the type of dust and varies between 0.02 m/s for
fly ash to 0.2 m/s for gypsum. Although theoretical procedures have been derived for
quantification of the electrical migration velocity, tables of empirical values have, to this time,
proved to be more reliable (ASHRAE, 1988).

20 - 36
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

grounded plates

charged wire
electrodes

Figure 20.15 A plate electrostatic precipitator.

20.4.2.4. Personal respirators

Every effort should be made to maintain dust concentrations in subsurface workings within
mandatory threshold limits and safe for the health of the workforce. A final line of defence is the
personal respirator used to filter inhaled air. Two types are available. The first of these is a mask
that fits around the nose and mouth. The filter is necessarily a compromise between dust removal
efficiency and resistance. A respirator that requires more than about 150 Pa of pressure
difference at normal breathing rates is unlikely to be tolerated by personnel. Furthermore, contact
of the mask on the face can be irritating, especially in hot conditions. An improved version,
sometimes called an airstream helmet, utilizes a belt-mounted battery to power a small fan. This
passes air through a filter and up a tube to the helmet. The cleaned air flows downwards between
a transparent visor and the face of the wearer. This device does not rely on breathing effort nor is
there any direct face contact with the visor. It also provides eye protection with less visual
impedance than that given by goggles or safety glasses.

20.4.3. Dilution and layout of the ventilation system

Despite the availability of dust collectors, dilution of mine dust by the mine ventilation system
remains the primary method of controlling this hazard. The effects of airflow and air velocity have
already been discussed in earlier chapters. Section 9.3.3 deals with airflow requirements for
respirable and non-respirable dust while recommended air velocity limits are listed in Section
9.3.6. Exhaust systems of auxiliary ventilation are preferred for dust problems in headings
(Section 4.4.) while overlap arrangements can also handle gas emissions. Furthermore, it is
relatively straightforward to install in-line filters or dust collectors within ventilation ducts.

20 - 37
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Controlled partial recirculation, where allowed by legislative authorities, coupled with dust filtration
systems, can result in very significant reductions in general body dust concentrations (Section
4.5). The district ventilation systems discussed in Section 4.3 and designed to facilitate the
dilution and removal of airborne pollutants in working zones apply equally well to respirable dust.
Consideration might also be given to homotropal ventilation in which the airflow and mineral flow
are in the same direction (Section 4.2.3.). As conveyors or other mineral transportation systems
are then in return airways, any respirable dust they produce does not pass on to a working area.
Furthermore, on a longwall face with uni-directional coal winning, few personnel need be on the
downwind side of the machine. Despite these advantages, homotropal ventilation does have
some drawbacks, particularly in mines with heavy gas emissions (Stevenson, 1985).

20.4.4. Separation of personnel and dust

In Section 20.3.4 we described the re-entry period after blasting in metal mines as a classical
example of the separation of personnel from dust concentrations. Several other methods are
available to reduce the exposure of individuals or groups to dust. The United States Bureau of
Mines was active in developing this approach, particularly for the protection of the operators of
longwall face equipment and continuous miners in room and pillar workings.

Airflow diverters of two types have been fitted to such machines. First, barriers have been added
to shearers in order to divide the face airflow before it reaches the location of the cutting drum.
This is positioned such that it provides a split of relatively clean air to the shearer operator. A
great deal of research has been conducted into the use of spray fans to control the direction and
flow of air at continuous miners and longwall shearers. Appropriate location and design of these
triangular or cone shaped sprays not only assists in dust suppression but also ensures that
airborne dust is diverted away from operators' positions (National Research Council, 1980).

Air curtains have also been employed to prevent dust clouds from reaching operators' positions,
as well as assisting in the ventilation of cutter heads (Ford and Hole, 1984; Froger et al, 1984;
James and Browning, 1988). The air curtains may be directed across the top, bottom and sides of
the cutting zone. They are produced from tubes of about 10 mm diameter maintained at an air
pressure of approximately 1.5 kPa. A 2.5 mm slot runs along the length of the tube with an
attached guide plate angled such that air leaves the tube tangentially, clinging to the guide plate
(the Coanda effect) until it is deflected into the required direction by a splitter. Entrainment of
additional air assists in both the ventilating and dust control effects.

Another development that reduces dust exposure to machine operators has been the use of
remote controls. These allow personnel to stand some distance from the mineral- winning
machines while maintaining control by hand-held wireless units. Finally, studies leading to the
reorganization of work practices have also promoted reduced dust exposure of face personnel
(Tomb et al, 1990).

References
Allen, M.D. and Raabe, C.G. (1982). Re-evaluation of Milliken's oil drop data for the motion of small
particles in air. J. Aerosol Sci. 13, pp 537-547.

ASHRAE (1988). American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Equipment
Handbook, Chapter 11, pp 11-12.

Bandopadhyay, S. (1982). Planning with diesel powered equipment in underground mines. Ph.D. thesis.
The Pennsylvania State University.

20 - 38
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

Bhaskar, R., Gong, R., and Jankowski, R.A. (1991). Studies in underboom dust control to reduce
operator exposure to dust. 5th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp., W. Virginia, pp 197-206.

Bhaskar, R. and Ramani, R.V. (1986). Behavior of dust clouds in mine airways. Transactions of AIME,
Vol. 280, pp 2051-2059.

Booth-Jones, P.A., Annegarn, H.J. and Bluhm, S.J. (1984). Filtration of underground ventilation air by
wet dust-scrubbing, 3rd Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Harrogate, U.K., pp 209-217.

Chung, H.S. (1981). Coagulation processes for fine particles. Ph.D. Thesis, The Pennsylvania State
University.

Flagan, R.C. and Seinfeld, J.H. (1988). Fundamentals of air pollution engineering. Published by Prentice
Hall, 542 pp.

Ford, V.H.W. and Hole, B.J. (1984). Air curtains for reducing exposure of heading machine operators to
dust in coal mines, Ann. Occup. Hyg., Vol. 28, pp 93-106.

Froger, C., Courbon, P. and Koniuta, A. (1984). Dust-laden airflow control applied to worker protection:
scale model study of a steep seam working, 3rd Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Harrogate, U.K., pp 215-
217.

Gaudin, A.M. and Meloy, T.P. (1962). Model and a comminution distribution equation for repeated
fracture, Trans. AIME 223, pp 243-50.

Hamilton, R.J. and Walton, W.H. (1961). The selective sampling of respirable dust in inhaled particles
and vapours (editor Davies), Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Hartman, I. and Grenwald, H.P. (1940). Use of wetting agents for allaying coal dust in mines, U.S.
Bureau of Mines, IC-7131, 12 pp.

Heising, C. and Becker, H. (1980). Dust control in longwall workings, 2nd Int. Mine ventilation Congress,
Reno, Nevada, pp 603-611.

Hood, M. (1991). Private communication on jet-assisted rock cutting.

Hood, M., Knight, G.C. and Thimons, E.D. (1991). A review of jet-assisted rock cutting. Trans. of
ASME, Journal of Engineering for Industry.

James, G.C. and Browning, E.J. (1988). Extraction techniques for airborne dust control, 4th Int. Mine
Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 539-546.

Jayaraman, N.I. et al (1989). High pressure water-powered scrubbers for continuous miner dust control,
4th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp., Berkeley, CA, pp 437-443.

Jones, A.D. (1978). Experimental and theoretical work on the use of a high pressure water spray to
induce airflow in a tube and capture airborne dust. MRDE Report No. 73, National Coal Board, U.K.

Jones, A.D. (1978). Optimal design for water-powered dust extraction, M. Phil. Thesis, University of
Nottingham, U.K.

Knight, G. (1985). Generation and control of mine airborne dust, 2nd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp., Reno,
NV, pp 139-150.

Marshall., V.C. (1974). Comminution, Chameleon Press Ltd., London.

20 - 39
The aerodynamics, sources and control of airborne dust Malcolm J. McPherson

National Research Council (1980). Measurement and control of respirable dust in mines, U.S. National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., NMAB-363.

Owen, P.R. (1969). Dust deposition from a turbulent airstream (Aerodynamic capture of particles: editor,
Richardson).

Padmanabhan, S. and Mutmansky, J.M. (1989). An analysis of quartz occurrence patterns in airborne
coal mine dusts, 4th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp., Berkeley, CA, pp 463-474.

Prandtl, L. (1923). Ergebnisse der aerodynamischen versuchtsanstalt zu Gottingen; Oldenbourg, Munich

and Berlin, p 29.

Qin, J. and Ramani, R.V. (1989). Generation and entrainment of coal dust in underground mines, 4th
U.S. Ventilation Symp., Berkeley, CA, pp 454-462.

Ramani, R.V. et al (1988). On the relationship between quartz in the coal seam and quartz in the
respirable airborne coal dust, 4th Int. Mine ventilation Congress, Brisbane, pp 519-526.

Ramani, R.V. and Bhaskar, R. (1984). Dust transport in mine airways, Proc. Coal Mine Dust
Conference, W. Virginia University (ed. Peng), pp 198-205.

Sandys, M.P.J., and Quilliam, J.H. (1982). Sources and methods of dust control, Chap. 15,
Environmental Engineering in South African Mines, Mine Ventilation Society of S. Africa.

Sartaine, J.J. (1985). The use of water-powered scrubbers on NMS Marietta drum miners, 2nd U.S. Mine
Ventilation Symp., Reno, Nevada, pp 733-740.

Schröder, H.H.E., Runggas, F.M. and Krüss, J.A.L. (1984). Characterization of sonically atomized
water-spray plumes, 3rd Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Harrogate, U.K., pp 219-228.

Seinfeld, J.H. (1986). Atmospheric chemistry and physics of air pollution, Wiley, New York.

Stevenson, J.W. (1985). An operator's experience using antitropal and homotropal longwall face
ventilation systems, 2nd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp., Reno, Nevada, pp 551-557.

Stricklin, J.H. (1987). Longwall dust control at Jim Walters Resources, 3rd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp.,
Penn. State, pp 558-563.

Taylor, C.D., Kovscek, P.D. and Thimons, E.D. (1988). Dust control on longwall shearers using water
jet-assisted cutting, 4th Int. Mine Ventilation Congress, Brisbane, Australia, pp 547-553.

Tomb, T.F. et al (1990). Evaluation of longwall dust control on longwall mining operations, SME Annual
Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, Feb., pp 1-10.

Wang, Y.P. et al (1991). Use of surfactants for dust control in mines, 5th U.S. Mine Ventilation Symp., W.
Virginia, pp 263-270.

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 Part 5

Fires and Explosions

Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

CHAPTER 21. SUBSURFACE FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

21.1 INTRODUCTION 2
21.1.1. The fire triangle and the combustion process 3
21.1.2. Classification of mine fires 4
21.2 CAUSES OF IGNITIONS 4
21.2.1. Mechanized equipment 4
21.2.2. Electrical apparatus 5
21.2.3. Conveyors 5
21.2.4. Other frictional ignitions 6
21.2.5. Explosives 7
21.2.6. Welding 7
21.2.7. Smoking and flame safety lamps 7
21.3. OPEN FIRES 7
21.3.1. Oxygen-rich and fuel-rich fires 8
21.3.2. Effects of fires on ventilation 9
21.3.2.1. The choke effect 9
21.3.2.2. The buoyancy (natural draft) effect 10
21.3.3. Methods of fighting open fires 11
21.3.3.1. Firefighting with water 12
21.3.3.2. High expansion foam 13
21.3.4. Control by ventilation 14
21.3.4.1. Pressure control 14
21.3.4.2. Airflow reversal 15
21.4. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 17
21.4.1. The mechanisms of spontaneous combustion in minerals 17
21.4.1.1. The phases of oxidation 17
21.4.1.2. The effects of water vapour 18
21.4.1.3. The path of a spontaneous heating. 19
21.4.2. Susceptibility to spontaneous combustion 19
21.4.3. Precautions against spontaneous combustion 20
21.4.4. Detection of a spontaneous heating 23
21.4.5. Dealing with a spontaneous heating 24
21.4.5.1. Excavating the fire 24
21.4.5.2. Burying the fire 24
21.4.5.3. Sealants 25
21.4.5.4. Localized pressure balancing 25
21.4.5.5. Flooding and sealing off 26
21.5. STOPPINGS, SEALS AND SECTION PRESSURE BALANCES FOR
EMERGENCY SITUATIONS 27
21.5.1. Site selection of seals 28
21.5.2. Sequence of building seals 28
21.5.3. Construction of seals and stoppings 28
21.5.4. Re-opening a sealed area 30
21.5.5. Section pressure balances 31
21.6. THE USE OF INERT GASES 32
21.6.1. Carbon dioxide 32
21.6.2. Combustion gases 33
21.6.3. Nitrogen 33
21.6.4. Methods of application and control 33

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.7. FIRE GASES AND THEIR INTERPRETATION 35

21.7.1. The processes of burning and the gases produced 35
21.7.2. The detection and trend analysis of fire gases 36
21.7.3. Explosibility diagrams 39
21.8. EXPLOSIONS 45
21.8.1. Initiation of explosions 45
21.8.2. Mechanisms of explosions 46
21.8.2.1. Gas explosions 48
21.8.2.2. Coal dust explosions 48
21.8.2.3. Sulphide dust explosions 54
21.8.2.4. Dust explosibility tests 54
21.8.3. Suppression of mine explosions 54
21.8.3.1. Stonedust and water barriers 54
21.8.3.2. Triggered barriers and explosion detectors 55
21.8.4 Explosions in sealed areas. 56
21.8.4.1 Causes of explosions in abandoned areas. 56
21.8.4.2 Recognition of the hazard. 56
21.8.4.3 Approaches to the problem and the initial NIOSH Report. 56
21.8.4.4 Requirements of seals 58
21.9 PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL 61
21.9.1. Training and preparedness 61
21.9.2. Methods of warning and locating personnel 62
21.9.2.1. Stench warning systems 62
21.9.2.2. Ultra-low frequency radio signals. 63
21.9.2.3. More recent systems 63
21.9.2.4. Locating trapped persons 64
21.9.3. Self-rescuers 64
21.9.3.1. Filter self-rescuers (FSR's) 65
21.9.3.2. Self-contained self-rescuers (SCSR's) 65
21.9.4. Escapeways 66
21.9.5. Refuge chambers 68
21.10 EMERGENCY PROCEDURE AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT 68
21.10.1. Immediate response 69
21.10.2. Command centre 69
21.10.3. Disaster management 69
References 70

21.1 INTRODUCTION
The most feared of hazards in underground mines or other subsurface facilities are those of fires and
explosions. Like airplane crashes, these do not occur often but, when they do, have the potential of
causing disastrous loss of life and property as well as a temporary or permanent sterilization of mineral
reserves. Furthermore, "near-misses" occur all too frequently. The incidence of mine fires appears not to
be declining despite greatly improved methods of mine environmental design and hazard control. This is a
consequence of several matters; first the growing variety of materials that are imported into modern mine
workings, varying from resins and plastics to liquid fuels and hydraulic fluids. A second factor is the
continuous increase in the employment of mechanized procedures, many of the machines involving
flammable liquids and materials that can produce toxic fumes when over-heated.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Although this chapter concentrates on technical considerations the incidence of mine disasters is greatly
influenced by the priority afforded to safety and health by individual companies, states and countries. Mine
disasters are more prevalent at times when market prices for minerals and fuels are high. Attention paid to
mine safety is greatest in those countries that have active and well-funded research activities in this area
and which maintain industry awareness through an ongoing output of reports and papers. Such work also
assists in the promulgation of new or updated legislation.

These activities are often inter-related. A period of declining statistics of mine fatalities coupled with a
period of limited research tends to create a laissez-faire attitude in both industry and legislative bodies or
agencies. A boom market is then more likely to produce a spate of serious mine accidents. Public disquiet
results in (often hasty) legislative action to promote new research investigations and the imposition of
stricter standards and penalties on mining companies. Unfortunately, public memory tends to be short and
history has shown the repetitive nature of this cycle. It is within that context that this chapter has been
written.

The enormous loss of life due to mine fires and explosions during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
preoccupied the minds of mining engineers and scientists of the time (Chapter 1). The majority of deaths
arising from mine fires and explosions are caused, not by burning or blast effects, but by the inhalation of
toxic gases, in particular, carbon monoxide. There are two major differences between underground fires
and those that occur in surface structures. The first concerns the long distances, often several kilometres,
that personnel might be required to travel in passageways that may be smoke-filled. Secondly, the
ventilation routes are bounded by the confines of the airways and workings, causing closely coupled
interactions between the ventilation and behaviour of the fire.

It is difficult for anyone who has not had the experience, to comprehend the sensations of complete
isolation and disorientation involved in feeling one's way through a long smoke-filled mine airway in zero
visibility. It is a cogent exercise to turn off one's caplamp in an unilluminated return airway and to walk just
a few steps, even without the trauma of a highly polluted atmosphere.

It is, therefore, a matter of ongoing importance that all personnel involved in the design and operation of
underground openings should have some knowledge pertaining to the prevention and detection of
subsurface fires and explosions, as well as procedures of personnel warning systems, escapeways,
firefighting, toxic gases, training, fire drills and the vital need for prompt response to an emergency
situation. These are some of the topics that are discussed in this chapter.

21.1.1. The fire triangle and the combustion

process

Perhaps the most basic precept in firefighter

training is the fire triangle shown on Figure
21.1. This illustrates that the combustion
process which we term "fire" requires three
components: fuel, heat and oxygen.
Remove any one of these and the fire will be
extinguished. The fuel may be solids, liquids
or gases. The liquids and gases might be
introduced into the mine environment by
natural or mining processes, or may be
produced by heating solid materials.
Whenever a combustible solid or liquid is
heated to a sufficiently high temperature
(flashpoint), it will produce a vapour that is
capable of being ignited by a flame, spark or
hot surface which has the required

21 - 3
Figure 21.1 The fire triangle.
Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

concentration and duration of thermal energy. Gasoline has a flashpoint of -45°C while most commonly
available solids require the application of a flame for them to reach flashpoint. The ignition temperature of
any given substance is the lowest temperature at which sustained combustion is initiated. Flaming is the
process of rapid oxidation of the vapours accompanied, usually, by the emission of heat and light. In the
case of self-sustained burning, that heat is sufficient to raise the temperature of the newly exposed or
surrounding areas of surface to flashpoint. However, combustion can continue at a slower rate without
flaming through the process we know as smouldering. In this case, the oxidation process continues on the
surface of the material and produces sufficient heat to be self sustaining, but not enough to cause the
emission of vapours in the quantity required for flaming combustion.

The oxygen which forms the third side of the fire triangle is normally provided by the air. Flammable liquids
such as the oil of a flame safety lamp will cease to burn when the oxygen content of the air is reduced to
some 16 per cent (Section 11.2.2.). Flaming combustion of all kinds is extinguished at oxygen contents of
10 to 12 per cent while smouldering is usually terminated at oxygen concentrations below 2 per cent.
However, some materials may contain sufficient inherent oxygen for slow combustion to continue at even
further reduced levels of atmospheric oxygen. Coupled with the low values of thermal conductivity of
crushed material, this can result in "hot spots" lying dormant in abandoned areas for long periods of time,
but capable of re-ignition if a renewed air supply is admitted subsequently.

21.1.2. Classification of mine fires

Fires underground can be classified into two broad groups, open and concealed fires. Open fires occur in
airways, faces and other openings that form part of the active ventilation system of the mine and, hence,
affect the quality of the mine airflows quickly and directly. As the term might imply, open fires are often
accompanied by flaming combustion because of the availability of oxygen and offer the possibility of direct
attack by firefighting teams. Conversely, concealed fires occur in areas that are difficult or impossible to
access such as caved or abandoned zones. These are usually, but not necessarily, initiated as a result of
spontaneous combustion and can occur in both coal and sulphide ore minerals as well as within any
imported organic matter such as paper, discarded fabrics (e.g. oily rags) or timbering in abandoned areas.
The degree to which concealed fires propagate and pollute the mine atmosphere depends upon the rate at
which air leaks through the areas affected. The matter of spontaneous combustion is discussed in further
detail in Section 21.4.

21.2 CAUSES OF IGNITIONS

The variety of procedures, processes and materials used in modern mining provides many opportunities
for the ignition of flammable materials. However, the most commonly reported causes of fires and
explosions in mines are listed in the following subsections.

21.2.1. Mechanized equipment

Machines intended for use underground should be designed to operate with a high degree of safety in a
harsh physical environment, and are subject to legal requirements and conditions in most mining
countries. It is no surprise, therefore, that the majority of fires attributable to machines arise out of:

• misuse
• lack of proper maintenance
• removal or bypassing of safety features such as diagnostic devices, environmental monitors or
thermal trip switches and
• running unattended for long periods of time.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Exhaust systems on diesel equipment should be fitted with partculate filters or water scrubbers that not
only reduce airborne pollution (Section 11.3.2.), but also prevent the emission of incandescent particles.
Furthermore, hoses, transmission or brake fluids and a variety of components made from synthetic
materials on modern diesels may be capable of producing toxic gases when ignited. All vehicles or other
diesel equipment should be fitted with on-board fire extinguishers.

It is particularly important that equipment containing significant quantities of oil, such as large transformers
or air compressors, should be safeguarded by thermal trips, pressure relief valves and other devices
necessary for automatic cut-off in the event of any abnormal condition. Such devices should be subjected
to routine testing and maintenance. Wherever possible (and as may be required by law) non-mobile
equipment should be located within enclosures with fire-resistant roof, floor and walls, and which are
ventilated to a return airway. Again, fire extinguishers and, preferably, an automatic fire suppression
system should be available within the chamber. In coal mines, the surroundings in adjacent airways should
routinely be coated with stonedust (Section 21.8.3.1.).

21.2.2. Electrical apparatus

In addition to the general comments on mechanized equipment made in the preceding subsection,
electrical gear can give rise to incendiary hazards from sparking and overheating. Switchgear or battery
charging stations should be sited such that they are not affected by convergence or falls of roof. This is
most liable to occur close to mineral winning areas. Furthermore, start switches should be protected
against accidental operation by glancing blows from falling debris or passing traffic. Electrical sub-stations
and battery charging chambers should be equipped with non-aqueous fire extinguishers.

Cables in airways should be hung in catenary fashion on cradles suspended from the roof. They should be
located such that they will not be pinched by convergence or the yielding of roof supports, nor be impacted
by vehicles. The insulation and type of sheathing must be suitable for the electrical load and rigours of the
underground environment. All such cables should be inspected routinely for evidence of physical damage.

Electrical failures should result in immediate isolation of the power by means of overload and earth
leakage protective devices. In gassy mines, all electrical motors and heavy current devices should be
enclosed within flameproof casings so that any ignition of methane is contained within the equipment.
Signalling or other light current apparatus should be certified as intrinsically safe, i.e. incapable of
producing sparks of sufficient energy to ignite a methane:air mixture.

During non-working shifts, the electrical power supplied to each area of the mine should be isolated at the
appropriate highest level control centre or substation. Precautions should be taken against power surges
caused by lightning strikes on surface power lines, transformers, substations or any other lines that may
conduct the surge to underground excavations. Similarly, particular care should be taken against electrical
leakage in the vicinity of explosives or fuel storage areas.

21.2.3. Conveyors

Conveyor fires have been subjected to particular study because of the rapidity of fire propagation along
the early rubber-based types of conveyor belting. Modern conveyor belting for underground use must be
subjected to fire propagation tests (e.g. Verakis, 1991; Mutmansky et al, 2007). Three types of materials
are used for mine conveyor belts, namely, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), neoprene (NP) and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC). Composites of these materials are also employed. Following ignition of the belt material
and removal of the igniting source, the fire should preferably fail to propagate or, if it does, move at a slow
rate. However, it should be noted that heated belt material may produce hazardous fumes.

Numerous tests have indicated that fire propagation rates along conveyor belting are influenced by
airspeed (e.g. Hwang et al, 1991). At a relative velocity of some 1.5 m/s between the belt surface and the

21 - 5
Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

adjacent airstream, a phenomenon known as flash over attains its maximum effect. Flash over occurs
when a flame front from the burning belt reaches forward over an unburned surface with an optimum angle
and length such that the radiant effect on that surface reaches a maximum. This can cause flaming of the
top layer of belting and a significant increase in flame propagation rate along the surface of the belt.
Deeper layers in the weave of the material may or may not be ignited. The effect has been observed in
belts of compositions including SBR, PVC, and SBR–neoprene combination (Verakis and Dalzell, 1988).
Flashover involves a serious hazard as belt surface propagation rates may reach some 10 m/min. The
spread of fire along mine conveyors is influenced strongly by the turbulence of the airflow. Hence,
laboratory tests of small samples of belting can give misleading results. Large scale gallery tests are more
reliable.

Conveyor fires are most likely to be initiated by friction. If the belt becomes staked (immobilized) at any
point along its length and the drive rollers continue to turn, then high temperatures will be generated at the
drive head. Temperature monitors or belt tension transducers can sense this condition. Such devices
should be wired to isolate electrical power from the conveyor drive when an alarm condition is detected.
Similarly, a seized idler or return roller can become red-hot from the friction of a belt moving over or
around it. Conveyors should be patrolled regularly during operation in order to detect the development of
faulty rollers. Worn bearings will often be noisy and may also be detected by the smell of heated surfaces.
A further frictional hazard can occur if the conveyor becomes misaligned to the extent that the belt rubs
against surrounding surfaces such as the conveyor structure or airway sides.

In all of these cases, a fire may be initiated when lubricants, coal dust or flammable debris reach their
ignition points. It follows that dust or spillage should not be allowed to accumulate around and, particularly,
underneath conveyors. A clean conveyor road is much more likely to be a safe one. In coal mines,
conveyor entries should be well rock dusted

21.2.4. Other frictional ignitions

The main cause of methane ignitions on the working faces of coal mines is frictional sparking at the pick
points of coal winning machinery. This occurs particularly when the machine cuts through sandstone or
pyritic material. Two approaches have been taken to reduce this hazard. One is to ensure that there is
sufficient ventilation around the cutting drum to provide rapid dilution of the methane as soon as it is
emitted. It is, of course, important that the overall airflow at the working face is adequate to prevent
methane layering (Section 12.4.2.) and that the layout of the system minimizes flushes of methane from
worked-out areas (Section 4.3.2.). A number of devices have been employed to enhance air movement
across the pick points of shearers and continuous miners (e.g. Browning, 1988). Unfortunately, these may
exacerbate the dust problem unless combined with a wet scrubber (Section 20.4.2.2.).

The second approach to the incendiary streak of sparks that sometimes trails behind a cutter pick is to
quench it with water. This technique combines the suppression of both dust and methane ignitions. It is
achieved by pick face flushing and, even more efficiently, by jet assisted cutting (Section 20.4.1.1.).

Rope haulage systems have been the cause of some mine fires. Care should be taken that all pulleys and
return wheels are routinely serviced and lubricated. Ropes should not be allowed to rub against solid
surfaces such as the roof, sides or floor of airways and, particularly, timber supports. If haulage ropes
must pass through holes in stoppings then, again, the ropes should not contact the sides of the orifices.
Fluid couplings and enclosed gearings or direct drives are preferred to mechanical clutches, belts or V-
drives for the transmissions of mining machinery. However, where the latter are employed then, again,
regular inspections and maintenance are required to ensure their continued safe operation. Similarly,
mechanical braking systems should be well looked after.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.2.5. Explosives

The initiation of fires from explosives or igniter cord remains a danger in non-gassy mines. Incandescent
particles from blasting operations may contain sufficient heat energy to ignite dry wood or combustible
waste material. Igniter cord should never be hung on timber supports. A strict record should be maintained
on all explosives and detonating devices at the times of issue and return to the stores. The relevant
national or state legislation should be consulted for the conditions under which explosives may be stored
or transported underground.

21.2.6. Welding

All welding operations that are permitted underground should be carried out under well-controlled
conditions. Where there is any possibility of methane or other flammable gases being present then testing
for those gases should be carried out before and, at intervals, during the welding operations. Hot slag and
sparks from welding are easily capable of igniting combustible materials such as coal, wood, paper and
waste rags. Wherever possible, such materials should be removed from the vicinity of welding operations
and the remainder wetted down or coated by stonedust. Molten metal should not be allowed to drop on the
floor. Slag pans should be used to capture hot run-off. This is particularly important in coal mines, in shafts
and near timber supports. Fire extinguishers must be available at the sites of all welding operations.

Gas containers employed in oxy-acetylene cutting should be stored and used in a secure upright position.
Gas bottles must never be stored or used in the vicinity of explosives or concentrations of flammable
liquids.

21.2.7. Smoking and flame safety lamps

It is a sad fact that the use of smoking materials has been suspected as the cause of some fires and
explosions in mines. In those mines that have been classified as gassy, carrying such materials (often
known as contraband) into the subsurface is illegal. This law should be enforced with the utmost rigour.
Through well chosen examples during training and refresher classes a workforce will, themselves, ensure
compliance with non-smoking regulations.

In subsurface openings where smoking is permitted then, again, education, posters and warning signs
should be employed as ongoing reminders of the possible disastrous consequences of careless disposal
of smoking materials.

Damaged flame safety lamps have also been suspected of igniting a methane:air mixture. In the few
places where these devices remain in use, they should be treated with care and subjected to inspection
after each shift. When a high concentration of methane is detected by a blue flame spiralling rapidly within
a flame safety lamp (Section 11.4.2.2.) then the lamp should be lowered gently and, if necessary,
smothered inside one's clothing. Familiarity with the procedure should be gained through training and will
counter the natural reaction of the untrained person to drop the lamp or to throw it away in panic. (Section
11.4.2.2)

21.3. OPEN FIRES

Fires that occur in mine airways usually commence from a single point of ignition. The initial fire is often
quite small and, indeed, most fires are extinguished rapidly by prompt local action. Speed is of the
essence. An energetic ignition that remains undetected, even for only a few minutes, can develop into a
conflagration that becomes difficult or impossible to deal with. Sealing off the district or mine may then
become inevitable.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

The rate at which an open fire develops depends, initially, upon the heat produced from the igniting
source. A fine spray of burning oil from a damaged air compressor can be like a flame thrower and ignite
nearby combustibles within seconds. On the other hand, an earth leakage from a faulty cable may cause
several hours of smouldering before flames appear. The further propagation of the fire depends upon the
availability of fuel and oxygen (Figure 21.1). A machine fire in an untimbered metal mine airway will remain
localized if there is little else to burn in the vicinity. Conversely, an airway that is heavily timbered or with
coal surfaces in the roof, floor or sides will provide a ready path for speedy development and propagation
of a fire.

When an open fire has developed to the extent of causing a measurable change in the temperature of the
airflow then it can affect the magnitudes and distributions of flow within the mine ventilation system.
Conversely, the availability of oxygen to the fire site controls the development of the fire. This Section
discusses the coupled interaction between fire propagation and ventilation, and the means by which open
fires in mines may be fought.

21.3.1. Oxygen-rich and fuel-rich fires

At the start of most open fires in ventilated areas, there is a plentiful supply of oxygen - more than
sufficient for combustion of the burning material. Indeed, if the air velocity is brisk then heat may be
removed at a rate greater than that at which it is produced. The heat side of the fire triangle is removed
and the fire is "blown out". These are examples of oxygen-rich fires. Assuming that the fire continues to
proliferate, it will consume increasing amounts of oxygen and, at the same time, produce greater volumes
of distilled gases and vapours. The point may be reached when the heat of combustion produces
temperatures that continue to remain high enough to distill gases and vapours from the coal, timber or
other available fuels but with insufficient oxygen to burn those gases and vapours completely. The fire has
then become fuel-rich.

The development of an oxygen-rich into a fuel-rich fire is a serious progression and produces a much
more dangerous situation for firefighters. When flammable gases at temperatures exceeding their ignition
point meet relatively fresh air then they will ignite along the gas:air interfaces. The added turbulence may
produce intimate mixing of air and unburned gases resulting in explosions. These phenomena can occur
downstream from an open fire if air leaks into the firepath from adjacent airways. Firefighters are then
faced with a difficult decision. Leakage of air from adjacent airways must be into the firepath in order to
prevent spread of the fire into those adjacent airways, yet the admittance of that air may cause explosions
and propagation of the fire at a rate much greater than that allowed by burning of the solid material itself.

A similar effect occurs when buoyancy of the hot gases causes roll-back of smoke at roof level against the
ventilating current (Section 21.3.2.2.). This can occur over the heads of workers who are fighting the fire
from an upstream position. Again, burning of the gases along the air interface can occur, igniting coal or
timber in the roof and producing the danger of explosion. Personnel involved in fighting a fuel-rich fire may
become aware of pressure pulses or rapid fluctuations in the movement of the air. These are caused by
rolling flames and "soft" explosions as gases ignite along gas:air mixing zones. The same phenomena can
be observed following ignitions of methane (Section 1.2.). Such pulsations may be a precursor to a larger
and more violent explosion.

It follows that every attempt should be made to prevent an oxygen-rich fire from developing into a fuel-rich
fire. This underlines the need for early detection and prompt action. An intuitive reaction to a fire may be to
restrict the air supply and, hence, remove the oxygen leg of the fire triangle. This can be accomplished by
building stoppings or erecting brattice cloths upstream from an airway fire. However, consideration of the
dangers inherent in fuel-rich fires indicates that restricting the airflow might be inadvisable. Analyses of
gases downstream from fires can be interpreted to indicate whether a fire is oxygen-rich or fuel-rich
(Section 21.7).

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.3.2. Effects of fires on ventilation

An open fire causes a sharp increase in the temperature of the air. The resulting expansion of the air
produces two distinct effects. First the expansion attempts to take place in both directions along the
airway. The tendency to expand against the prevailing direction produces a reduction in the airflow. This is
known as the choke or throttle effect. Secondly, the decreased density results in the heated air becoming
more buoyant causing local effects as well as changes in the magnitudes of natural ventilating energy.

21.3.2.1. The choke effect

Consider an airway before it is affected by a fire. Air flows along it at a mass flowrate of M kg/s and doing
work against friction at a rate of F J/kg. The airpower dissipated against friction, Pow, is the product of the
two

J kg
Pow = F M or Watts (21.1)
kg s

The effect of a fire in the airway upon Pow depends upon the reactions of fans, natural ventilating
pressures and ventilation controls throughout the system. However, if no deliberate action is taken to
change these factors, it is reasonable to estimate that it remains sensibly constant.

Equation (7.10) gave us

p J
F = = Rt Q 2 (21.2)
ρ kg

where p = frictional pressure drop (Pa)

ρ = mean density of air (kg/m3)
Rt = rational turbulent resistance of the airway (m-4 )
and Q = mean value of airflow (m3/s)

Combining equations (21.1) and 21.2) gives

Pow = F M = R t MQ 2
M3
or Pow = R t W (21.3)
ρ2
as Q = M
ρ

Equation (21.3) may be written as

13
P  2 kg
M =  ow  ρ 3 (21.4)
 Rt  s

As Pow and Rt are constants,

2
M ∝ ρ 3 (21.5)

where ∝ means 'proportional to'

Hence, as the fire causes the density of the air to decrease, the mass flow of air will also decrease for the
same energy dissipation. This phenomenon produces the choke effect. It should be noted, however, that
the volume flow exiting the airway has increased.

As M = ρ Q , proportionality (21.5) can be written as

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

1 m3
Q ∝ 1
(21.6)
ρ 3 s

Note, also, from Pow = FM = constant, that as M decreases, the work done against friction per kg of air, F,
must increase - a result of the increased volume flow and, hence, turbulence.

The choke effect is analogous to increasing the resistance of the airway. For the purposes of ventilation
network analyses based on a standard value of air density, the raised value of this "pseudo resistance",
Rt', can be estimated in terms of the air temperature as follows:

From equation (21.3)

ρ2
R t = Pow m -4
M3

Hence, for any standard (fixed) value of density and constant air power loss,

1
Rt ' ∝
M3
But combining with proportionality (21.5) which represents the actual reduction in mass flow,

1
Rt ' ∝
ρ2
For a given barometric pressure, the general gas law (Section 3.3.1.) gives

1
ρ ∝ where T = absolute temperature (K)
T
Hence,
Rt ' ∝ T 2 (21.7)

The value of the "pseudo-resistance" Rt', increases with the square of the absolute temperature. However,
it should be recalled that this somewhat artificial device is required only to represent the choke effect in an
incompressible flow analysis.

Litton et al (1987) have also produced an estimate of the increased resistance in terms of the carbon
dioxide evolved from a fire.

21.3.2.2. The buoyancy (natural draft) effect

The most immediate effect of heat on the ventilating air stream is a very local one. The reduced density
causes the mixture of hot air and products of combustion to rise and flow preferentially along the roof of
the airway. The pronounced buoyancy effect causes smoke and hot gases to form a layer along the roof
and, in a level or descentional airway, will back up against the direction of airflow. The layering effect can
be estimated using the method given in Section 12.4.2.

This phenomenon of roll-back creates considerable difficulties for firefighters upstream from the fire,
particularly if the conflagration has become fuel-rich. The roll-back is visually obvious because of the
smoke. However, it is likely to contain hidden but high concentrations of carbon monoxide. Furthermore,
the temperatures of the roll-back may initiate roof fires of any combustible material above the heads of
firefighters. The most critical danger is that tidal flames or a local explosion may occur throughout the roll-
back, engulfing firefighters in burning gases.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

One method of reducing roll-back is to increase the airflow in the airway. This, however, will increase the
rate of propagation of the fire. Another method is to advance with hurdle cloths covering the lower 60 to 80
per cent of the airway (Section 12.4.2.). The increased air velocity at roof level will help to control the roll-
back and allow firefighters to approach closer to the fire. However, this technique may also cause the roll-
back gases to mix with the air and produce an explosive mixture on the forward side of the hurdle cloth.
Furthermore, the added resistance of the hurdle cloth might reduce the total airflow to the extent that a
fuel-rich situation is promoted. The behaviour of open fires is very sensitive to modifications to the airflow.
Hence, any such changes should be made slowly, in small increments, and the effects observed carefully.

A third method of combatting roll-back is to direct fog sprays towards the roof. In addition to wetting roof
material, the air induction effects of the sprays will assist in promoting airflow in the correct direction at roof
level.

A more widespread effect of reductions in air density is the influence they exert in shafts or inclined
airways. This was handled in detail under the name of natural ventilation in Section 8.3.1. The effect is
most pronounced when the fire itself is in the shaft or inclined airway, promoting airflow if the ventilation is
ascentional and opposing the flow in descentional airways. Indeed, in the latter case, the flow may be
reversed and can result in uncontrolled recirculation of toxic atmospheres.

If the air temperatures can be estimated for paths downstream of the fire then the methods given in
Section 8.3.1. may be employed to determine the modified natural ventilating pressures. Those
temperatures vary with respect to

• size and intensity of the fire

• distance from the fire
• time
• leakage of cool air into the airways affected and
• heat transfer characteristics between the air and the surrounding strata.

At any given time, air temperatures tend to fall exponentially with respect to distance downstream from a
fire. Climatic simulation models (Chapter 16) may also be employed to track the time transient behaviour
of air temperatures downstream from a fire. However, in that case, two matters should be checked. One is
that the limits of application of the program may be exceeded for the high temperatures that are involved.
Secondly, the transient heat flux between the air and strata will be much quicker than for normal climatic
variations. Hence, the virgin rock temperature (VRT) in the simulation input should be replaced by a
"surrounding rock temperature" (SRT), this being an estimate of the mean temperature of the immediate
envelope of rock around the airway before the fire occurs.

Having determined air temperatures in all paths downstream from the fire, the revised natural ventilation
pressures for the mine can be determined. These may then be utilized in network analysis exercises to
predict the changes in flow and direction that will be caused by a fire of given thermal output. A number of
fire simulation packages have been developed to allow numerical modelling of mine fires (e.g. Trutwin et al
(1992). Greuer, (1984); Greuer, 1988; Dziurzynski et al, (1988); Deliac et al, (1985); Stefanov et al, (1984);
Wala (1998); Gillies et al (1995). Gillies A.D.S., et al (2004).

21.3.3. Methods of fighting open fires

The majority of open fires can be extinguished quickly if prompt action is taken. This underlines the
importance of fire detection systems, training, a well-designed firefighting system and the ready availability
of fully operational firefighting equipment. Fire extinguishers of an appropriate type should be available on
vehicles and on the upstream side of all zones of increased fire hazard. These include storage areas and
fixed locations of equipment such as electrical or compressor stations and conveyor gearheads.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Neither water nor foam should be used where electricity is involved until it is certain that the power has
been switched off. Fire extinguishers that employ carbon dioxide or dry powders are suitable for electrical
fires or those involving flammable liquids.

Deluge and sprinkler systems can be very effective in areas of fixed equipment, stores and over
conveyors. These should be activated by thermal sensors rather than smoke or gas detectors in order to
ensure that they are operated only when open combustion occurs in the near vicinity.

The two direct methods of firefighting introduced in this Section involve the application of water and high
expansion foam. The additional or complementary means of fire management by adjustment of ventilation
controls and the injection of an inert gas are discussed in Sections 21.3.4. and 21.6. respectively.

21.3.3.1. Firefighting with water

Except where electricity or flammable liquids are involved, water is the most common medium of
firefighting. When applied to a burning surface, water helps to remove two sides of the fire triangle. The
latent heat of the water as it vapourises and the subsequent thermal capacity of the water vapour assist in
removing heat from the burning material. Furthermore, the displacement of air by water vapour and the
liquid coating on cooler surfaces help to isolate oxygen from the fire.

Water is normally applied by hosepipes upstream from the fire. A difficulty in subsurface firefighting is the
limited reach of water jets imposed by the height of the airway. This underlines the vital need for water to
be available at adequate pressure and quantity in the firefighting range. In order for a water jet to reach
some 30 m in a typical coal mine entry, water pressures should be in the range 800 to 1400 kPa (Mitchell,
1990) and capable of supplying up to five hoses from a manifold connected to a single hydrant. In practice,
the range of water jets in mine airways may often be no greater than 10 m. The nozzles should
preferentially be of the adjustable type to give either a jet or a fog spray.

Hard won lessons indicate the need for careful forethought in designing a mine firefighting water network.
The air and the water should flow in the same direction so that firefighters do not become dependent on a
water supply that passes through the fire before it reaches them. Hydrants should be located at strategic
points with respect to areas of increased fire hazard, at intervals along airways and at cross-cuts with
access doors. All fittings for hydrants and range components should be standardized throughout any given
mine. Non-metallic caps should be used at hydrant outlets to minimize corrosion. However, these caps
must always be removable by hand and without undue force. Supplies at firefighting stations should be
inspected at set intervals to ensure their operational efficiency at all times. Range fittings should include
tee-pieces, blank-off caps and manifolds. It is particularly important that hosepipes be unrolled and
examined for deterioration on a planned maintenance schedule and that they should be stored according
to manufacturers' recommendations.

If access can be gained to an airway that runs parallel to a fire then fog sprays can be directed through
doors or holed stoppings into the path of the fire. This can be effective if the sprays are employed at an
early stage and immediately downstream from the fire front. (see Fig 21.2). However, for a large
conflagration or where the fire has become fuel-rich, it is likely to lose its effectiveness.

The locations of pumps and configuration of their power supplies should be considered carefully with
respect to the layout of the mine. The pumps and routes of their cables should be chosen such that they
are least likely to be disrupted by a fire. Dual power supplies via alternative routes may be considered.
Furthermore, power for firefighting pumps should be capable of being maintained when electricity to
working sections of the mine has to be isolated. Underground sumps can provide valuable water capacity.
However, the firefighting system should also allow water to be supplied in adequate quantities from
surface locations.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.3.3.2. High expansion foam

Large volumes of water-based foam provide a valuable tool for fighting fires in enclosed spaces such as
the basements of buildings or in the holds of ships. It has been employed for mine fires since at least 1956
(Eisner). The method is employed on large fires and, although it has had somewhat limited success in
extinguishing mine fires, it can play a valuable role in cooling and quenching an area to an extent that
allows firefighters with hoses to approach closer to the firefront. Even when sealing an area has become
inevitable, valuable time for rescue operations can be bought by employing high expansion foam.

The bubbles are generated by a fan which blows air through a fabric net stretched across a diffuser. The
net is sprayed continuously with a mixture of water and foaming agent. Bubbles can be produced at a rate
of several cubic metres per second (Strang and MacKenzie-Wood, 1985). Compounds such as
ammonium lauryl sulphate may be employed as the foaming agent while the addition of
carboxymethylcellulose improves the stability of the bubbles (Grieg et al, 1975).

The objective is to form a plug of high expansion foam which fills the airway and is advanced on to the fire
by the ventilating pressure. The ratio of air to water within the foam may be in the range 100:1 to 1000:1.
As the foam advances, bubbles break around the perimeter of the airway when they touch a dry surface.
However, the liquid that is released wets that surface and allows advancement of the following bubbles.
Shrinkage of the foam occurs continuously at the leading edges and accelerates because of radiant
effects as it approaches the burning material.

Control of the combustion process is achieved by two primary mechanisms. First, vapourization of the
water removes heat from the site and, secondly, the increased concentration of water vapour may produce
an extinguishing atmosphere. As the air within the bubbles is heated to 100°C it will expand by some 30
per cent. However, the vapourization of liquid water to a gas involves an expansion of about 1700:1.
Assuming an air:water mix in the foam of 1000:1 a thousand litres of air expands to 1300 litres while 1 litre
of water evaporates to become 1700 litres of water vapour giving 3000 litres of mixture. If the air originally
had an oxygen content of 21 per cent then the evaporation of water will reduce that to
1300
21× = 9.1 percent which will extinguish flaming combustion.
3000

Despite these mechanisms, high expansion foam does have some drawbacks. First, it may be quite
difficult to generate a foam plug that fills the airway completely. As the plug builds up, the air velocity will
increase through the narrowing channel between the plug and the roof, tending to maintain the gap open.
Judicious employment of brattice cloths may assist in forming a complete plug of foam. It is important to
control the path of the foam and, in multi-entry systems, this can be problematic. The natural direction of
movement of the foam is dictated by the ventilating pressure. Here again, brattice cloths or stoppings in
cross-cuts to adjacent parallel entries can assist in controlling the direction of the foam. Major obstructions
caused by roof falls are quite liable to occur during a large underground fire. A foam plug may not be able
to climb over such obstructions with the ventilating pressure available.

The greatest danger of foam plugs is that the reduction in airflow may promote a fuel-rich fire with the
attendant danger of explosion. Downstream gases should be monitored for the development of this
condition. Both increases and decreases in combustible gases have been reported in differing fires when
high expansion foam has been employed. The reduction in airflow will tend to raise the concentration of
combustible gases. However, as the inert mixture of air and water progresses downstream, condensation
of the water occurs, allowing the air fraction to increase and, hence, modifying the combustible gas
concentrations.

After the application of high expansion foam has been initiated, it is important to maintain it in operation
during fire fighting as intermittent production of foam can exacerbate the development of an explosive
atmosphere. This underlines the need for good training so that operators are familiar with the equipment
and procedure. Furthermore, care should be taken that sufficient supplies of foaming agent are available
before the operation is started (Timko et al, 1988).

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.3.4. Control by ventilation

When contemplating changes to airflows and applied pressure differentials during a fire emergency, there
are four types of effect that must be considered most carefully.

(a)The effect on the combustion process: The importance of avoiding the progression of an oxygen-rich
fire into a fuel-rich fire has already been stressed in Section 21.3.1.

(b) The effect on direction and rate of propagation of the fire: Every attempt should normally be made to
prevent an open fire from spreading into other airways. However, exceptions from this general rule may
become necessary to guide products of combustion away from trapped personnel. An example may be the
deliberate destruction of a stopping or air crossing to divert or short-circuit a fire path from an intake airway
into an adjacent return. Again, any modifications of the airflow passing through the fire zone must seek to
achieve a balance between speed of propagation and control of the combustion process.

(c) Effects on the distribution of products of combustion: This becomes a critical issue when personnel
have become trapped inby the fire, particularly if their exact whereabouts are unknown. However, any
steps that will improve atmospheric conditions in escapeways require to be investigated.

(d) Effects on airflow distributions in other parts of the mine: While the consequences of ventilation
changes in the zone affected by the fire are of immediate concern, the effects of such changes throughout
the rest of the mine should not be overlooked, particularly in a gassy mine or when personnel may still be
evacuating other areas.

If a computer model of the mine ventilation network has been maintained up to date then this will prove
invaluable in investigating the predicted effects of proposed changes to the ventilation system. With a
modern network analysis package (Section 7.4.), a personal computer or terminal in the emergency
control centre can produce such predictions within seconds. Nevertheless, the uncertainties inherent in a
fire situation demand that actual changes to the airflow system be made incrementally while observing the
reactions on distributions and gas concentrations. The following subsections discuss the practical
strategies that may be employed to control a fire by ventilation.

21.3.4.1. Pressure control

Airways that are parallel and adjacent to the fire path will remain unpolluted provided they are maintained
at a higher atmospheric pressure. These allow access for escape, firefighting, building or strengthening of
stoppings in cross-cuts, or to apply water sprays into the fire path. In multi-entry workings, control of such
pressure differentials can be achieved by the erection of brattice cloths in the adjacent airway as illustrated
in Figure 21.2. Even if the pressure differential in the desired direction is not completely achieved, the
reduced rate of toxic leakage may allow time for personnel to escape. If necessary, the brattice cloths may
be advanced pillar by pillar to remove smoke sequentially from the adjacent airway. Devices such as the
"parachute stopping" or "inflatable seal" have been developed to replace brattice cloths in such
circumstances. These can be erected quickly and give improved seals around the perimeter of the airway
(Kissell and Timko, 1991).

A consequence of this technique is that the airflow over the fire will be increased to an extent that
depends upon the configuration and resistances of the local airways. Pressure differentials between
airways can also be modified by the use of a temporary fan instead of a restriction in the adjacent airway.
In this case, airflow over the fire will be reduced. The location and pressure developed by the fan must be
selected with care in order to avoid recirculation of products of combustion. Where pressure differentials
are small, even the few Pascals developed by a free-standing auxiliary fan can induce the desired effect
(Section 4.4.3.).

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

fire smoke

brattice

Figure 21.2 A brattice sheet in the adjoining airway clears smoke from that airway by
promoting leakage into the firepath.

21.3.4.2. Airflow reversal

Many mines operate under a legislative requirement that the airflow provided by main fans must be
capable of being reversed promptly. The background to such laws is the fear of a fire or other inundation
of airborne pollutants occurring within a downcast shaft or main intake airway. Noxious and, possibly,
flammable gases could then contaminate all, or most, of the ventilation system including working areas
and return escapeways. If the fire is detected at an early stage then pollution of the complete system may
be prevented by prompt reversal of the airflow. Even where contamination of the total network has
occurred, air reversal may allow clearance of pollutants from return airways to the extent that a fresh air
route may be established between surface and refuge chambers where personnel may be trapped. The
decision to reverse a complete mine ventilation system is fraught with difficulties and has very seldom
been taken in practice.

There are essentially three methods of achieving the reversal of airflow in a ventilation system. Where
axial impellers are used on the main fans, then changing the direction of rotation will cause reversal of the
airflow. This can be implemented electrically at the fan motor. However, axial fans operate efficiently in
one direction only. The aerofoil section of each impeller blade is designed to give aerodynamic stability of
flow through the fan. When operating in reverse, breakaway of the boundary layers over the blades
occurs, resulting in high shock losses. The "lift" of the blades and, hence, the throughflow of air is greatly
reduced (Section 10.3.2.). Similarly, fixed guide vanes, fan casings and evasees, all designed for a
forward direction, will produce high shock losses when the airflow is reversed. The reversed air quantity
may be reduced to less than 50 per cent of the normal forward flow (Dunn, 1982).

In the case of centrifugal fans, airflow reversal can be achieved only by means of reversal doors. The flow
direction through the fan itself remains unchanged. For an exhausting centrifugal fan located at the mine
surface, hydraulic or pneumatic activation of the reversal doors opens the fan inlet to the outside
atmosphere and, simultaneously, diverts the fan exhaust into the mine shaft or slope. The opposite occurs
for a forcing centrifugal fan. Where reversal doors are fitted as part of a surface fan installation, their
operation should be checked routinely as part of a planned maintenance procedure.

Although the flow direction through a centrifugal fan remains unchanged, the shock losses incurred when
air reversal doors are activated results in a reduced flow. The amount of the reduction is site specific and
depends entirely upon the design and siting of the reversal doors, and the configuration of the fan with
respect to the inlet and outlet duct arrangements. The possibility of requiring air reversal should be
considered when designing the layout of airways and ventilation doors around an underground main fan.
Such reversal should be attainable rapidly by opening or closing those doors.

During the course of ventilation network planning exercises (Chapter 9), it is often possible to design
systems that allow rapid reversal of airflow in one section of the mine, or in a single airway, without total
reversal at the main fans. This may be achieved by the strategic location of doors that can be opened or
closed to permit airflow in either direction. Means of such local reversal might be considered, for example,
for a conveyor route that is also to serve as an intake during normal operations.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Mandating the provision of air reversal facilities for an underground mine appears to be a reasonable
safeguard. However, except in a clear-cut case such as a fire in or very close to a downcast shaft, the
potential risks associated with reversing the airflow may be greater than those of maintaining the normal
direction of flow, particularly in the short time period that may be available for making critical decisions.

The reasons that mine managements have very rarely decided to reverse ventilation during an emergency
are both practical and also because of possible litigation should lives be lost as a consequence of the
reversal. During the trauma of a major emergency involving changing conditions in air quality and possible
disruptions of ventilation structures and communications, it may be impossible to know with certainty the
locations, movements and dispersal of the workforce. Reversal of the airflow could then result in smoke
and toxic gases being drawn over personnel who had assembled in a previously unpolluted zone. It may
be expected that people who work routinely in a section of the mine will be familiar with the local
ventilation system and, in case of an emergency, will act in accordance with that knowledge. Reversing
the airflow could create additional uncertainty and confusion in their actions.

The majority of doors in airlocks or access paths between intakes and returns are designed to be self
closing, assisted by the mine ventilating pressure. This may be a legislative requirement. In the event of
airflow reversal, those doors will be blown open and create short circuits unless they are provided with
self-locking devices. Even in the latter situation or where powered doors are employed, the proportion of
air leakage must be expected to increase when the pressure differential across the door reverses. Hence,
coupled with the diminution in overall flow caused by the reversal procedures, the reversed ventilation
reaching the working areas must be expected to be much lower than the normal forward flow.

High temperatures usually preclude firefighting rescue teams from approaching a fire from the downstream
side. If the airflow is reversed over a fire in an intake then firefighting teams must transport their equipment
and materials to a fresh air base inby the fire.

The expansion of gases held in old workings or other voidage, and resulting from a drop in barometric
pressure, is discussed in Section 4.2.2. In the case of a forcing fan being reversed to create an exhausting
system, the rapid fall in barometric pressure throughout the system may cause large emissions of voidage
gas. If these contain high concentrations of methane, passing it into the fire zone could result in a series of
explosions propagating far back into the mine. Another possibility is that during the actual process of
reversal, flammable gases from the strata or produced by incomplete combustion or volatilization of
hydrocarbons may be drawn back over the fire, again, leading to the possibility of explosions.

Although there may be several hundred tonnes of moving air in a major subsurface structure, the braking
effects of viscous shear and turbulence causes it to be a well-damped system. Hence, when a main fan
stops, the effect is noticeable almost immediately at all places underground. In the majority of cases,
natural (thermal) ventilating effects will maintain movement in the normal direction.

In the situation of forced reversal, the transient effects will exist for much longer time periods than for a
simple stoppage of a main fan. This is because redistributions of the natural ventilating effects will not be
completed until a new equilibrium of heat transfer has been established between the strata and the airflow.
This may take several hours or even days. Furthermore, the fire itself will create thermally induced airflows
with, perhaps, local reversals and recirculations. There is, therefore, some uncertainty concerning the
speed at which reversal can be attained throughout the system and the stability of the reversed airflows.
Research in Poland has indicated the efficacy of accelerating reversal by the use of intensive water sprays
directed into the top of an upcast shaft (Trutwin, 1975).

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.4. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION

When air is allowed to percolate through many organic materials including coal then there will be a
measurable rise in temperature. The same phenomenon can be observed in crushed sulphide ores and is
caused by a progressive series of adsorptive, absorptive and chemical processes. These produce heat
and an observable elevation in temperature. The percolating airflow will, therefore, remove that heat
increasingly as the temperature of the material rises. If the leakage airflow is sufficiently high then a
balanced equilibrium will be reached at which the rate of heat removal is equal to the rate at which heat is
produced; the temperature will stabilize. The process will also reach an air-constrained equilibrium if the
airflow is sufficiently low to inhibit the oxidation processes. However, between these two limits there is a
dangerous range of percolating airflows that will encourage spontaneous heating.

Each material that is liable to spontaneous combustion has a critical temperature known as the minimum
self-heating temperature (SHT). This is the lowest temperature that will produce a sustained exothermic
reaction or thermal runaway. Hence, if the temperature reaches the SHT before thermal equilibrium is
attained then the oxidation process will accelerate. The temperature will escalate rapidly, encouraging
even higher rates of oxidation until the material becomes incandescent. At this stage, smoke and gaseous
products of combustion appear in the subsurface ventilation system. The mine then has a concealed fire.
The primary dangers of such occurrences are the evolution of carbon monoxide, the ignition of methane
and combustion progressing into airways to produce open fires.

The phenomenon of spontaneous combustion has been recognized since at least the seventeenth century
(PD-NCB, 1978). An early theory postulated that oxidation of pyritic material within coal provided centres
of enhanced activity. Bacterial action is a factor in the initial natural heating of hay and other foodstocks.
This can play a part in the spontaneous combustion of timber or organic waste material underground but is
unlikely to contribute significantly to the self-heating of coal or other minerals. Similarly, while increases in
the temperature of materials can be observed in ore passes (Section 15.3.6.), the gravitational energy of
collapsing waste areas in mines produces temperature rises that are insufficient to promote spontaneous
combustion. Current concepts of the initiation of self-heatings are discussed in the following subsection.

21.4.1. The mechanisms of spontaneous combustion in minerals

Although spontaneous combustion can occur in crushed or caved sulphide minerals and in heavily
timbered areas within metal mines, the problem is most common in coal mines. Research in this area has
concentrated on the spontaneous combustion of coals.

The development of self-heating requires a large surface area of crushed material combined with a slow
migration of air through that material. Hence, the problem arises in goaf (gob) areas, caved zones,
crushed pillar edges, fractured coal bands in roof or floor strata, stockpiles and tips on surface, and within
abandoned sections of mines. The progressive stages of spontaneous combustion appear to be complex
and not yet fully understood. Here, we shall examine the effects of oxygen, elapsed time and water.

21.4.1.1. The phases of oxidation

The oxidation processes of coal occur in four stages (Banerjee, 1985).

(a) Physical adsorption (Section 12.2.1.) of oxygen on coal commences at a temperature of

about -80°C and is reversible but diminishes rapidly as the temperature increases to
become negligible beyond 30 to 50°C. The process of adsorption produces heat as a by-
product of the modified surface energy of the material. This causes the initial rise in
temperature.

(b) Chemical absorption (known also as chemisorption or activated sorption) becomes

significant at about 5°C. This progressively causes the formation of unstable compounds of
hydrocarbons and oxygen known as peroxy-complexes.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

(c) At a temperature which appears to approximate the self-heating temperature (SHT) of the
coal, the peroxy-complexes decompose at an accelerating rate to provide additional oxygen
for the further stages of oxidation. This occurs within the range of approximately 50 to 120°C
with a typical value of 70°C. At higher temperatures, the peroxy-complexes decompose at a
greater rate than they are formed (Chakravorty, 1960) and the gaseous products of chemical
reaction appear - in particular, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and the
oxalic acids, aromatic acids and unsaturated hydrocarbons that give the characteristic odour
of "gobstink" (Section 21.4.4.).

(d) When the temperature exceeds some 150°C, the combustion process accelerates rapidly.
Incineration of the coal occurs with escalating emissions of the gaseous products of
combustion.

The rate at which oxygen is consumed

14 varies both with time and the phase of
oxidation as illustrated in Figure 21.3.
12 Oxygen is taken up rapidly in the earlier
stages of chemisorption and as the
pyroxy-complexes are formed.
10 However, this reduces with time and as
the surfaces become coated
8 (weathered) with those oxygen
compounds. The temperature curve
6 tends to level off and may reach
equilibrium. However, if the SHT is
reached, as illustrated in Figure 21.3,
4 then both the rate of oxygen
consumption and the temperature
2 escalate rapidly.

0 21.4.1.2. The effects of water vapour

There are two processes involving water that
100 act in opposite directions. First, the moisture
content of the coal is driven off by evaporation
during the early stages of heating. Hence,
80
some of the heat is removed in the water
vapour as latent heat of evaporation, tending
60 to inhibit the temperature rise of the coal. The
second process involves adsorption of water
40 vapour from the air by the coal (Hodges and
Hinsley, 1964). The heat of adsorption
(sometimes called heat of wetting) produces
20 an increase in the temperature of the material.
It follows that the net effect depends on which
of the two processes is dominant. Coal which
T I M E is completely saturated with water is unlikely
Figure 21.3 Examples of changes in oxidation rate and to increase in temperature due to heat of
temperature with respect to time (developed from wetting. However, a dry crushed coal that is
Muzyczuk, ref. Banerjee, 1985). infiltrated by moist air can exhibit an initial
The time scale is omitted as this can vary from a few rapid rise in temperature from this
hours to many days depending upon the type and phenomenon.
fineness of the coal, and the flowrate and psychrometric
condition of the air.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Adsorption of water vapour adds considerably to the early stages of spontaneous heating of coal. It is
significant that coal mines in dry climates tend to be less troubled by spontaneous combustion. However, it
has been observed that re-ignition of coal frequently occurs on re-opening a mining area that has been
flooded to extinguish a fire. This is thought to occur for two reasons. First, the flooding and subsequent
drainage may produce further disintegration of the coal and the creation of new surfaces; and, secondly, it
is probable that many points of higher elevation or entrapped gases may not be fully flooded and remain at
a sufficiently high temperature (hot spots) to inhibit adsorption. When cooler air is admitted subsequently it
will pick up water vapour as it progresses through the wet conditions. An initial short-lived cooling of the
hot spots may be followed by rapid adsorption of water vapour and a renewed escalation of temperature.

21.4.1.3. The path of a spontaneous heating.

The processes of oxidation and adsorption do not occur uniformly throughout a mass of crushed
combustible material. The rate and directions of air migration and the air:surface contact area depend
upon the geometry of the zone, compaction from overlying strata and the fineness of the crushed material.
Hence, the rapid escalation of temperature that characterizes the development of a concealed fire occurs
first at discrete foci or "hot spots". The synergistic effects of iron pyrites are now thought to be caused by
differential rates of expansion during the early stages of heating. The coal around the pyrites becomes
more finely crushed and produces additional area for oxidation. Furthermore, the pyrite itself becomes
oxidized, adding to the escalation in temperature. Green crystals of ferrous sulphate are formed which
oxidize further to the yellow hydrated ferric oxide, a characteristic feature of zones in coal mines that have
been involved in spontaneous combustion.

The migration of the heating again depends upon the rate and direction of air leakage. However, in
contrast to open fires, the tendency is for a spontaneous heating to propagate through crushed
material against the airflow, i.e. towards the intake airways.

21.4.2. Susceptibility to spontaneous combustion

A large number of tests and indices have been devised as suggested measures of the liability of
differing coals and other materials to spontaneous combustion. These have involved:

• coal petrology and rank, the younger and lower ranks of coal being more susceptible
• rates of oxygen consumption or temperature rise at specified phases of the oxidation process
• self-heating temperatures (SHT) or other temperatures at specified stages of the heating process
• rates of heat production during isothermal or adiabatic tests.

No such test or index has been found to have universal application. The difficulty is that susceptibility to
spontaneous combustion depends not only upon the material but also its physical state as well as the
psychrometric condition and migration paths of the leakage airflows, the latter depending, in turn, upon the
mining methods and layout. The matters of additional relevance are:

™ amount and degree of comminution of crushed material left in the goaf (gob) area, these
depending upon:
• friability of coal
• type of coal winning machine
• efficiency of coal clearance (removal)
• roof, floor or pillar coal left (percentage extraction)
• thickness of seams and need for multi-lift or caving mining systems
• depth and pre-stressing (microfracturing) of coal
• geological disturbances

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

™ methods of stowing and sealing of roadsides

™ gradient of the seam and proximity of other seams
™ length of face
™ rate of face advance or retreat
™ roof/floor stability and strata stresses in the vicinity of pillar edges, stoppings, air crossings
and ventilation doors
™ the air pressure differential across the affected area
™ the layout and resistances of surrounding airways and faces, including obstructions
™ degree of consolidation and, hence, resistance of the caved areas
™ the relative moisture contents of the coal and air
™ the reduction of oxygen content in the goaf (gob) areas by the emission of methane or other gases.

With this number and variety of factors it is not surprising that efforts to characterize the susceptibility of
coals to spontaneous combustion purely on the basis of laboratory tests have met with rather limited
success. An improved approach involves allocating weighted credit to each of the factors listed in an
attempt to develop a site-specific indication of liability to spontaneous combustion (e.g. Banerjee, 1985;
PD-NCB, 1978).

21.4.3. Precautions against spontaneous combustion

As with most potential hazards in the subsurface environment, precautionary measures against
spontaneous commence at the time of planning and design of the mine. Core samples of the seam or ore
should be subjected to susceptibility tests discussed in the previous section. The layout of the ventilation
network should be designed to minimize pressure differentials between adjoining airways and across
caved areas. This might be arranged, for example, by favouring through-flow rather than U-tube
arrangements (Section 4.3.1.). While design airflows must be sufficient to deal with gases or other
airborne pollutants, consideration should be given to means of reducing those airflows such as methane
drainage. Booster fans, where allowed by law, provide a powerful means of air pressure management and,
coupled with the techniques of network analysis to investigate locations and fan duties, are most valuable
in reducing incidences of spontaneous combustion. Branch resistances in the surrounding ventilation
network should be kept as low as practicable by means of larger cross-sections or driving parallel entries.
Furthermore, obstructions in those airways should be avoided.

The probability of spontaneous combustion can be reduced by minimizing the amount of coal, timber,
paper, oily rags or other combustible materials that are left in gob areas. This may be inevitable if top coal
must be left for the purposes of roof control. Nevertheless, efficient clearance of the fragmented coal from
the face and good housekeeping should be practiced in mines that have a history of spontaneous
combustion.

It is important for the mine ventilation engineer to be conscious of the zones in which spontaneous
combustion is most likely to occur. Recalling that some leakage takes place through the strata around
stoppings and doors, spontaneous heating may occur in coal which exists within that strata, whether it be
in the roof, floor or sides. Good strata control and the liberal application of roadway sealants can help in
such circumstances.

Pillars in coal mines should be designed large enough to minimize crushing at the edges and corners.
Side bolts can help to maintain the integrity of pillars while the injection of low viscosity grouts might be
used as a last resort. Here again, the application of surface sealants assists in preventing ingress of air.
However, the most difficult types of spontaneous fires occur within caved zones and, in particular, in the
goaf (gob) areas of coal mines.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 21.4 illustrates the air migration paths and the zones most liable to spontaneous heating in the
caved area of an advancing longwall. Those critical zones occur where the leakage airflows lie within that
range which provides sufficient oxygen to promote continued oxidation of combustible material, but not
enough to remove heat at the rate at which it is generated. There are two distinct zones. One of these lies
along the original starting line of the face where incomplete consolidation allows a leakage path between
intake and return. Within the central portion of the gob, consolidation allows little leakage. However,
another critical zone occurs between the fully consolidated central core and the advancing face. This zone
is not stationary but advances with the face. Recalling the time factor involved in the development of a
spontaneous heating (Figure 21.3), it is clear that if the face is advanced continuously and at a sufficient
rate then any potential heating may be "buried" by consolidation of the cave before it has had time to
develop into a spontaneous fire. The most hazardous times occur at weekends and over holiday periods
when additional precautions may be required. These include the application of roadway sealants, grout
injections into roadside packs, and lowering the pressure differential across the gob by pressure balance
techniques (Section 21.4.5.4.) In severe cases, injection of an inert gas into the gob may be considered
(Section 21.6).

Figure 21.5 gives a similar illustration for a back-bleeder retreating longwall where the gob immediately
behind the face is ventilated deliberately in order to prevent flushes of methane on to the faceline. Here
again, the face start-up line and a moving zone trailing behind the face provide the critical zones most
liable to spontaneous heatings. Despite the fact that the caved area is ventilated, less incidences of
spontaneous heatings have been reported using this system than for advancing longwalls. As advancing
or retreating systems tend to be favoured in separate geographical regions with differing coal seams and
climates, there may be many reasons for this, as discussed in Section 21.4.2. Nevertheless, there are at
least two features that may tend to mitigate against spontaneous heatings in back-bleeder layouts. First,
there is likely to be a smaller pressure differential applied laterally across the gob area. This is particularly
the case at the location of the starting line. Secondly, the fact that the area behind the face is actively
ventilated may cause the critical zone between the ventilated and consolidated areas to be narrower and
more quickly buried by the caving roof strata.

In mines with a history of spontaneous combustion, it is necessary to seal all abandoned workings. This is
particularly important when those areas are adjacent to current workings and even more so when they
exist within overlying strata. Spontaneous fires have resulted from undetected leakage airflows between
current gob areas and workings that had existed in higher seams many years previously.

Following the completion and withdrawal of equipment from a section of a mine liable to spontaneous
combustion, all entries into the section should be sealed and the atmospheric pressures applied to those
seals balanced as far as it is practicable to do so. This may be accomplished simply by a re-arrangement
of doors or by the dismantling of stoppings and air crossings. Active pressure balancing techniques may
be employed as discussed in Section 21.5.5. The sites of seals should be prepared at strategic control
points during the development of a section and should involve channels being excavated into the sides,
and providing a nearby stock of building materials. This will facilitate sealing the district rapidly in the event
of an uncontrollable fire.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

advancing face start-off line

critical zone

critical zone Sufficient air to

remove heat as it is
produced.

Critical zones.
Sufficient oxygen to
promote oxidation but
not enough to remove
heat at the rate at which
it is produced. The
self-heating
temperature may be critical zone
reached.

Consolidation of
retreating face
material prevents
enough oxygen to
cause combustion that
can reach self-
sustaining temperature.
critical zone

start-off line

Figure 21.4 Zones showing liability to Figure 21.5 Zones showing liability to
spontaneous combustion in the caved area spontaneous combustion in a multiple entry
behind a single entry advancing longwall face. retreating longwall with back bleeders.

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 Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.4.4. Detection of a spontaneous heating

There are essentially three classes of detection for incipient or active spontaneous heatings. The oldest
and, many would argue, still the most reliable is through the human senses. The aromatics and
unsaturated hydrocarbon gases that are produced during the oxidation phases (Section 21.4.1.) give
rise to an odour known colloquially as gobstink. This has been described variously as like "petroleum,
the oil used in a flame-safety lamp and sterilizing liquid." Although, as with all odours, it can be described
only by analogy it is, nevertheless, very distinctive and unlikely to be forgotten. Figure 21.6 illustrates the
increasing strength of the smell with respect to gas concentrations and temperature of the oxidizing coal.

The odour is likely to be the first indication of a heating that can be detected by the human senses. The
output of water vapour may also be observed either as a haze in the air or from beads of condensation
on steel supports or other surfaces in locations where such condensation is unusual. At a later stage,
the matter is put beyond doubt by the appearance of smoke.

The second class of detectors are thermal

devices used to determine increases in
300 temperature. Infra-red scans of roadway
sides have been employed to identify the
emission points of warm gases into airways
and are useful for localized heatings in
250 pillars or around stoppings (Chakravorty and
Woolf, 1980). They are less useful as a
permanent and continuous means of
warning. Thermocouples or thermistors have
been left in gob areas. However, they too
200 have met with little success to the present
time. First, their wiring is unlikely to
withstand the mechanical stresses of an
active caving zone, even when sheathed.
150 Secondly, the thermal conductivity of
crushed rock is low. Hence, the temperature
even within a metre of an active centre of
heating may indicate no abnormal condition.
100
The most widespread method of detecting
the onset and development of a
spontaneous heating is by monitoring gas
50 concentrations in return airways (ref. Section
11.4.3). The gases that are evolved are
indicated on Figure 21.6. The interpretation
of the relative values and trends of these
0 concentrations is discussed in detail in
50 100 150 200 250 Section 21.7.

Figure 21.6 Example of the development of odour and

gases from a medium-volatile bituminous coal. The relative
positions of the gas curves will remain the same for other
coals but the actual concentrations vary with the rank of coal
and magnitude of leakage airflows.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.4.5. Dealing with a spontaneous heating

There is a procedure that should be followed when detection systems indicate that an active
spontaneous heating is developing in a mine. First, a gas monitoring station should be set up
downstream from the affected area and air samples taken at intervals of not more than 30 minutes. If an
air monitoring system already exists in the mine then even greater detail of gas concentration trends can
be followed. Personnel should be evacuated from all return airways affected and, if the condition is
developing rapidly, also from the rest of the mine except for those involved in dealing with the situation.

Simultaneously, steps should be undertaken to identify the location of the fire. This may be obvious if
smoke appears from discrete places in a close vicinity such as from a fire in leakage paths around a
stopping or in the crushed corner of a pillar. The location of the fire is more difficult to detect if it occurs
in a caved zone or inaccessible old workings. Whether or not smoke is present, it is useful to conduct a
carbon monoxide survey. Measurements can be made by hand-held instruments or by stain tubes
(Section 11.4.2.). Indicating the results on a mine map can assist in selecting the most probable sites of
the fire.

Having located the fire, the next step is to decide how to control and, if possible, extinguish it. A variety
of methods exist for this purpose. The injection of an inert gas as a practical and powerful method of
dealing with both open and concealed fires in mines was developed through the 1980's and is discussed
separately in Section 21.6. Other techniques of fighting concealed fires are introduced in the following
subsections.

21.4.5.1. Excavating the fire

If the fire is known to be within a few metres of an airway then it may be possible to dig out, cool and
remove the incandescent material. This can be the case for fires in pillars, around stoppings or air
crossings, or for some gob fires. It may be necessary to drill holes into the zone in order to more
accurately determine the site and extent of the fire. The excavation should commence from the upwind
side of the fire to minimize the exposure of personnel to smoke and carbon monoxide. The airway
should be wetted and/or coated in stonedust for a distance of some 10 m on either side of the
excavation. Care should be taken to ensure control of the roof which may have become weakened by
heat. Readings of methane and carbon monoxide concentrations should be taken frequently
downstream from the site. As the fire is approached, it may be necessary to spray water on the workers
to cool them. When the seat of the heating is exposed, it should be cooled by water jets applied around
the periphery. Spraying water into the heart of a glowing carboniferous mass can result in the formation
of water gas (Section 11.2.6.). The hot material should be loaded into metal conveyances and
dampened thoroughly before transporting it out of the mine. When all of the incinerated material has
been removed, the void should be cooled and, after some 24 hours to ensure no re-ignition, filled with an
inert material such as limestone dust or gypsum-based wet fillers.

If it is impracticable to remove the fire physically then it becomes necessary to prevent ingress of air to
the fire location. This leads us into the remaining techniques of dealing with a concealed fire.

21.4.5.2. Burying the fire

In some cases, it is possible to prevent or reduce access of air to the fire location by burying it under
collapsed roof strata. Localized leakage through a roadside pack can be reduced by bringing the roof
down in the airway, employing shotfiring if necessary, removing only a portion of the debris and
compacting the remainder over the area to be sealed. The excavated roof must, of course, be well
supported leaving the airway with an anticline.
If the heating occurs in the critical moving zone behind a longwall face (Figures 21.4 and 21.5) and is
detected sufficiently early, then it is sometimes possible to bury it under consolidated caved material by
a temporary increase in the rate of face advance (or retreat). This is likely to be successful only if the
incipient heating has been detected by an early warning gas detection system and well before smoke
appears.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.4.5.3. Sealants
A variety of sealants have been employed on stoppings, airway surfaces, roadside packs and pillars in
order to increase their resistance and, hence, reduce the access of leakage air. These may be applied
on external surfaces or injected as grouts into the strata or packed material. While sealants that include
resins or gels produce the lowest permeabilities and allow a degree of flexibility, the choice must often
be made quickly and on the basis of local availability. Concrete and gypsum plasters can be sprayed
quickly and effectively on to airway surfaces, as well as being useful for grouting and seal infills between
stoppings. Water based slurries using mill tailings or other waste material have also been employed as
grouts or for injecting into fire zones. These may be applied through boreholes drilled either from an
underground location or from the surface. The injection of sodium silicate into coal pillars has been
found to be effective (Banerjee, 1985).

While all known leakage paths connecting to the fire zone through roadsides should be sealed, it
appears to be particularly advantageous to seal on the inlet or high pressure side. It is, however, often
difficult to locate the relevant points of inward leakage on the inlet side. One way of doing this, where
allowed by law, is to employ the techniques of pressure management (ref. following subsection) to
intentionally and temporarily reverse the direction of leakage across the fire area. The appearance of
smoke or elevated concentrations of carbon monoxide in the intake will identify the normal inlet points
after which the flow reversal should be terminated or, better still, the leakage reduced to zero. This
method should be employed with caution and only when adequate gas monitoring facilities are available
in order to avoid unknown recirculation. The approval of governmental agencies should be sought if
necessary.

21.4.5.4. Localized pressure balancing

If no differential pressure exists across a level permeable zone then there can be no air leakage through
it. Pressure balancing involves raising the pressure on the return side or decreasing the pressure in the
intake until the leakage flow is reduced to near zero. This principle can be applied to complete sections
of abandoned workings as described in Section 21.5.5. or, in a more localized manner, to gain control of
a gob fire without sealing the district.

Figure 21.7 shows the principle of this technique which can be applied to a variety of situations. In the
example illustrated, a fire has commenced along the starting line of an advancing longwall. The pressure
differential between intake and return in that vicinity has been reduced to near zero by the installation of
a fan and regulator in the return airway. In cases of low normal pressure differentials, an induction fan
without any surrounding brattice may be sufficient (Section 4.4.3.). The hydraulic gradients shown on the
same figure illustrate the pressure differentials with and without the pressure balance. Where applicable,
the method can be applied quickly and at low cost to arrest the development of a spontaneous heating
and bring about an immediate reduction in carbon monoxide emissions. A pressure survey (Section 6.3.)
may be run around the district to determine the effective fan pressure required. If there is convenient
access, then a length of pressure tubing can be installed between the relevant points in the intake and
return airways including an in-line pressure gauge. The regulator in the return airway can be adjusted
until the pressure balance is achieved. Furthermore, an adjustable orifice within the short length of fan
ducting can be used to modify the effective fan pressure. The locations of the fan and regulator may be
changed in order to achieve finer control of the zone in which the pressure balance is applied.

The method of localized pressure balancing is very flexible and can achieve spectacular and speedy
success in many scenarios. However, it requires skilled personnel to devise and control each
installation. If applied inexpertly, it can result in partial recirculation of products of combustion. In any
case, it is a prudent precaution to employ a carbon monoxide monitor in the intake to detect any reversal
of leakage flows.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

fire
zone goaf

(a)
pressure differential
∆p across fire zone Normal hydraulic gradient

fire
zone goaf

regulator fan

(b)

Hydraulic gradient with fan

∆p pressure differential near and regulator in place
zero across fire zone

Figure 21.7 Example of localized pressure balancing to control a spontaneous heating

in a goaf (gob) area.
(a) without pressure balance (b) with pressure balance

21.4.5.5. Flooding and sealing off

Flooding can be used in two ways to extinguish concealed fires. First, if the affected zone lies to the dip of
current workings then the fire itself can be flooded. This should be done in a controlled manner in order to be
able to handle the products of combustion and other gases displaced by the water. Furthermore, if a
previously flooded area is re-opened then it may rapidly re-ignite (Section 21.4.1.2.). The second use of
flooding is to provide very effective seals in airways that have low-lying sections. The water penetrates
fissures in the surrounding strata and provides a near perfect barrier against air leakage.

21 - 26
Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

This brings us to the larger matter of building seals to control concealed fires in inby areas. While sealing
a section of a mine is often considered as a last resort, it is important to recognize those situations in
which it will become inevitable and then to seal quickly. This allows an inert atmosphere to build up and
to extinguish active combustion. Re-entry and a resumption of mining may then be possible within a
relatively short time. If, however, sealing-off has been delayed unduly, then the fire may have developed
into such a large conflagration that the area could be sterilized indefinitely. The one situation in which
sealing-off must be delayed is while there is the slightest possibility of rescuing trapped personnel. The
procedures involved in constructing seals during a fire emergency are discussed in Section 21.5.

21.5. STOPPINGS, SEALS AND SECTION PRESSURE BALANCES FOR

EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
This Section concentrates on the role of stoppings and seals in emergency situations involving
fires or explosions. The routine use of these devices during normal mining operations is described in
Section 4.2.1.2.

There is considerable divergence in differing geographical areas on the meaning of the terms stoppings
and seals. In some regions, the two are regarded as synonymous while, in others, they are interpreted
as quite different types of structures. To prevent confusion, we shall use the terms here according to the
following definitions:

Temporary stopping: A light structure erected from brattice cloths, other fabrics or boarding but
which will not withstand any significant physical loading.

Stopping: A single or double walled structure constructed from blocks, bricks, sandbags,
prefabricated steel panels or from substantial boarding attached to tight roof supports. Stoppings
are routinely employed as ventilation controls to minimize leakage between adjoining intake and
return airways in active mining areas but are not intended to be explosion proof. It is to be
expected, therefore, that stoppings will be destroyed or severely damaged in areas through
which an explosion has passed.

Seal: A barrier designed to withstand mine explosions.

Temporary stoppings, often in the form of brattice cloths or quickly erected alternatives are employed
during the fighting of open fires in order to regulate the airflow over the fire, change the air pressure in
nearby airways (Section 21.3.4.1) or re-route airflows to assist in rescue operations.

Stoppings may also be used as a more substantial means of modifying and/or controlling the airflow
paths in the event of a mine fire and to re-establish controlled ventilation during rescue operations.

Seals are used when alternative means of controlling a fire or spontaneous heating have been
exhausted and inby rescue operations have been terminated. The purpose is to stop the flow of air and
allow an inert atmosphere to build up within the affected zone. The decision on when to erect seals
should be contingent on the particular circumstances. In the case of a deeply seated concealed fire
seals may be erected in all entries to the area at a fairly early stage and before the heating reaches an
open airway. The district may subsequently be re-entered for salvage of equipment or resumption of
mining either after a cool-down period or when further arrangements have been made to control the
heating. Sealing an airway fire should be carried out as soon as it becomes clear that the fire is out of
control and rescue operations have been terminated.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.5.1. Site selection of seals

It is important that all openings into an uncontrolled fire zone be sealed except for sampling pipes. Such
openings may include boreholes and connections into old workings. In the shallower mines, there may be
fractures extending through to the surface. The potential effects on surface structures and their inhabitants
should be considered.

The sites should be selected to minimize the number of seals required. These are matters that should be
taken into account during planning of the mine layout in order to facilitate rapid sealing of a section should
that subsequently prove to be necessary. The precise locations should be in well supported areas with
solid roof, floor and sides.

A well organized mine will have pre-prepared sites for seals at control points in each district and with a
stock of the appropriate materials nearby (IME, 1985). In any case, those sites should allow ready access
for the supply of further materials and, also, for the provision of ventilation to personnel involved in building
the seal. The latter may necessitate a temporary duct and auxiliary fan. If the site is polluted by products of
combustion then the construction must be undertaken by teams fitted with breathing apparatus. Where
there is danger of an explosion or outrush of gases during construction, sites should be chosen that permit
rapid escape of the personnel.

It is unlikely that locations will be found which satisfy all of these requirements. Site selection for stoppings
and seals invariably requires compromises between optimum positions and practical considerations.

21.5.2. Sequence of building seals

In the case of concealed fires and where there is no imminent danger of explosion, it is preferable to
complete intake seals first in order to terminate airflow into the fire zone, then to follow up quickly with
closure of the return airways. However, in the case of an open fire, or where monitored gas concentrations
indicate that an explosive atmosphere may develop then all stoppings or seals should be completed
simultaneously and personnel evacuated from the mine for a period of 24 hours.

21.5.3. Construction of seals and stoppings

It is unlikely that explosions arising from fires in mines will generate pressure peaks of more than some
350 kPa gauge pressure1 (50 psig2) on the faces of seals although considerably higher pressures have
been measured in experimental explosions (Strang, 1985) and in explosions initiated by an ignition of
methane. Hence, seals which (by our definition) should be explosion-proof must be able to withstand such
dynamic pressure pulses. Figure 21.8 illustrates a typical seal. The end walls may be constructed from
sandbags, masonry or any form of non-flammable blocks. The strength of the seal should be provided by
the infill and any girders or other supports that may be employed in the intervening space. The length of
Airway width + height
seal is shown as 3 to 5 m but may be calculated as + 0.6 with a minimum length
2
of 3 m (Hornsby et al, 1985) and should be chosen with reference to the condition of the surrounding
strata and the type of infill available.

Construction of a seal in coal mines should commence by applying stonedust liberally to the airway inby
the seal. Stonedust barriers may also be erected inby the seal to arrest an explosion before it reaches the
face of the seal (Section 21.8.3.1.). Figure 21.8 illustrates the end walls recessed into the roof, floor and
sides. This is considered to be good practice although it may not be necessary provided that the strata is
competent, the length of seal adequate and a modern (quick-setting) wet infill is available. Conveyor

1
Sometimes known as “overpressure”
2
psig means pounds force per square inch gauge pressure. British Imperial units have been added as sections in
this chapter are of particular interest in the United States following the Sago and Darby Mine explosions.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

structure should be dismantled and cleared from the area. Similarly, pipes and cables should be
dislocated and removed.

sampling
pressure tube
tube

infill
sealed access
area tube

3 to 5 m

Figure 21.8 Example of an explosion proof seal where an active fire

exists in the sealed area.

While dry material such as sand, stonedust or fly ash may be used for the infill, a better seal is obtained
by employing a gypsum based plaster. This is pumped in as a liquid which penetrates immediate
fractures in the surrounding strata then sets to a compact solid material. It is important that the infill
completely blocks the seal to the roof.

The gas sampling pipe should extend at least 30 m inby the seal to allow for 'breathing' induced by
fluctuations in barometric pressure. Three flexible tubes may be threaded through the metal sampling
pipe in order to draw independent samples from roof, floor and middle of the sealed airway.

The steel access tube shown on Figure 21.8 has a number of purposes. First, it allows ventilation to be
supplied to the fire while construction of the seal is in process. This tends to retard the development of a
fuel-rich situation and, hence, reduces the risk of explosion whilst workers are still at the site. Despite the
access tube, workers may be subjected to roll-back of smoke during construction of a seal. When each
of the seals has been completed then all access tubes should all be blanked off simultaneously by
strong steel plates both ends. All personnel must leave the mine for a period of 24 hours or until
monitored signals of gas concentration indicate that an inert atmosphere has been attained.

Following the sudden cessation of airflow, significant changes take place within the sealed zone. The
concentration of combustible gases increases while the oxygen content decreases. In the case of open
fires, it is probable that the mixture of gases will pass through an explosive range (Section 21.7.).
Meanwhile, convection effects will create movements of the changing atmosphere and, perhaps, rolling
or 'tidal' flames. The combination of these effects may produce a series of explosions. These can be
monitored by pressure transducers connected to the pressure tubes on the seals. An older but simpler
method is to leave a glass U-tube containing mercury attached to a pressure tube. If the mercury is
subsequently found to have been blown out then an explosion has occurred within the sealed zone.

A second reason for the access tube is to allow subsequent re-entry and inspection by rescue teams
equipped with breathing apparatus. The outby end of the tube should be at a convenient height for this
purpose. Should it become necessary, the access tube can be filled with infill material. This is the reason
for the slight downward inclination of the tube towards the sealed area.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

There is one major disadvantage to the type of seal we have been discussing - the time taken for its
construction. In the case of an open fire in a timbered or coal-lined airway, rapid action is vital. It may be
necessary to isolate the zone in a much shorter time period than that required to build an explosion proof
seal. An alternative is to erect a stopping that contains a pressure-relief flap. This is a technique that has
met with some success in the United States (Mitchell, 1990). Figure 21.9 illustrates such a vented
stopping. Boards are attached firmly to two or three tight chocks (cribs) on both upstream and
downstream sides except for the top quarter or third of the airway. A sealant can be sprayed over the
boards. A weighted flap of conveyor belting is attached across the top of the outby side and held open
by a cord which is tensioned by the weight of a canister of water. At the appropriate moment the canister
at each site is punctured and all personnel leave the mine. The flaps close as the canisters empty.

Except for violent explosions, the structure of a vented stopping will remain intact. Lesser pulses simply
blow open the flap which then falls back into place leaving the integrity of the stopping secure. Although
the vented stopping does not have the structural strength or resistance of an explosion- proof seal, it
provides a temporary expedient until permanent seals can be established, should those prove to be
necessary.

weighted belt

pulley

punctured
water vessel

Figure 21.9 A vented emergency stopping.

21.5.4. Re-opening a sealed area

The simple method of breaching stoppings or seals and re-establishing an air circuit suddenly is not one
that can be recommended when a mine or section of a mine has been sealed because of a fire. Even
when gas samples indicate that the fire is no longer active, hot spots may still remain that could result in
re-ignition when supplied with oxygen. The preferred technique is first to send in rescue teams equipped
with breathing apparatus to make a thorough inspection of the area and to take additional air samples. If
the sealed area is extensive and, particularly, if the atmosphere will pass through an explosive range
when mixed with fresh air, it may be necessary to re- ventilate in stages, building additional seals or
stoppings further inby and closer to the original fire zone.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.5.5. Section pressure balances

No stopping or seal in the subsurface has infinite resistance. Even if the stopping or seal itself were
perfect, the potential for leakage still occurs in the surrounding strata. Such leakage can delay the
extinction of a fire or, if serious, may maintain the fire indefinitely. Section 21.4.5.4. described how air
pressure management can be employed to control the leakage airflows feeding a concealed fire. The
same principle can be applied to complete sections of a mine.

The most rudimentary form of pressure balancing involves the re-arrangement of doors and air-
crossings to ensure that each seal or stopping is exposed to return airway pressure. This reduces the
pressure differential applied across the sealed district to the pressure drop over the length(s) of airway
between the stoppings. Figure 21.10(a) illustrates an improved version. An additional wall is constructed
some 3 to 5 metres in front of each main stopping or seal to form a pressure chamber. A duct of about
0.5 m diameter connects the chambers and, hence, equalizes their pressures. There is then no pressure
differential applied across the sealed district, nor can there be any continuous flow around it. These are
examples of passive pressure balancing.

ducting

pressure chambers

(a) A passive pressure balance.

infill
pressure duct
pressure pipe

gauge

sampling pipe
balancing duct

pressure balance chamber

(b) An active pressure balance chamber.

Figure 21.10 Passive and active pressure balance chambers.

The drawback to passive pressure balances is that they do not prevent "breathing" of the seals or
stoppings during periods of changing barometric pressure. This can be overcome by employing an
active (or powered) pressure balance system. This provides a means of equalizing the air pressures on
the inner and outer faces of the same seal or stopping and is illustrated on Figure 21.10(b). Two ducts
pass through the outer wall into the pressure chamber. One of these (the pressure duct) is supplied by a
ventilating pressure either by a small fan or by laying the duct through a nearby door or stopping in order
to utilize the mine ventilating pressure. The pressure chamber will be pressurized positively if the seal is
on the return side of the main ventilation network and negatively if it faces an intake airway. The second

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

(balancing) duct simply passes through the outer wall. Both ducts are fitted with variable dampers to give
a flexible means of fine adjustment to the pressure within the chamber.

Two tubes are employed to monitor air pressure, one passing completely through the seal and the other
into the chamber. A gauge across these two tubes will indicate zero when there is no pressure
differential between the chamber and the inby side of the seal. The duct dampers can be adjusted
manually when the pressure gauge deviates from zero. The arrangement can be made automatic by
employing an electronic pressure gauge which transmits an amplified signal to servo-motors on one or
both of the duct dampers.

A number of special purpose adaptations to the principle of pressure chambers have been devised. One
example may occur in a nuclear waste repository to ensure that leakage through an air lock takes place
in one consistent direction at all times, irrespective of the direction of pressure differential across the
airlock (Brunner et al, 1991). Another example, where permitted by legislation, is the use of compressed
air to provide positive pressurization of the pressure chamber.

21.6. THE USE OF INERT GASES

The injection of inert gases to assist in the control of subsurface fires has been undertaken since, at
least, the 1950's (Herbert, 1988). However, from 1974, significant developments in the deployment of
nitrogen took place in Germany. The technique has become commonplace in coal mining areas where
spontaneous combustion occurs frequently (Both, 1981). The overall purpose of injecting an inert gas is
to reduce the oxygen content in order to prevent or inhibit combustion. The objectives may further be
classified as follows:
™ To prevent concealed heatings in zones that are highly susceptible to spontaneous combustion.
™ To reduce the risk of explosions during sealing or stopping-off procedures.
™ To accelerate the development of an inert atmosphere in a newly sealed zone and to prevent
the creation of an explosive mixture when it is re-opened.
™ To control the propagation of an open fire during rescue, firefighting and sealing operations.
™ To prevent an explosive mixture forming due to “breathing” of a seal.

Three types of gases have been used in the procedure for which the term inertization has been coined;
carbon dioxide, products of combustion and nitrogen. In this Section we shall discuss the employment of
these gases in addition to methods of application and control.

21.6.1. Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide has a density of 1.52 relative to air (Table 11.1). This makes it particularly useful for the
treatment of fires in low-lying areas such as dip workings or inclined drifts (Froger, 1985). However, the
same property can render it difficult to control in horizontal workings. A 20 t tanker of liquid carbon
dioxide will produce some 9000 m3 of cool gas. The liquid form may be piped into the area where it is
required and expanded through an orifice or, indeed, injected directly into a localized heating. In both
cases, the gas removes heat from the fire as well as promoting an inert atmosphere. However, piping
the liquid carbon dioxide can give rise to freezing problems as well as difficulties in handling the pipes.

The use of carbon dioxide as an inerting gas has several other disadvantages. It is quite soluble in water
and can suffer some loss in wet conditions. More significant perhaps, is the fact that it adsorbs readily on
to coal and coked surfaces, even more so than methane (Figure 12.2(b)). When exposed to
incandescent carboniferous surfaces it may be reduced to carbon monoxide. Furthermore, it is
considerably more expensive than nitrogen.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.6.2. Combustion gases

Following the sealing of a fire zone, gases produced by the combustion processes, combined with the
consumption of oxygen, will produce an extinguishing atmosphere. However, it may be rich in
combustible gases and become explosive if air is subsequently re-admitted (Section 21.7.3.). The
products of full combustion, primarily mixtures of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour, have been
employed as an injected inert gas. Flue gas from burning coal has been used in China (Sun, 1963) while
modified jet engines have been employed in several countries including Poland, Russia and
Czechoslovakia (Strang, 1985). The latter method involves burning kerosene at rates of some 0.7 kg/s
to produce 30 m3/s of inert exhaust gases. These are cooled by large quantities of water and admitted
into the fire zone. The engine produces a power output of about 30 MW which can be usefully employed.
Where the law allows the underground use of a jet engine or where it can be employed on surface for a
drift mine, then the large output of inert exhaust gases makes it attractive. However, it nullifies the
employment of gas analysis as a means of following the progression of the fire, the capital cost is high
and a highly specialized team is required to operate and maintain it.

21.6.3. Nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen is the basis for the majority of inertization schemes now employed for subsurface fires.
Again, the liquid gas is supplied in tankers of, typically, 20 t capacity giving about 16500 m3 of gas. For
continuous operation throughout a period of gas injection, the tankers may unload into a bulk storage
vessel of up to 40 t capacity and which has been brought to the mine site.

Due to the low boiling temperature of nitrogen, the liquid must be evaporated before piping it into the
mine. Figure 21.11 indicates the principle of a mobile evaporator which, again, has been brought to the
mine for the emergency period. Typically, two water circuits are employed; a primary circuit using
atmospheric heat and secondary heaters powered by electricity or liquid/gas fuels. The gaseous
nitrogen passes through a bank of controllers before entering the mine pipeline. A subsidiary nitrogen
line provides a feedback to maintain a constant pressure in the storage vessel. The maximum gas feed
rate into the mine depends upon the duty of the evaporator but may, typically, be within the range 1 to 6
m3/s.

Liquid nitrogen is a by-product of the commercial production of oxygen and is much less expensive than
liquid carbon dioxide. Furthermore, it is not as soluble as the latter, does not adsorb so readily on carbon
surfaces and with a density approximating that of air, mixes readily without stratification.

21.6.4. Methods of application and control

In order to assess the volume flow of inert gas required, the rate of oxygen supply to the fire may be
determined from the inlet oxygen concentration and a measured or estimated airflow. It is then a
straightforward calculation to determine the flow rate of inert gas required to dilute the oxygen down to
10 per cent in order to extinguish flaming combustion, or to less than 2 per cent to suppress
smouldering.

The inert gas may pass into the mine via water pipes or compressed air pipes commandeered for the
purpose. Alternatively, gas feed boreholes may be drilled from the surface to intersect a fire zone (e.g.
Zabrosky and Klinefelter, 1988). Perhaps the most difficult aspect of inertization is controlling dilution of
the inert gas by air leakage. If leakage air enters in significant quantity between the gas injection point(s)
and the fire, then the technique may fail. It follows that inertization is most likely to succeed where the
fire is in a single entry with no leaking crosscuts or, in the case of a concealed fire, where the air inlet
points have been well defined. Conversely, multi-entry systems offer a greater opportunity for

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

liquid nitrogen bulk storage vessel

fan radiator

nitrogen

heat
exchangers water

electric or
gas heaters

controllers
nitrogen gas
(flow, pressure, temperature)

Figure 21.11 Simplified schematic of a mobile nitrogen evaporator.

dilution of the inert gas. Although the employment of inert gases can create difficulties in interpreting the
analyses of gas samples taken downstream from the fire, it is usually possible to detect whether the fire
is being suppressed. If there is no noticeable effect on an open fire within an hour or two then potential
air leakage points should be investigated. Additional stoppings or pressure management techniques
may be required to reduce the inward leakage.

For the control of spontaneous heatings in the goaf (gob) areas of longwall mines, the location of the fire
and air entry points should first be established (Section 21.4.5.4.). Furthermore, a knowledge of air
migration paths in goaf areas is invaluable (Figures 21.4 and 21.5). Injection pipes should be inserted
from the airways or working face into the inlet zones, using boreholes if necessary. The volume
flowrates of inert gas required are usually much lower for spontaneous heatings than for open fires.
However, the reaction may be slower. Indeed, the monitored concentrations of carbon monoxide and
methane may increase for up to 36 hours as the inert gas displaces those gases from the fire zone. A
steady nerve is useful at such times. When the carbon monoxide concentration begins to fall, that can
be used as a controlling guide to the required injection rate of the inert gas. Oxygen concentration in the
return airways downstream from goaf (gob) inertization should be monitored to ensure that it remains
above the relevant mandatory limits (19 to 19.5 per cent).

For coal mines with a history of recurring spontaneous combustion, the trend is towards establishing a
permanent nitrogen "fixing" plant on the surface (e.g. BHP Billiton Sustainability Report, San Juan Coal
Company , 2005). The lower grade of nitrogen that may be produced by this method is of little
consequence for inertization. A permanent network of nitrogen pipelines throughout the working sections
of the mine allows the gas to be fed at a relatively low rate but continuously into the caved zone.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Properly designed, this creates an inert atmosphere throughout the critical zones (Figures 21.4 and
21.5). As a further projection to future developments, the infrastructure is then in place for complete
inertization of the working face if and when the techniques of automation and remote control make that
cost effective.

Where inertization is having a beneficial effect it is important that it be maintained for as long as
required. While a deeply seated fire can be controlled by an inert gas, it will seldom be cooled sufficiently
to extinguish it. Hence, premature cessation of the operation may result in a rapid escalation of the fire.
Similarly, injection into a sealed area should be continued until the oxygen content falls below 2 per cent.

21.7. FIRE GASES AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

In Section 11.3.3. we introduced the gases that are produced in the majority of underground fires. Other
than use of the human senses, monitoring the quality of the air in a mine is the dominant method of
detecting a fire or spontaneous heating. Sampling the air downstream from a fire or from within a newly
sealed area and plotting the trends is the primary method of tracking the behaviour of the fire and the
development of atmospheres that are, or may become, explosive. However, as the gases emitted vary
with the phases of oxidation, time and temperature, it is necessary to employ skilled interpretation of
those trends.

21.7.1. The processes of burning and the gases produced

When coal or timber are burning, three processes are in progress.

¾ distillation of gases from the solid material
¾ oxidation of the solid material on its surface with the emission of heat and light (this is why
the surface glows more brightly when fanned with fresh air) and
¾ flaming combustion - the burning of combustible gases produced by the first two
processes. Again heat and light are produced. Some of the heat passes back to the
surface by radiation and convection to assist in the promotion of further distillation.

The fire gases and their relative proportions depend upon the contributions of each of these three
processes. The gases of distillation from coal are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and water
vapour. Methane and other hydrocarbon gases are also produced. Timber distills the same gases
although the amount of hydrogen may be negligible. When flaming combustion occurs, the combustible
gases burn to a degree that is governed by the availability of oxygen in the air. The final mixture leaving
the fire zone is, therefore, a result of the gases of distillation and the extent to which the fire has become
fuel-rich.

The complexity of the processes involved can be illustrated by considering just a few of the ways in
which methane can burn:

CH 4 + 2O 2 ⇒ 2H 2 O + CO 2
2CH 4 + 3O 2 ⇒ 4H 2 O + 2CO
3CH 4 + 5O 2 ⇒ 6H 2 O + 2CO + CO 2

Furthermore, secondary reactions may produce water gas and further reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbon monoxide.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.7.2. The detection and trend analysis of fire gases

For many purposes of analysis the sampled atmosphere is considered as comprised of air, combustibles
and inerts (excess nitrogen and carbon dioxide). Figure 21.6 illustrates the combustible gases emitted
as coal is heated in a limited air supply such as occurs in a spontaneous heating. It is clear that carbon
monoxide is a leading indicator of the early stages of such a fire. However, the saturated hydrocarbons,
in particular, ethylene, are useful indicators of burning coal. In general, as the fire develops into open
combustion, the major gaseous product, carbon dioxide, forms an increasing proportion of the pollutant
emission.

During any fire incident, running graphs should be maintained of the concentrations of the gases that are
monitored or gained from the analysis of samples. Transmitting transducers installed downstream from
the fire give a stream of near continuous data. However, in many cases, samples must still be obtained
manually by means of evacuated chambers or hand pumps attached to sample containers. The sample
vessels should be clean, dry and free from any lubricants that may contaminate the gas sample. A
mobile laboratory should be available at the mine surface during any major incident to provide rapid
analysis of samples. The rate of sampling must be dictated by the urgency of the situation and the speed
at which conditions are changing.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century a number of ratios and composites of gas concentrations
have been suggested to assist in the interpretation of fire gases. Table 21.1 indicates some of these.

Ratio Name

Graham's Ratio or Index for Carbon

CO / ∆O2 Monoxide (ICO)
Young's Ratio
CO2 / ∆O2
Willett's Ratio
CO /(Excess N2 + CO2 + combustibles )
Jones and Trickett Ratio
(CO2 + 0.75CO − 0.25H2 ) / ∆O2
Oxides of Carbon Ratio
CO / CO 2

Table 21.1. Gas ratios used in interpreting trends of gas concentrations produced by mine fires.

A feature of several of the ratios is the oxygen deficiency, ∆Ο 2 . This is a measure of the oxygen that
has been consumed and is based on two assumptions; first, that the air has been supplied with 20.93
per cent oxygen and 79.04 per cent inert gases (excepting 0.03 per cent carbon dioxide). That 79.04 per
cent contains traces of other gases but is referred to simply as nitrogen. Secondly, it is assumed that no
nitrogen has been consumed or added (except from the air) through the area under consideration. If no
oxygen is consumed, then the O 2 /N 2 ratio would remain at 20.93/79.04 = 0.2648 irrespective of the
addition of other gases. For any measured values of O2 and N2, the concentration of oxygen that was
originally in place can be calculated as
20.93
N2
79.04

Hence, the amount of oxygen that has been consumed, or oxygen deficiency is given as
20.93
∆O 2 = N 2 − O2 per cent (21.8)
79.04

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

The oxidation of coal and the corresponding production of gases were studied by Dr. J.S. Haldane and
others at the beginning of the 20th Century (e.g. Haldane and Meachen, 1898). By 1914, Ivon Graham
had recognized the importance of carbon monoxide as an early indicator of the spontaneous heating of
coal and the equally vital influence of the oxygen that was consumed. He first suggested using the index
CO/∆O 2 , now known as Graham's Ratio or the Index for Carbon Monoxide (ICO).

Graham's Ratio is the most widely used indicator of an incipient heating in coal mines and has often
given warnings several weeks before any odour could be detected. It has the significant advantage that
it is almost independent of dilution by leakage of air as this affects both numerator and denominator
equally. However, none of the indices listed in Table 21.1 is infallible and Graham's Ratio does have
some drawbacks. First, its accuracy becomes suspect if very little oxygen has been consumed, i.e.
Graham's Ratio is unreliable if the oxygen deficiency, ∆O 2 , is less than 0.3 per cent. This is a weakness
shared by the other indices that involve oxygen deficiency. Secondly, it will be affected by sources of
carbon monoxide other than the fire including the use of diesel equipment, or if the air supplied to the fire
is not fresh. The latter can occur if the fire is fed, partially, by air that has migrated through old workings
and contains blackdamp (de-oxygenated air). Again, like other trace gases or indices, a normal range of
Graham's Ratio should be established for any given mine. This will usually be less than 0.5 per cent.
Any consistently rising values in excess of 0.5 per cent is indicative of a heating.

Example
An air sample taken from a return airway yields the following analysis:

nitrogen, N2 = 79.22 per cent

oxygen, O2 = 20.05 per cent
carbon monoxide, CO = 18 ppm = 0.0018 per cent

20.93
Oxygen deficiency, ∆O2 = × 79.22 − 20.05
79.04
= 20.98 - 20.05 = 0.93 per cent

CO 0.0018
Graham’s Ratio = = × 100 = 0.19 per cent
∆O2 0.93

The CO2 /∆O 2 , or Young's Ratio is, again, nearly independent of dilution by fresh air. Carbon dioxide is
the most prolific of the gases produced in mine fires. Hence, the values of CO2 /∆O 2 will be much higher
than CO/∆O 2 . As a fire progresses from smouldering to open flame, the burning of carbon monoxide
will produce an increase in carbon dioxide. Hence a simultaneous rise in CO2 /∆O 2 and fall in CO/∆O 2
indicates further development of the fire. However, as both ratios have the same denominator, the
straightforward plots of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide show the same trends. Young's Ratio
suffers from similar limitations to Graham's Ratio. Additionally, the concentration of carbon dioxide may
have been influenced by adsorption, its solubility in water, strata emissions of the gas and other
chemical reactions.

Willett's Ratio was introduced by Dr. H.L. Willett in 1951 with specific reference to situations where there
is a higher than usual evolution of carbon monoxide by ongoing low temperature oxidation. In these
cases, the gradual extinction of a fire in a sealed area may not be reflected well by the carbon monoxide
trend alone but as a percentage of the air-free content of the sample.

The Trickett or Jones-Trickett Ratio is used as a measure of reliability of sample analysis and also as an
indicator of the type of fuel involved. It can be used for the gaseous products of both fires and
explosions. Typical values are shown on Table 21.2. Dilution by fresh air has no effect on the Jones-
Trickett Ratio. However, it is subject to the limitations of oxygen deficiency.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

The Oxides of Carbon Ratio, CO/CO2 is a useful pointer to the progression of the fire, rising during the
early stages and tending to remain constant during flaming combustion. However, the CO/CO2 rises
rapidly again as a fire becomes fuel-rich and is an excellent indicator of this condition. This ratio may
also be favoured because it is unaffected by inflows of air, methane or injected nitrogen (Mitchell, 1990).
It is, however, subject to variations in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide that are not caused by the
fire.

Fuel Jones-Trickett Ratio

Fires
methane 0.4 to 0.5
coal, oil, conveyor belting, 0.5 to 1.0
insulation and polyurethanes 0.5 to 1.0
timber 0.9 to 1.6

Explosions
methane 0.5
coal dust 0.87
methane and coal dust 0.5 to 0.87

no combustion process < 0.4

impossible mixture (reliability check) > 1.6

Table 21.2. Typical values of the Jones-Trickett Ratio (after Strang and MacKenzie-Wood, 1985).

It is clear that each gas and composite ratio has both strengths and weaknesses as a warning of
impending fire or indicator of fire development. During any fire, it is recommended that spreadsheet and
graphics software should be utilized to store all monitored data and sample analyses on a desk
computer. This should be located in, or close to, the emergency control centre. All gas concentrations
and preferred ratios should be made available as screen and hard-copy graphs plotted against time.
These should be reviewed repeatedly as new data or analyses become available. The trends are more
informative than the absolute values. Hence, repeated samples from a few set stations are preferred to
samples taken at many different locations. The injection of inert gases will affect the gas analyses. The
one exception is that the CO/CO2 ratio is not influenced by the injection of nitrogen.

Gas concentrations and indices give pointers to the average intensity but not the size of the fire. In some
cases, where there is limited leakage between the fire and sampling points, an estimate of the extent of
the fire may be made from the flowrate of each of the gases. This is given as the product of the air
flowrate and the relevant gas concentration.

The principles of gas detection and methods of sampling are discussed in Section 11.4. Ionization
smoke detectors draw smoke particles through a chamber where they are charged by a radioactive
source such as americium 241 or krypton 85. An ion collecting grid and amplifier produce an electrical
output that is a function of the smoke concentration (e.g. Pomroy, 1988). Versions of this have been
produced that can distinguish between smoke from a fire and diesel particulate matter (Lytton, 1988).

The improvements that have been made in electrochemical methods of detecting carbon monoxide
(Section 11.4.2.5.) have led to this being a common method of fire detection as part of a mine
environmental monitoring system. The employment of computer analysis allows filtering of false alarms
from diesels or blasting operations that gave earlier versions a doubtful reputation (e.g. Eicker and
Kartenberg, 1984). The filter program may be fairly simple such as ignoring short term peaks and giving
audio visual alarms only when a significant upward trend is indicated. More sophisticated systems take

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

into account the time-variant generation of carbon monoxide between successive sensors distributed
along an airflow path (Boulton, 1991).

The combination of computer controlled monitoring systems and ventilation network analysis programs
allows the possibility of not only detecting the existence of a fire at an early stage, but also its probable
location. This is facilitated by strategic location of the sensors (Pomroy and Laage, 1988). The
employment of tube bundle sampling is particularly useful for detecting the early and slow development
stages of a spontaneous heating. This technique is described in Section 11.4.3.2.

Temperature monitors, often known rather loosely as "heat sensors" have an application when mounted
above fixed equipment and, particularly, when used to activate deluge or sprinkler systems (Section
21.3.3.). They are of somewhat limited use as fire detectors in airways as the air temperature drops
rapidly downstream from a fire. Such sensors may be subjected to greater variations in air temperature
from normal operations (such as passage of a diesel vehicle) than from the early stages of a fire. If
made sufficiently sensitive, temperature sensors may lose credibility because of an excessive
recurrence of false alarms.

21.7.3. Explosibility diagrams

When a fire becomes fuel-rich, there is a danger that explosive mixtures of gases will propagate away
from the immediate fire zone. Furthermore, following sealing of a fire area, it frequently occurs that the
rising concentration of combustible gases and falling concentration of oxygen produce mixtures that
pass through an explosive range. Similarly, the dilution of combustible gases that occurs when a sealed
area is re-opened may, again, result in passing through an explosive range. In order to be able to predict
and control such circumstances, it is necessary to have an understanding of the flammability limits of
gases and gas mixtures.

This subject was introduced in Section 11.2.4. and illustrated by the Coward diagram for methane shown
in Figure 11.1. That diagram should be reviewed, if necessary, as a reminder of the concepts of upper
and lower flammability and how these converge to a nose-limit as inert gases are added.
In many situations, the large majority of combustible gas is methane and Figure 11.1 may be employed
to determine whether the mixture of oxygen, methane and inerts lies within the explosive triangle or is
likely to do so in the near future. However, in other cases, the presence of carbon monoxide and/or
hydrogen may cause significant changes in the Coward diagram (Coward, 1952, Strang J. and
Mackenzie-Wood, 1990). Figure 21.12 shows the individual explosive triangles for all three of these
combustible gases. The corresponding coordinate points are given in Table 21.3.

Gas Flammable limits Nose limits

lower upper gas oxygen

methane 5.0 14.0 5.9 12.2

carbon monoxide 12.5 74.2 13.8 6.1
hydrogen 4.0 74.2 4.3 5.1

Table 21.3. Vertices of explosive triangles (percentages).

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

22
A
20

18

16 impossible mixture

14
12

10

4
not explosive
2
C B
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 21.12 Coward explosive triangles for methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

If the method of the Coward diagram is to be useful for mixtures involving more than one combustible
gas then we must be able to quantify the explosive triangle for those composite mixtures. Let us attempt
to do that.

A basic precept in the world of science and engineering is that if anything is done to upset the
equilibrium of a system then that system will react in an attempt to reach a new equilibrium with the
minimum adjustment of the component parts (Le Chatelier's Principle). Let us adopt subscripts 1, 2 and
3 for the three combustible gases and call their percentage concentrations p1, p2 and p3 respectively. If
they do not react chemically with each other then the mixture will have a total combustible concentration
of

p t = p1 + p 2 + p 3 percent (21.9)

Furthermore, Le Chatelier's Principle leads to the prediction that for gas flammability limits, L1, L2 and L3
(where these can be upper, lower or nose limits), the corresponding gas flammability limit of the mixture,
Lmix, will be given by:

pt p p p
= 1 + 2 + 3 (21.10)
Lmix L1 L2 L3

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 Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Example
An air sample produces the following analysis:
CH4 8 per cent
CO 5 per cent
H2 3 per cent
Determine the lower flammability limit of this mixture.

Solution
The total percentage of combustible gases is

pt = 8 + 5 + 3 = 16 percent.

Using the individual gas lower flammability limits given in Table 21.3, together with equation (21.10)
gives
16 8 5 3
= + +
Lmix 5.0 12.5 4 .0

giving Lmix = 5.82 percent as the lower flammability limit of the mixture. A similar calculation may be
used to determine the upper and nose flammability limits of the combustible content.

The upper and lower limits lie on the line AB on Figure 21.12 and, hence, are defined completely.
However, the oxygen content at the nose limit remains to be found before we can construct the
explosive triangle for the mixture. To find the oxygen content at the nose limit, we must first determine
the excess inert gas (let us call it nitrogen) that has to be added in order to reach that nose limit.

Consider the situation for methane. If we start from any point on the line AB and add nitrogen then we
shall move in a straight line towards the origin, O. The mixture will become extinctive when we cross the
line AC. At that moment we shall have added an amount of nitrogen which, when expressed per unit
volume of methane, is a constant. (This follows from the fact that both AB and AC are straight lines.) As
we can commence at any position on AB, let us choose point B. On adding nitrogen and moving towards
O, we shall cross the extinction line at point C where the methane concentration is 14.14 per cent. The
remaining (100 - 14.14) = 85.86 percent is nitrogen. We have, therefore, added 85.86/14.14 = 6.07m3
of nitrogen for each m3 of methane. A similar exercise can be carried out for carbon monoxide and
hydrogen to give the values in Table 21.4.

Nitrogen to be added to make mixture

Combustible gas extinctive:
(N+ m3 of nitrogen per m3 of
combustible gas)
methane 6.07
carbon monoxide 4.13
hydrogen 16.59

Table 21.4. Volumes of excess nitrogen to be added, N+, in order to make flammable gases extinctive.

This table gives the excess nitrogen to be added, N+, if the combustible content consisted of one
gas only. For a mixture of combustible gases the excess nitrogen required, Nex, is given as

N ex =
Ln
pt
{
N1+ p1 + N 2+ p 2 + N 3+ p 3 } percent (21..11)

where Ln = percentage of combustible mixture at the nose [equation (21.10 with Lmix = Ln ].

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

The required oxygen content at the mixture nose limit is then simply 20.93 per cent of the air
fraction,
i.e. Oxygen (nose limit) = 0.2093 (100 - Nex - Ln) percent (21.12)

Example
A sample taken from a sealed area yields the following analysis.

methane 8 per cent

carbon monoxide 5 per cent pt = 16 per cent
hydrogen 3 per cent

oxygen 6 per cent

inerts 78 per cent

Construct the Coward diagram for this condition.

Solution
(a) Using equation (21.10) and Table 21.3:
(i) lower flammability limit, Llow:
16 8 5 3
= + +
Llow 5 12.5 4
gives Llow = 5.82 percent combustible

(ii) upper flammability limit, Lup:

16 8 5 3
= + +
Lup 14 74.2 74.2
gives Lup = 23.56 percent combustible

(iii) nose flammability limit, Ln:

16 8 5 3
= + +
Ln 5 .9 13.8 4.3
gives Ln = 6.62 per cent combustible

(b) Equation (21.11) and Table 21.4 give the excess nitrogen required for an extinctive atmosphere
to be
N ex =
6.62
{(6.07 × 8) + ( 4.13 × 5) + (16.59 × 3)} = 49.24 percent
16

and, finally, oxygen content at the nose limit is given by equation (21.12) as

0.2093 (100 - 49.24 – 6.62 ) = 9.24 percent

The explosive triangle has now been defined completely and has been constructed as Figure 21.13. The
actual mixture point has also been entered on the diagram and illustrates that although the mixture is not
explosive, it will become so if air is allowed to enter the area.

Coward diagrams are most useful in tracking trend directions of gas mixtures. They do, however, have a
drawback. As each new sample analysis becomes available, the mixture point on the Coward diagram
moves - but the explosive triangle also changes its shape and position. It is analogous to shooting at a
moving target. Fortunately, the calculations are simple and a new triangle can be developed for each
sample in order to follow actual trends. The complete process can readily be programmed for automatic

21 - 42
Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

appearance of the updated Coward diagram and mixture point on a computer screen. Running through
a set of consecutive data for any given sampling location produces a dynamic picture of explosive
triangles and mixture points moving over the screen. This creates a strong visual impact of time-
transient trends.

22
Llow
20

18 methane 8 percent

Lup carbon
monoxide 5 percent
16 explosive
hydrogen 3 percent
14

12

10
Ln
8
actual
6 mixture explosive if mixed
with air
4

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 21.13 Coward diagram for mixture of gases in the example.

An older method of dealing with variations in gas mixtures is the U.S. Bureau of Mines composite
diagram illustrated on Figure 21.14 and founded on earlier work by Zabetakis et al (1959). In this
diagram, the y axis is an "effective combustible" defined by a weighted combination of the volumetric
percentages of the three combustible gases. The weighting takes account of the explosibility of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen compared with that of methane. The x axis is a combination of the excess
nitrogen and 1.5 times the concentration of carbon dioxide, the 1.5 allowing for the greater extinctive
power of carbon dioxide.

The "excess nitrogen" required here is the percentage of nitrogen in excess of that justified by the
oxygen present.
79.04
Excess nitrogen = actual N 2 − O 2 ×
20.93

The set of explosive triangles are approximations based on methane but adjusted for incremental
combined additions of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

22

20

18 explosive when
mixed with air
16

measured
14
point

12

10

explosive
8
triangles
6

4
non-explosive
2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 24.14 U.S. Bureau of Mines diagram.

Total combustible, pt = methane + carbon monoxide + hydrogen

R = methane/pt
x = excess nitrogen + 1.5 x carbon dioxide
y = methane + 0.4 x carbon monoxide + 1.25 x hydrogen
All gases expressed in percentage by volume.
Example
Using a more detailed analysis of the sample used in the previous example gives

methane 8 per cent

carbon monoxide 5 per cent
hydrogen 3 per cent
oxygen 6 per cent
nitrogen 68 per cent
and carbon dioxide 10 per cent

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Total combustibles, pt = 8 + 5 + 3 = 16 per cent

methane 8
methane ratio R = = = 0. 5
pt 16

excess nitrogen = 68 − { 6 × 79.04 } = 45.3 percent

20.93
effective inerts (x axis) = 45.3 + (1.5 × 10) = 60.3 per cent

effective combustibles (y axis) = 8 + (0.4 × 5) + (1.25 × 3) = 13.75 percent

Plotting this point on Figure 21.14 shows that it lies above the R = 0.5 triangle, thus agreeing with the
Coward diagram that this mixture is not explosive but will become so if air is added.

21.8. EXPLOSIONS
There has scarcely been a major mining industry that has not been traumatised by underground
explosions of gases, dusts and mixtures of the two. The potential for disastrous loss of life when such an
explosion takes place is very high. Fatality counts have too often been in the hundreds from a single
incident. Fatalities and injuries produced by explosions arise from blast effects, burning and, primarily,
from the carbon monoxide content of afterdamp - the mixture of gases produced by the explosion. In the
dust explosion at Courrieres coal mine in France (1906), 1099 men lost their lives. One of the most
catastrophic explosions on record occurred at Honkieko, Manchuria (1942) when over 1500 miners died.
The carnage that took place in coal mines during the Industrial Revolution (Section 1.2.) was caused
primarily by underground explosions and resulted in the start of legislation governing the operation of
mines.

21.8.1. Initiation of explosions

For an explosion to occur, the same three components of the fire triangle must exist simultaneously;
namely, a combustible material, oxygen and a source of ignition. However, there is a further condition for
mine explosions; the combustible material must be a gas or finely divided dust mixed intimately with the
air and in concentrations that lie between lower and upper flammability limits.

The majority of explosions in mines have been initiated by the ignition of methane. This, in itself, is a
very dangerous occurrence. However, it becomes much worse when the shock wave raises combustible
dust into the air such that it can be ignited by the flame of the burning methane. The resulting dust
explosion is likely to be much more violent than the initial methane blast. Indeed, the majority of methane
ignitions result in blue flames flickering backwards and forwards along the gas:air interface without
developing into an explosion. It is only when the turbulence of the airflow or thermal effects produce a
mixture within the explosive triangle (Section 21.7.3.) that the combustion accelerates into an explosion.

Finely divided particles of any combustible solid can become explosive, including metallic dusts,
sulphide ores and most organic materials. Precautions must be taken against explosions in the
manufacturing, processing and silo storage of many food stuffs including grain. However, in this Section,
we shall confine ourselves to the igniting sources, mechanisms and suppression of explosions that
occur in subsurface ventilation systems.

In Section 21.2. we classified the major igniting sources of fires and explosions in mines. Unfortunately,
explosible mixtures of gases can be ignited by electrical sparks of energy levels as low as 0.3 millijoules,
as illustrated by the tiny spark that ignites gas in a piezo-electric or induction coil cigarette

21 - 45
Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

lighter. It is, therefore, prudent to give a little further attention to the initiation of explosions by sparking
phenomena in addition to those sources of ignition discussed in Section 21.2.

Incendiary sparking arises from heat produced from a chemical reaction. The thermite process involves
the reaction of aluminium powder with iron oxide.

2 Al + Fe2 O3 → Al2 O3 + 2 Fe (21.13)

This process produces so much heat that it has been used on small scale welding operations. A similar
effect occurs when a surface consisting of aluminium, magnesium or their alloys collides with a rusted
steel or iron surface. Incendiary sparks are produced that are well capable of igniting a methane:air
mixture. It is prudent to prohibit the importation of any light alloys into gassy mines and, indeed, this is
enforced by law in a number of countries.

Frictional sparking has been the cause of the increased incidence of methane ignitions on coal faces
and which have accompanied the proliferation of mechanized mineral winning. This is discussed in
Section 21.2.4.

In addition to sparking caused by the misuse or damage to electrical equipment, electrostatic sparks
may also be capable of igniting a flammable mixture of gases. Electrostatic charges are built up on non-
conducting (or poorly conducting) surfaces as a regular feature of many everyday operations and,
particularly, at pointed or sharply curved regions on those surfaces. Electrical potentials of 10 000 volts
are commonly generated. This phenomenon may occur, for example, where belts run over pulleys, at
the nozzles of compressed air jets (particularly, if liquid or solid particles are entrained) and within non-
conducting ventilation ducts. Even the charge that builds up on the human body in dry conditions can
produce dangerous sparks (Strang and McKenzie- Wood, 1985). In such conditions, workers should not
wear rubber- soled footwear.

All machines with moving parts should be adequately earthed against the build-up of electrostatic
charges. Other devices that are liable to this phenomenon should be similarly protected. "Anti-static"
materials are available for ducting, belts and pipes.

21.8.2. Mechanisms of explosions

An explosion may be defined as a process in which the rates of heat generation, temperature rise and
pressure increase become very great due to the rapidity of combustion through the mixture. In a typical
methane:air explosion, the temperature rises to some 2000 °C, i.e. by a factor of about seven. Even
higher temperatures may be reached if the explosion is contained within a sealed volume. The speed of
the process is so great that it is essentially adiabatic. The result is that the pressure in the immediate
vicinity increases to a peak value very rapidly and is relieved by expansion of the air. This produces a
shock wave that propagates in all available directions.

In a mine opening the expansion is constrained by the airway surfaces giving rise to high velocities of
propagation. Initially, the flame front travels more slowly than the shock wave and the explosion is
known as a deflagration. However, if the unburned zone ahead of the flame front becomes more
conducive to combustion by approaching closer to stochastic condition ( approximately 9.6 percent
methane) then the flame front will accelerate and the peak pressure at the shock wave rises. Although
the shock wave velocity also increases, the distance between the two narrows. This may continue until
the flame front catches up with the shock wave (Figure 21.16). The explosion is then described as a
detonation. The speed of the explosion and the peak pressure at the shock wave then escalate
significantly. Conversely, if the unburned zone between the flame front and the shock wave moves away
from stochastic conditions (e.g. by lack of fuel or the presence of stonedust) then the explosion will
weaken.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

At the actual site of the initial ignition the flame speed and rate of pressure rise are at their lowest. It is
only as the shock wave and following flame front progress along the airway that their intensity increases,
given the availability of both fuel and oxygen within the explosive range. It is for this reason that victims
at the initiation site of an explosion often exhibit little blunt trauma but have succumbed to carbon
monoxide poisoning. An ignition of a 10 per cent methane:air mixture in a heading may produce flame
speeds of 660 m/s (twice the speed of sound) as it accelerates away from the face of the heading.

Figure 21.14A illustrates the passage of a deflagrating explosion that has been initiated at the face of a
heading. Expansion of the gaseous products of combustion can proceed only away from the face of the
heading. However, that expansion is resisted by the inertia of the outby atmosphere. The result is the
development of the shock wave which is essentially the moving boundary between the normal mine
atmosphere and the elevated pressure of the expanding explosion. Hence, there is a highly
concentrated pressure gradient across the shock wave. It is this shock wave that causes "blast" effects
and can inflict extremely high dynamic loads on objects that lie in the path of the explosion. The shock
wave produces another effect. It causes intimate mixing of any accumulations of methane as it passes
and will produce a continuous explosive path provided there is sufficient gas and oxygen to remain in the
explosive range.. Even worse, it raises dust into the air to produce concentrations which, if the dust is
combustible, will themselves be explosive - resulting in even more favourable conditions for enriching
the fuel path of the explosion.

profile of gauge pressure

h i g h t u r b u l e n c e

unburned gas combustion

and dust products

shock flame
wave front

Figure 21.14A In an explosive deflagration the flame front is preceded by a shock wave.

The mixing process is further exacerbated by the highly turbulent conditions that exist between the flame
front and the shock wave. Such turbulence, coupled with the high speed of the unburned mixture can
result in scouring of the sides of the airway, especially if the coal is friable. The impact of flying debris
can also result in significant erosion of the airway as well as dispersion of dust into the air.

If there is any obstruction that prevents the air being projected forward in front of the shock wave the
peak pressure becomes greatly escalated . This occurs when the shock wave encounters a facing seal,
stopping or any other ventilation control. Similarly, high pressures will be generated when a developed
explosion enters a blind heading. In such circumstances victims are typically found to have suffered from
blunt trauma in addition to severe burning. The latter is thought to be caused by swirling flames that exist
until extinguished by lack of oxygen.

These are the basic mechanisms that drive explosions through subsurface ventilation networks. Bends,
junctions, obstructions and the availability of fuel and oxygen all affect the rate of propagation. A mine

21 - 47
Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

explosion is a highly dynamic phenomenon and seldom reaches steady-state even for a few
milliseconds. For most of its life it is either proliferating or subsiding.

21.8.2.1. Gas explosions

Explosions of methane from coal are by no means confined to mines. Ignitions have too frequently
occurred in storage silos and in coal cargo ships, causing great damage and loss of life. Methane
concentrations of 40 per cent have been measured in such facilities. Layering phenomena and the
production of explosive mixtures of methane and air make unloading operations particularly hazardous.
Precautions against ignitions in these circumstances include good ventilation of the facility, monitoring
for methane and the gaseous products of spontaneous combustion, ready availability of nitrogen or
carbon dioxide cylinders for inertization, strict control of ignition sources and prohibition of smoking in the
vicinity. Bacteria have also been used to convert the methane into carbon dioxide (Kolada and
Chakravorty, 1987).
Incidences of hydrogen explosions at battery charging stations and ignitions of oil vapours from
machines have been reported. However, the vast majority of gas explosions in mines have involved
methane. Modern systems and standards of mine ventilation are successful in maintaining general body
concentrations of methane at safe levels throughout the ventilated areas. However, strata emissions of
gas are often at methane concentrations of over 90 per cent. It follows that between the points of
emission and the general body of the airstream, zones of an explosive mixture must exist. The
ventilation arrangements should ensure that these zones are as small as possible and, wherever
practicable, maintained free from igniting sources. For example, the danger of methane, coal dust, air
and sparks existing simultaneously at the pick-point of a coal winning machine can be reduced by pick-
face flushing or jet-assisted cutting (Section 20.4.1.1.).

Dangerous accumulations of methane in roof cavities should be avoided by filling those cavities with an
inert material. Air velocities should be sufficient to prevent methane layering (Section 12.4.2.) and
longwall systems should be designed to maintain the gas:air interface within the goaf (gob) and without
flushing on to the faceline. In appropriate circumstances, methane drainage will reduce the amount of
gas that enters the mine ventilation system (Section 12.5.).

21.8.2.2. Coal dust explosions

The danger of coal dust being explosible in air depends upon a number of factors including:

(a) Concentration of the dust and presence of methane: The flame of a dust deflagration is
propagated by the combustion of each discrete particle in turn. If the particles are sufficiently
far apart then the heat produced by a burning particle will be insufficient to ignite its closest
neighbour. The flame will not propagate. The lower flammable limit is attained when the
particles become sufficiently close to allow sequential ignition. At the other extreme, if the
dust particles are too close together, there will be insufficient oxygen to allow complete
combustion. The system will become internally fuel-rich and the rate of heat generation will
fall. The upper flammability limit is attained when the temperature is reduced below the
ignition point of the dust.

The lower flammability limit may be of the order of 50 g/m3 with maximum explosibility at
150 to 350 g/m3 depending upon the volatile content of the coal (Holding, 1982). The upper
flammability limit might be as high as 5000 g/m3 (Strang and McKenzie-Wood, 1985) but is
dependent on the availability of oxygen. To put these flammability limits into perspective, it
should be recalled that threshold limit values for respirable coal dust concentrations can be
as low as 2 milligrams per cubic metre (Table 19.2). A concentration of 50 g/m3 produces a
suffocating atmosphere. It is unlikely that such concentrations of airborne dust will exist
under normal conditions in the active branches of a mine ventilation network. Nevertheless,
in the absence of dust suppression, explosible dust concentrations might occur around the
cutting heads of rock-breaking machines. Furthermore, a very thin coating of dust on the
surfaces of airways or a conveyor can produce an explosive atmosphere when disturbed by
a shock wave or highly turbulent conditions.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 24.14B. The flame of a coal dust explosion emerging from a 2.5 m (8ft) high test gallery at the
Barbara Mine, Poland

Coal dust and methane are synergistic in their explosibility characteristics. The flammability
limits of each of them are widened in the presence of the other. The relationship between the
two varies with the volatile content of the coal. A typical example, based on results reported for
an Australian coal, is shown on Figure 21.15. It should be appreciated that when heated, coal
emits its volatile content commencing with methane. Hence, a coal dust explosion involves the
combustion of gaseous fuels as well as carbonaceous solid particles. It is common for partially
de-volatilized coal dust to impact and adhere to solid surfaces during a coal dust explosion. This
leaves coked material and carbon filaments on supports, equipment and airway surfaces which
assist investigators tracing the role and path of coal dust in an explosion. On the other hand, a
high velocity flame may leave little trace of coking.

(b) Fineness of the dust: There appears to have been little work done in establishing definitive
relationships between explosibility and the size of dust particles. However, the increased surface
area and more intimate mixing with the air given by the finer particles suggest that explosibility
will increase as the average particle size decreases. An accepted assumption is that any
combustible dust which can be raised into the air is explosible. This encompasses all particles of
less than some 250 microns diameter.

(c) Type of coal: There is considerable evidence to show that coal dust explosibility increases
with volatile content (e.g. Holden, 1982). Hence, low rank coals are more prone to dust ignitions.
Anthracite dust is normally considered to be non-explosible in mining conditions. However, with
a sufficiently high energy of initiation, low volatile coal dusts can produce violent explosions. The
disastrous explosion in Manchuria (1942) occurred while mining a coal of volatile content 15 to
19 per cent. The explosibility of coal dust decreases with respect to ash and moisture content as
well as with age. The latter factor is considered to be due to the coating

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

of a partially oxidized layer on older dust particles. It follows that coal dust on, or close to, a
working face is more liable to ignitions.

(d) Strength of initiating source: The energy level of the initial ignition plays a large role in
governing the rate of propagation and growth in power level of a dust explosion. The majority of
coal dust explosions in mines have been initiated by a methane ignition, this providing the
starting shock wave and flame front. However, any other igniting source of sufficient power can
result in a dust explosion in the absence of a flammable gas. The Courrieres dust explosion
(1906) is thought to have been caused in a methane-free atmosphere by a case of prohibited
explosives (Cybulska, 1981).

To comprehend the power levels that can be attained by coal dust explosions, let us return to the matter
of a spearheading shock wave driven by a more slowly advancing deflagrating flame front. A flame
velocity of 50 m/s will produce a shock wave velocity of some 375 m/s. (A lower flame velocity is unlikely
to propagate). However, Figure 21.16 shows that if the dust concentration and methane favour the
growth of the explosion then the flame velocity will increase at a greater rate than that of the shock wave
until both exceed some 1100 m/s. Beyond that, the process may develop further into a detonation when
adiabatic compression in the shock wave can produces temperatures that exceed the ignition point of
the fuel. Gas and dust particles no longer have to wait until they are ignited by a following flame. They
ignite spontaneously. The flame front and shock wave then advance in unison and may reach speeds of
over 2000 m/s (six times the speed of sound). It is little wonder that coal dust explosions are so feared
throughout the world of mining.

Figure 21.16 also illustrates the dynamic pressure developed across the shock wave. Even at the lower
end of this curve the pressures are sufficient to disrupt doors, stoppings and air-crossings, while the
upper end explains the devastation that can be caused by a well-developed explosion.

During post-explosion inspections, the dominant path of the explosion may be deduced from the
twisting of steel supports, the distortion of track rails, the direction of failure of strong stoppings
and the dislocation of heavy equipment. The displacement of less sturdy objects may be
misleading and can be caused by secondary deflections of the shock wave, particularly at bends
or junctions. Furthermore, an explosion is often followed rapidly by an implosion of fresh air due to
rapid cooling and contraction of the afterdamp gases. If open burning is in progress then the fresh
air can initiate repeated explosions. These phenomena can also leave a confused picture for
subsequent investigators.

The passage of an explosive flame is unlikely to ignite solid coal. However, paper, clothing and,
especially, feeders of methane may be left burning if there is sufficient oxygen remaining in the area.
This is most probable in the fringe areas of the explosion and can initiate further explosions of any
methane that continues to be emitted into the area. The probability of such subsequent explosions is
greatly increased if the initial explosion(s) have disrupted the ventilation system.

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 Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 21.14C Photographs of post-explosion No.1 Surface Portal, dislodged and damaged steel arches,
and remnants of ducting. Westray Mine Public Inquiry, Exhibit No. 59 (Richard, 1997).

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 Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Figure 21.14D Photographs of roof falls, dislodged steel arches, and damaged equipment.
Westray Mine Public Inquiry, Exhibit No. 59 (Richard, 1997).

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 Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

40
100 100

30 80 80

60 60
20

40 40

10
20 20

0 0
4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 20 40 60 80 100
0

Figure 21.15 Example of the reduction in the lower flammability limit Figure 21.16 Variation of shock wave velocity and dynamic pressure
of coal in the presence of methane. Other curves vary with respect to flame velocity.
according to the rank of the coal. (Developed from data reported by Strang and MacKenzie-Wood, 1985)
(Based on work reported by Jensen et al (1989))

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.8.2.3. Sulphide dust explosions

Although explosions of sulphide ore dust are a hazard in some metal mines, they do not have the destructive
power of coal dust explosions and have attracted much less attention by researchers (Holding, 1975). These
explosions are initiated, primarily, during blasting operations of ores that contain more than 40 per cent
sulphur. The main danger to life is production of the highly toxic sulphur dioxide gas which may be retained
for several hours, particularly if ventilation controls have been disrupted. Furthermore, the gas reacts with
water vapour causing corrosion problems from the sulphuric acid fumes that are produced. A number of
precautionary measures have been suggested including hosing dust depositions from the walls of stopes
prior to blasting and the use of water atomizers before and during blasting (Section 20.3.4.). Other techniques
involve stemming the blast holes with water ampoules or powdered limestone and inserting explosive
charges with zero-time detonators into bags of hydrated limestone powder suspended in the stopes. The
latter technique fills the air with inert and suppressant dust particles immediately prior to detonation of the
main round (Hall et al, 1989).

21.8.2.4. Dust explosibility tests

Explosibility tests for mine dusts vary considerably in the equipment and procedures employed. The essential
sequence consists of producing a dust:air or dust:oxygen mixture and applying an igniting source, usually an
electrical spark of constant energy level. The parameters that are varied include the dust concentration, the
type of dust, added amounts of stonedust (usually powdered limestone) and methane concentration. The
results may be recorded simply as "ignition" or "no ignition", or in the more sophisticated tests, the rates of
increase of pressure and temperature and the peak values of those variables (Jensen et al, 1989).

Considerable variations occur in the reported explosibilities of similar dusts. These may be attributable, in
part, to differences in test conditions. The results are influenced, for example, by variations in the uniformity of
the dispersed dust, means of measuring dust concentration, strength of the igniting source and turbulence
within the test chamber. This latter factor also indicates that whilst laboratory test results may provide
valuable comparisons between differing dusts, they are not necessarily indicative of actual behaviour within
the mine environment. Full scale galleries have been constructed in several countries for investigations into
mine fires and explosions.

Indices of dust explosibility have been defined and referred to specific equipment and procedures in differing
countries (e.g. Holding, 1982). While these produce useful relative information, caution should be applied
when comparing one index with another.

21.8.3. Suppression of mine explosions

The primary safeguards against mine explosions are, once again, a well designed and operated ventilation
system, planned maintenance of equipment and good housekeeping to control accumulations of combustible
dust and to ensure adequate applications of stonedust. This brings us to the most widely used method of
suppressing the propagation of mine explosions.

21.8.3.1. Stonedust and water barriers

Finely divided limestone dust serves at least two purposes when mixed intimately with coal dust in a mine
airway. First, it will act as an inert dilutent when the mixture becomes airborne, serving to increase the
distance between combustible dust particles. Secondly, particles of stonedust will absorb heat and reduce the
ability of airborne coal dust to propagate a flame. Provided that there is sufficient stonedust present, this
technique provides an efficient means of suppressing the full development of an explosion.

It is important that the stonedust be mixed well with the coal dust. Tests have shown that strips of coal dust
interspersed with strips of stonedust will sustain an explosion. Furthermore, combustible dust on a conveyor
may propagate an explosion even when the airway is adequately stonedusted. Precautions should, therefore,
be taken to ensure that the stonedust is spread on roof, floor and sides often and consistently. An efficient

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

means of doing this is to employ trickle-dusters. These are devices that emit stonedust into the air at a
controlled rate. The stonedust mixes with the airborne coal dust and settles with it to produce a uniformly
mixed deposition on all surfaces.

An additional means of using stonedust, particularly applicable to single entry longwall systems, involves
stonedust barriers. These are boards supported on pivots across the airway, usually near the roof, and
loaded with stonedust. Dust loadings vary from 30 to 60 kg per metre length of board. A number of boards
are located close together within a short length of airway to form the complete stonedust barrier. The intention
is that the boards and their contents will be dislodged by the shock wave of an explosion to produce a high
concentration of airborne stonedust at the time the flame front arrives and, hence, prevent its further
propagation.

The locations of stonedust barriers should be considered carefully. If they are too close to the seat of the
explosion then the flame front may have passed before the stonedust has become adequately distributed; too
far away then the stonedust will become too dispersed by the time the flame front arrives. A sensible
arrangement is to have a lightly loaded (30 kg/m) barrier, that can more easily be displaced, located within
some 200 m of face operations and more heavily loaded barriers further outby. While stonedust barriers may
be sited in all district intakes and returns, conveyor entries are particularly recommended to be fitted with
these devices.

Stonedust barriers do have some disadvantages. They must be inspected regularly to ensure that they
remain capable of being dislodged - yet this renders them prone to accidental or mischievous disturbance. In
damp conditions, moisture-proofed stonedust should be employed to ensure that the dust will be dispersed
adequately by a shock wave. Stonedust barriers may fail to suppress methane explosions. Furthermore, if an
explosion is allowed to develop into a detonation then it is unlikely to be halted by a stonedust barrier. Indeed,
the objective of barriers is to suppress an explosion at an early stage of its development.

A water barrier is intended to serve the same purpose as a stonedust barrier. In this case, troughs holding
some 40 to 90 litres of water are positioned across the airway and attached to roof supports. The troughs
themselves are constructed from polystyrene foam or a similarly weak material so that they will disintegrate
when subjected to a shock wave travelling at 100 m/s. The cross-section becomes filled with water droplets.
Suppression of the flame is achieved by the cooling effect of evaporation and displacement of oxygen.

21.8.3.2. Triggered barriers and explosion detectors

Stonedust and normal water barriers both suffer from the disadvantage that they rely upon the shock wave to
disperse the stonedust or water. Triggered barriers are designed to incorporate an internal power source. A
typical design consists of an enclosed water tank connected to a concentrated array of nozzles along a short
length of airway. A containment diaphragm prevents flow from the tank to the nozzles under normal operating
conditions. A bottle of compressed nitrogen or carbon dioxide is located inside the water tank. The gas
container is also fitted with a rupture disk.

Upon activation, a heater within the gas bottle causes the gas to expand and puncture the rupture disk. This
causes very rapid pressurization of the water, breakage of the containment diaphragm and delivery of water
at high pressure to the nozzles. Several hundred litres of water can be dispersed in less than one second.
Some designs utilize a powdered flame suppressant in place of the water and a soft explosive instead of the
gas container.

Activation of a triggered barrier is initiated by an electrical signal from a detector device located closer to the
working area, where an explosion is more likely to commence. Infra-red, ultra-violet, temperature and
pressure pulse sensors have all been employed as detection devices.

In addition to the active power source to disperse the fire suppressant, an advantage of the triggered barrier
is that an optimum distance can be selected between the sensor and barrier. This ensures that the barrier will
be activated at the correct moment with respect to the approaching flame front.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.8.4 Explosions in sealed areas.

21.8.4.1 Causes of explosions in abandoned areas.

The majority of mine explosions are initiated by operations in the active zones of the mine, particularly arising
from ignitions of methane at the pick points of mining machines. These explosions have sometimes caused
damage to seals separating active mining zones from abandoned workings and allowing methane to flood
into the current ventilation network. The fuel provided by this methane can add to the proliferation and
violence of the explosion (for example, the Westray Mine explosion in Nova Scotia, 1992, Richard, K. P.,
1997). It was for this reason that the designs of seals to unventilated old workings sought to be capable of
withstanding explosion forces. It has now been accepted that explosions can occur within abandoned areas
(example Sago Mine, West Virginia, 2006). It is difficult to determine with certainty the causes of such
explosions. The possibilities include:

friction
The collapse of strata that contains quartz (particularly sandstones) is capable of producing incendiary sparks
by friction of rock against rock or rock on steel (Powell,1975, Nagy, 1960)

lightening
Lightening strikes on surface may be conducted for discharge in mine workings, including abandoned areas,
via borehole casings, pipes, cables or any other conductive path (Sacks, H.K. and Novak, T., 2005).

adiabatic compression
The atmospheric pressures developed by sudden collapses of strata into sealed areas can cause rises in
temperature to the ignition point of explosive mixtures (McPherson, 1995; Lin, W. 1997).

spontaneous combustion which reaches open areas. (See Section 21.4)

21.8.4.2 Recognition of the hazard.

Following the Sago Mine explosion (West Virginia, 2006, 12 fatalities)) and Darby Mine explosion (Kentucky,
2006, five fatalities) urgent new research was initiated into safeguarding miners against the effects of
explosions occurring in abandoned areas of coal mines. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) in the United States reported that during the period 1986 to 2006 there were 12 incidents of
explosions in sealed areas of mines in the United States (Zipf et al, NIOSH, 2007). In ten of those explosions
seals were destroyed indicating that the U.S. design standard then in use 140 kPa (20 psig) was far from
adequate. This contrasted with standards of the 345kPa (50psig) in the UK or 500kPa (73 psig) in Poland and
Germany) where no seal failures due to explosions in old workings were reported in the same period.

One effect of the Sago Mine explosion was the issuance of a Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)
Emergency Temporary Standard that seals should be designed and constructed to withstand an explosion
pressure of 345 kPa (50 psig) and that new research on mine seals be initiated (see Section 21.1). This
provided the impetus for NIOSH to embark on such research. The first of their reports was issued in 2007
(Zipf et al) with the promise of further investigations to be conducted.

21.8.4.3 Approaches to the problem and the initial NIOSH Report.

An approach to the safety of abandoned workings has been either to ventilate those old workings
continuously in order to remove methane or to seal them off and allow an inert atmosphere to be established.
Both of those techniques have disadvantages. With regard to continuous ventilation, even when air passes
slowly through caved areas it is still possible for pockets of methane and explosive mixtures to exist within
those areas, particularly in inclined workings. Secondly, it is most unwise to pass air through old workings
where the coal is prone to spontaneous combustion. And thirdly, recalling that ventilating fans are often the
largest consumer of electrical power at a mine, the associated costs can become very high if airflows are
used to ventilate increasing areas of abandoned workings.

With regard to sealing off an abandoned area, the intention is that an inert atmosphere be established in
sealed areas by the combined effect of oxidation (replacing oxygen by carbon dioxide) and emissions of

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

methane. However, this can be effective only if the seals are designed to minimize leakage. Furthermore,
recalling from Section 4.2.3 that the effective combined resistance, Reff, of seals constructed essentially in
parallel falls dramatically as their number increases it becomes important that the number of seals into the
area is also minimized.
R
R eff = where R is the resistance of a single seal and n = number of seals.
n2

An added complication is that seals will “breathe” as the external atmospheric pressure varies. (Section
4.2.2). The effect is that air will leak through or around seals during periods of a rising or falling barometric
pressure. For these reasons an inert atmosphere may never be attained in all parts of an abandoned and
sealed area. In particular, the breathing of seals can produce a time variant zone of explosive mixture
immediately inby each seal.

The NIOSH Report of 2007 (Zipf et al) described a rigorous investigation involving laboratory (closed volume)
tests, full scale gallery tests and the utilization of mathematical models. These tests examined

• the dependence of pressures developed by an explosion on the volume of explosive mixture,

• the case of products of combustion expanding into inert voidage and caved areas
• the case of gases resulting from the explosion venting into other active or inactive parts of the mine,
• the run-up distances through which an explosion can proliferate up to becoming a detonation (Section
21.8.2.2).

On the basis of their investigation, NIOSH suggested that if abandoned working are to be sealed rather than
ventilated then mine management decide on a case-by case basis whether to
(a) build unmonitored seals that will withstand most explosions within old workings, or
(b) utilize lighter seals but to monitor continuously the atmosphere in a zone inby the seals.

Table 21.5 gives a synopsis of the applications of unmonitored and monitored seals that are described in
more detailed in the NIOSH 2007 Report.

At the time of writing, NIOSH is continuing with its investigations. In particular, further work should provide
guidance on the construction of seals.

Australia has already adopted regulations that consider the conditions under which unmonitored
and monitored seals can be used (Oberholzer and Lyne, 2002). Monitoring is normally carried out
by means of tube bundle systems (Section 21.7.2). Furthermore, in addition to monitoring, many
Australian mines utilize inertization techniques to maintain an inert atmosphere inby the seals
(Section 21.6).

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 Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

Unmonitored Design Monitored Design

pressure pressur
e
345 kPa
Panel and district seals. 4400 kPa Panel and district seals. (50 psig)
Length of sealed volume >50m. (640 psig) Length of sealed volume >50m in any direction .
100% filled with explosive mix, Monitoring ensures that that maximum length of
completely confined, unvented explosive mix behind seal < 5m and volume of
explosive mix < 40% of total sealed volume. Some
venting into inby inert atmosphere. (typical
situation with breathing seals)

345 kPa
Panel, district and crosscut seals. 800 kPa Panel , district and crosscut. seals. (50 psig)
Length of sealed volume <50m in (120 psig) Length of sealed volume <50m in any direction
any direction. Sealed area Monitoring ensures that maximum length of
completely filled with explosive mix. explosive mix behind seal < 5m
Confined but can vent somewhat Volume of explosive mix < 40%total sealed
into gob volume.

Table 21.5 A simplified synopsis of the design pressures recommended for unmonitored
and monitored seals.
(Derived from Zipf et al. Explosion pressure design criteria for new seals in U.S. coal mines. NIOSH IC 9500, 2007)
Figures 21.17 and 21.18 show layouts that illustrate the possible locations for district, panel and cross-cut seals.

21.8.4.4 Requirements of seals

Due to the many uncertainties associated with atmospheric conditions and changing geometries
within sealed areas it is difficult to know with any certainty the distributions and concentrations of
gas mixtures much beyond the seal locations. Hence the conservative approach is to assume
that well developed explosions can occur within the sealed area and to construct seals that can
withstand such explosions . The requirements of such seals are:

• they be as leakproof as practicable, taking into account the number of seals to be built
• capable of withstanding repeated explosions
• explosion proof in both directions taking into account the shear strength of strata in the roof,
floor and sides, and
• that they can withstand strata convergence over the long term.

It may prove difficult to design practicable and cost-effective single-wall seals that can meet all of
these requirements. A wise objective of further investigations would be aimed at designing mine
layouts that minimize the number of seals required and the utilization of double walled seals with
an infill that is economically and readily available. Figure 21.19, with or without the sampling
arrangements, illustrates the type of seal that has proved successful in meeting these listed
requirements.

It is a prudent precaution to pre-prepare the sites of future seals as soon as practicable after
excavation of the relevant airways. Such preparation should include cut-outs for the seal walls in
airway sides and the storage of materials for construction of the seals. Such pre-preparation will
prove invaluable in cases of emergency. Furthermore, airways should be liberally stone dusted
both inby and outby the sites of seals.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

panel
seals b l e e d e r s

pre-
prepared
sites of
district
seals

cross cross
-cut -cut
seals seals

pre-
prepared
sites of
district
seals

panel s u b - m a i n s
seals

Figure 21.17 Panel extraction with panel and cross-cut seals.

Multiple cross-cut seals are required.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

panel
seals b l e e d e r s

pre-
prepared
sites of
district
seals

pre-
prepared
sites of
district
seals

panel s u b - m a i n s
seals

Figure 21.18 Barrier pillars left between panels (subject to rock mechanics considerations.)
No cross-cut seals required.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

sampling
tube

sealed
area infill

3m or (Height + Width) + 0.6

2

Figure 21.19 Example of an explosion proof seal.

21.9 PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL

21.9.1. Training and preparedness

In all underground emergencies, the first priority is the safety of personnel. The surest protection
against the initiation and hazards of mine fires and explosions is training and practice of safety
procedures. Classes and practical sessions should be held, not only for new recruits, but at regular
intervals of time for all employees. These sessions should include discussions on the causes of
fires and explosions and how they propagate. The elements of subsurface firefighting and
operation of fire-suppression equipment should be outlined. It is prudent to ensure that supervisors
and other selected members of the workforce should receive additional instruction and practice in
firefighting. As in mine rescue work, competitions between teams can do much to foster interest.
This further training may include the use of temporary stoppings, airflow control and air pressure
management. However, training of all underground personnel should concentrate particularly on

• warning systems and location of trapped persons

• self rescuers
• escapeways and
• refuge chambers.

These four items are discussed in the following subsections.

Mine management plays a crucial role in minimizing the risks of fires and explosions, and in
responding correctly when they do occur. In addition to matters of training, the planned
arrangement of services dictates the efficiency of emergency response (Section 21.10.).
Communications, routes of water pipes, cables, airflows and escapeways, availability and
effectiveness of firefighting equipment, reliable environmental monitors and an integrated fire-
protection policy (Sheer, 1988) can make the difference between a localized ignition that is quickly
extinguished and disastrous loss of life. Ventilation and safety engineers should engage in mock
scenarios and computer simulations of emergency situations. Such exercises assist in raising
questions related to response strategies and mine preparedness such as establishing distances
from work locations to refuge chambers and escapeways.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

All underground workers should be required to engage in fire drills and emergency evacuation
procedures at least once in each three months. These should involve leaving the mine by
escapeways other than the normal travelling routes. Such drills should be accompanied by
discussions on choices of escape routes and ventilation systems, and should also encourage
familiarity with the layout of airways within the mine.

It is a useful exercise, as part of emergency preparedness, for mine management to establish prior
friendly relationships with local police, fire, hospital and news agencies. This can be further
facilitated by arranging occasional tours of the mine for such people.

21.9.2. Methods of warning and locating personnel

The rates at which mine fires can propagate and products of combustion spread throughout an
underground network of airways make it vital that all personnel in the mine be warned of the
emergency as quickly as possible. This can be difficult because of the distances involved and wide
dispersal of the workforce, particularly in metal mines. Video cameras may be located at strategic
locations although these might be obscured by smoke.

Most mining industries employ "firebosses, firemasters" (or similar titles) whose task is to patrol the
mine before and, perhaps, during each working shift and following blasting operations to search for
any indications of a fire. To ensure adequate and timely coverage of the mine, tags are left at
strategic points showing the time and date of the last visit. Fire patrols should follow the direction of
airflow in order to more easily locate the probable source of any smoke or fire odour.

Modern paging-type mine telephone systems enable voice warnings to be transmitted to main
work areas and along major transport routes. These are particularly suitable for concentrated
mining methods such as the longwall system. However, the extension of paging techniques along
the several hundred kilometres of active airways in a large metal mine would be cost prohibitive.
The methods that have been devised to transmit fire warnings to a widespread workforce in
underground openings include:

• stench warning systems,

• radio signals and
• more recent systems

Following receipt of any form of fire warning, mine workers should immediately engage in the
emergency evacuation or personnel protection procedures in which they should have been trained
and practiced (Section 21.9.1.).

21.9.2.1. Stench warning systems

Versions of this technique have been employed in large metal mines since the 1930's. The
procedure involves releasing a gas having a very distinctive odour into intake airways or
compressed air systems. Having been exposed to low concentrations of the stench gas during
training sessions, miners recognize the odour and can initiate emergency procedures. The gases
used resemble those introduced into natural gas distribution systems. Ethyl mercapton mixed into
freon has been commonly employed. However, this can be toxic, corrosive and produce an
unbearable stench at high concentrations. Furthermore, it may lose its potency when transported
through steel pipes. A safer and healthier alternative is tetrahydrothiaphene (Ouderkirk et al,
1985).

A basic disadvantage of the stench warning technique is that it relies on the mine ventilation
system. Transmission times of the stench depend upon the large range of air velocities that exist
within a mine ventilation network. In openings of large cross-sectional area, travel times can

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

become dangerously high to serve as a fire warning system. Furthermore, the concentration of the
odour will also vary from very high, close to the emission point, to barely detectable in remote
areas of a complex ventilation network. To add to the difficulties, the ventilation system may have
been modified or disrupted by the fire (Section 21.3.2.).

These drawbacks can be minimized by selecting multiple injection points in locations reasonably
close to major work areas, in addition to downcast shafts or other primary inlets. Stench gas
injector mechanisms should incorporate pressure balance arrangements and controlled release
rates to prolong the warning and to avoid short peaks of excessively high concentration. Inby
injectors should be capable of remote activation. The choice of injector sites and release rates
should be made carefully. The objective is to carry a clearly detectable odour as rapidly as
possible to all parts of the mine where personnel may be working. Ventilation network analysis
packages that incorporate gas distribution modules are very helpful in selecting optimum locations
and release rates (Section 7.4.4.).

21.9.2.2. Ultra-low frequency radio signals.

Many investigations have been conducted into the use of radio waves for warning mine personnel
of an emergency condition and, also, for locating persons who have become trapped. High or
medium frequency radio signals are limited to line-of-sight transmission or depend upon the
existence of metal conductors such as pipes, cables or conveyor structure. For personnel warning
or location, the radio signals must be capable of transmission through rock and of being detected
by lightweight and low-powered personal receiver units.

Older developments in this area have involved ultra-low frequency devices. At frequencies in the
range 630 to 2000 Hz and employing transmitting powers of 1 kW, rock penetration distances of
over 1600 m have been achieved (Hjelmstad and Pomroy, 1990). This indicates that transmitters
located on surface will be suitable for most mines, while underground transmission sites will serve
for the deeper workings. The signal strength decays inversely with the cube of the distance
through the rock.

The transmitter consisted of a radio (electromagnetic) signal generator, amplifier and antenna. The
latter may be made from ten coils of insulated copper wire coiled into a loop of some 30 m
diameter. The personal receiver units are small, intrinsically safe and may be powered by the
wearer's caplamp battery. The pencil size receiver antenna is formed from a high-permeability
ferrite core wound with copper wire and is very efficient in detecting electromagnetic radiation.
More highly powered units can be fitted to vehicles or other equipment. The transmitter and
receivers are tuned to a common resonant frequency to discriminate against electromagnetic noise
or stray signals. The voltage produced by a receiver unit is amplified and may then be used to
generate an audio-visual warning. Incorporation into the caplamp unit can produce on-off blinking
of the light until nullified by operation of a switch. Research continues into the use of rock-
penetrating radio waves for voice communication. Again, this will serve for both warning and
personnel location purposes.

21.9.2.3. More recent systems

Following the Sago Mine explosion ( West Virginia, 2006) a plethora of wireless tracking systems
have been developed to locate persons in underground mines, particularly in Australia and the
United States. These systems have included hand-held radios, leaky feeder and radio frequency
devices. The first of these to be approved by the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration is
normally energized via d.c. power cables with back-up battery power in case of failure of the cable
3
system. (MSHA, 2008) . The units can be used to track miners both before and after an
emergency situation. Text messaging as well as gas detection can be added to the system to
maintain communications between equipped miners and a central location where all such

3
Mine Tracer Miner Location System, Venture Design Services. Inc.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

communications are logged . At the time of writing other tracking devices are under investigation
for approval in U.S. mines.

21.9.2.4. Locating trapped persons

The situation has all too often arisen where miners have become trapped in locations that are
inaccessible because of accumulations of gases, products of combustion, water or falls of roof. To
facilitate rescue operations, it is necessary to identify the locations of the trapped personnel.

A very old method that has often led to life-saving operations is the seismic technique. An
explosive charge or heavy hammer (pile-driver) blow on the mine surface may be heard or felt by
personnel in relatively shallow mines. In deeper operations, similar seismic signals may be
generated from underground locations. On hearing these signals, the trapped personnel respond
by hammering on pipes, rails or, simply, the floor or walls. If this response is detected by the ears
or geophones of rescue personnel then mine maps are consulted, if necessary, to select the
probable location(s) of the trapped persons. Pilot boreholes may be drilled to those locations to
supply food and air while rescue operations proceed.

21.9.3. Self-rescuers

An estimated 80 to 90 per cent of fatalities in mine fires or explosions are caused by carbon
monoxide poisoning. Self- rescuers are compact versions of breathing apparatus and are intended
to allow the wearers to pass through atmospheres that are contaminated by smoke or carbon
monoxide. In many countries, it is mandatory for all persons who enter an underground mine to
carry a self-rescuer. The lighter versions can be worn on the belt of each person who ventures
underground while caches of the heavier self rescuers may be kept close to work areas and on
vehicles. The purpose of self-rescuers is to allow the wearers to escape from or through
contaminated atmospheres. Indeed, they are often known as escape breathing apparatus (EBA's).
They are not intended for rescue operations or other type of work and should not be confused with
the more specialized breathing equipment used by trained rescue teams.

The two essential features of self-rescuers are the types of atmosphere in which they are effective
and the time they allow for escape. Their operational duration depends not only upon the type of
self-rescuer but also:

• manual effort (e.g. speed of walking)

• breathing habits, experience, physical condition and mental state of the wearer, and
• environmental conditions.

Although many lives have been saved by self-rescuers, others have been lost even when such
devices were available. In many of these cases, the error has been in failing to don the apparatus
at the appropriate time. This matter should be stressed heavily during training sessions. In
particular, self-rescuers should be put on as soon as it is suspected that the air is, or may become,
contaminated, i.e. by means of telephone messages, personnel warning systems (Section 21.9.2.),
shock waves or strong pulses in the ventilation, unusual odours or the appearance of smoke.
Furthermore, during training, personnel should be required to practice unpacking and donning the
apparatus. Training versions of the units are available for this purpose. Experience has shown that
classroom instruction on the opening and donning of a self-rescuer is insufficient to emulate the
physical and psychological conditions under which it may be used in an emergency. It is
recommended that the procedure be practiced in a smoke-filled atmosphere or, at the very least,
with closed eyes.

There are basically two types of self-rescuer units, the filter self-rescuer (FSR) and the self-
contained self-rescuer (SCSR).

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.9.3.1. Filter self-rescuers (FSR's)

Each of these small and compact units fits inside a hermetically sealed plastic or stainless steel
case which is worn on the belt. To use the device, the seal is broken by a lever arrangement, the
mouthpiece inserted inside the lips and gripped by the teeth, and nose clips put on. The complete
unit is held close to the face and chin by head straps. Air is drawn through three types of filter
before passing through a heat exchanger to the mouthpiece. Exhaled air also traverses the heat
exchanger and through a one-way valve to the external atmosphere.

The first level of filtration simply removes dust particles. The second filter is a drying agent -
typically 9 per cent lithium chloride and 91 per cent calcium bromide impregnated into activated
charcoal (Strang and MacKenzie-Wood, 1985). The activated charcoal assists in removing sulphur
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and oxides of nitrogen. The third level of filtration contains a catalytic
mixture of granulated manganese dioxide, copper oxide and a little silver oxide. The mixture is
known widely as hopcalite. This catalyst converts carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide with close
to 100 per cent efficiency. It is, however, poisoned by water vapour. Indeed, the duration of the
device is governed by the drying agent in the second level of filtration. The period of operation is,
typically, about one hour for saturated conditions and carbon monoxide concentrations of up to 1.5
per cent.

Filter self-rescuers suffer from two disadvantages. First, they rely on there being at least 16 per
cent oxygen in the ambient atmosphere (Section 11.2.2.). Secondly, both the drying filter and the
hopcalite involve exothermic reactions. Indeed, the temperature of the inhaled air is an indication
of the level of carbon monoxide present. At high concentrations, the temperature of the filtered air
may exceed 90°C and cause great discomfort including blistering of the lips and mouth. However,
removing the mouthpiece for temporary relief in such circumstances is likely to be fatal. The small
heat exchanger close to the mouth piece absorbs heat from the filtered air and rejects it to the
exhaled air. Because of these limitations it is prudent to replace filter self-rescuers by self-
contained self-rescuers with the possible exception of small mines with ready access to the
surface.

21.9.3.2. Self-contained self-rescuers (SCSR's)

As the name implies, these supply all the respiratory needs of the wearer and are independent of
the gaseous constituents of the ambient atmosphere. A considerable variety of self-contained self-
rescuers have been produced. The main disadvantage is their weight and bulk. Current
generations of SCSR's vary from 2 to 5 kg and may not be sufficiently convenient for personal
wear - hence, requiring caches of the units to be available close to active working areas. Research
continues in attempts to develop a self-contained self-rescuer that is sufficiently light and compact
to be worn on the belt while giving the 60 or 90 minute operating life that may be mandated by law.
National and state legislation should be consulted for regulations that govern the requirement,
types and operating durations of self-rescuers.

As with the FSR's, the self-contained versions are hermetically sealed in polypropylene or metal
containers to ensure a long shelf life. However, if the seal is broken or damaged, the unit must be
replaced. Periodic water bath tests should be carried out to ensure that the casings remain airtight.
The units include noseclips, fitting straps and goggles. Two types of self-contained self-rescuers
are in common use.

The compressed oxygen SCSR is a recirculating system. Expired air passes through a soda lime
filter which removes carbon dioxide, then into a flexible "breathing bag" where it is enriched with
oxygen from a compact gas cylinder. The oxygen may be supplied at a base rate of some 1.2 to 2
litres per minute but will be increased automatically if deflation of the breathing bag indicates a
rising demand for air. The air passes to and from the mouthpiece via a flexible breathing tube. The
unit is worn on the chest and supported by neck and waist straps.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

The chemical SCSRs are lighter devices and develop oxygen from the reaction that occurs when
water vapour and carbon dioxide from exhaled breath pass through potassium superoxide (KO2).
The oxygen in this compound contains an additional electron compared with free gaseous oxygen.
This gives a fairly weak bond and free oxygen is released readily according to the following
reactions:

4KO2 + CO2 + H2O → K2CO3 + 2KOH + 3O2 (21.14)

and KOH + CO2 → KHCO3

Exhaled air from the mouthpiece passes down the flexible breathing tube and through a bed of
granulated potassium superoxide where oxygen is added and carbon dioxide removed. It is then
collected in a breathing bag for re-inhalation. A heat exchanger can be incorporated to maintain
the temperature of the inhaled air to no more than 45°C in most situations.

The chemical production of oxygen can be initiated simply by exhaling vigorously into the unit.
However, there may be little or no time to accomplish this safely. Chlorate candles are
incorporated into most chemical SCSR's to overcome this difficulty. The chlorate candle is started
by percussion or other device when a ripcord is pulled. This provides some three to four litres of
oxygen during the following few minutes and until the potassium superoxide reaction becomes
effective.

Because of their vital role in cases of emergency, it is important that self-rescuers be inspected
according to a timetable that may be imposed by regulations but should occur at intervals of no
more than 3 months or after an SCSR has been carried or worn on the person of any individual. In
particular the seal of each unit should be examined to ensure its integrity. A log should be
maintained on inspections of each individual unit.

The bulk and weight of most current self-contained self rescuers may render them unsuitable for
continuous wearing by a miner. Caches of SCSRs may be stored at underground locations. Such
caches should be within a travel time of five to ten minutes, depending on the duties of any worker,
preferably in a level intake airway but accessible from more than one entry. However, caches of
SCSRs should be available at both the main gate and tail gate ends of a longwall panel and in
designated escapeways. Caches of SCSRs should be checked as part of pre-shift inspections.
These should be at least the number of SCSRs stored underground as the maximum number of
personnel underground at any one time. Training should ensure that each miner knows the
locations of SCSR caches. It is prudent to have self rescuer units on personnel transportation
vehicles.

21.9.4. Escapeways

In any subsurface facility, certain paths should be selected as preferred evacuation routes in the
event of an emergency. These escapeways should be highlighted during training sessions and fire
drills. There are three matters of importance:

• selection of airways as escapeways

• preparation and maintenance, and
• protection and use of escapeways during an emergency.

The choice of escapeways commences by a pragmatic examination of the airflow routes, travel
distances, geographical layout of airways, the physical state of those airways, directions of leakage
through stoppings, and the locations of air crossings, doors and other ventilation controls
that may be dislocated by a fire or explosion. The primary requirement is that escapeways should
be maintained free from products of combustion for as long as possible following the outbreak of a
fire.

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At least two escapeways must be available from all areas of routine mineral extraction. This is
usually mandated by law. In the case of single development headings or other special
circumstances, legislation may limit the number of persons who may be allowed into those areas at
any one time. For single entry longwall systems, the section intake and return airways must serve
as the escapeways. However, even in multi-entry systems it is prudent to maintain at least one
return as a escapeway. Incidents in the intakes or mineral extraction zone may prevent evacuation
along intake escapeways. Depending upon air velocities and the efficacy of any barricades that
may be erected, it might be possible to outpace the airflow and stay ahead of products of
combustion along a well maintained return escapeway.

At least one (and preferably more) intake airway for each section of a mine should be maintained
as an escapeway. Where two or more intakes are designated as escapeways then they should be
truly independent ventilation routes as far back to the primary mine inlets as practicable. Two
parallel airways, where one is ventilated by air that has passed through the other, are not
independent ventilation routes and cannot be regarded as separate escapeways (MSHA, 1984).
Strata stresses should also be considered in selecting escapeways. Routes that are subject to
crushing will become excessively expensive to maintain in a good travellable condition and should
not be chosen as escapeways.

Network analysis programs with pollutant distribution modules (Section 7.4.4.) can be employed to
check and improve the selection of escapeways for any given fire scenario. Computer packages
that simulate fire situations are particularly valuable for this purpose (Section 21.3.2.2). Even more
specialized programs have been developed specifically for the identification of preferred
escapeways (Barker-Read and Li, 1989). The reliability of escapeways can be subjected to
objective tests through the techniques of fault-tree analysis through which the causes and
consequences of events may be interlinked, tracked and analyzed (Goodman and Kissell, 1989).

The preparation and maintenance of escapeways should be carried out with careful consideration
given to the potential conditions in which those escapeways may be used, i.e. in zero visibility by
persons wearing self-rescuers and who are in a state of anxiety. Obstructions, patches of poor
roof, uneven or tracked floors and unfenced junctions may create little difficulty during routine
travel but can make the difference between life and death when the airway is filled with smoke.

Escapeways must be maintained in a condition suitable for unimpeded foot travel at all times.
Signs and coloured reflectors should be employed to indicate directions of escape. However, here
again, these visual indicators may be rendered invisible by smoke. Reflectors should, preferably,
be located on the sidewalls rather than at the roof of airways as smoke is liable to be thickest at
roof level. Some form of lifeline should extend throughout the length of an escapeway. This may
simply be a water or compressed air pipe, a cable, wire line or part of the structure of a conveyor,
but placed at a convenient height to be followed by hand contact. Such lifelines should also have
cones or other devices at intervals to give a tactile indication of direction. It is prudent to deposit
extra caches of self- rescuers in well-identified locations within escapeways.

Persons who work in any section of a mine should be completely familiar with the relevant
escapeways. This can be promoted by using alternative exit routes during fire drills and displaying
escapeway maps within the section and at other locations, such as shaft stations, where miners
may congregate.

During an actual emergency, every attempt should be made to maintain escapeways free from
products of combustion for as long as possible. This might be accomplished by the placement of
brattice cloths or other devices to control pressure differentials between airways (Section
21.3.4.1.). Again, training classes and fire drills give the opportunity of imparting familiarity with
procedures involved in evacuation through escapeways. These include the advisability of travelling
in groups for mutual assistance and the use of lifelines.

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

21.9.5. Refuge chambers

When personnel have become trapped within underground workings and all escape routes have
become inaccessible then refuge chambers provide a last resort to preserve life. These are
lengths of airway or fire-resistant prefabricated chambers which might be portable and either rigid
or inflatable within which miners may wait until they can be reached by rescue personnel. Blind
headings or other single ended zones are the preferred locations. However, totally enclosed
prefabricated chambers may be sited in through-flow airways or cross-cuts. The requirement,
number and locations of refuge chambers may be mandated by legislation. Where used, they
should be within reasonable access from active working sections (NIOSH, 2007).

Refuge chambers should be sized according to the maximum number of persons who work in that
area of the mine and for an occupancy period of not less than two days. Assuming that each
resting person has need of 0.15 litres of air per second (Table 11.2) gives an air requirement of 13
m3/day. However, this should be multiplied by a safety factor of 3 to allow for increased
concentrations of exhaled carbon dioxide. Hence, if twenty persons are to be accommodated, then
the chamber should have a minimum volume of 13 x 2 x 3 x 20 = 1560m3 . An opening of cross-
sectional area of 15 m2 would, therefore, require a length of 1560/15 = 104 m if there is no
additional air feed from a compressed air line or surface borehole.

Two types of refuge chamber have bought trapped miners vital waiting time. Pre-prepared and fully
equipped refuge chambers should be considered for workings that are distant from surface
connections, and in long development or exploration headings. They should ideally be equipped
with water, compressed air, communication with the surface, gas and temperature monitors,
sanitary arrangements, extra self-rescuers, food in sealed containers, first aid supplies, oxygen
cylinders, emergency supplies of breathable air, and reading/writing materials (Halasz, 1985). The
entrances to pre-prepared refuge chambers should be well marked. Routes leading to refuge
chambers may be fitted with directional blinking lights ( similar to Christmas tree lights) to assist
miners traversing polluted airways. All underground workers and management should be trained
in the maintenance and use of refuge chambers and be aware of the existence and locations of
such chambers. Prefabricated chambers should be constructed from non-combustible and heat-
resistant materials.

As a last resort, trapped personnel may be able to construct improvised refuge chambers provided
that brattice cloths, timber, hammers, saws and nails are available. Leakage points may be sealed
by clothing, rags, boards or, indeed, anything else that is available. In such cases, an active
compressed air line into the zone is invaluable in maintaining the pressure above that of the
connecting and, perhaps, polluted airways. If such barricades have to be erected within a
continuous airway then attempts should be made to minimize the pressure differential applied
across the ends. This may entail holing stoppings or opening doors in the immediate vicinity.

Following the NIOSH Report of Dec. 2007 the Mine Safety and Health Safety Administration of the
United States published for public comment a Proposed Rule on Refuge Alternatives in American
coal mines (MSHA, 2008). At the time of writing, it is intended that a Final Rule will be established
by the end of 2008. This follows a period since 1969 when federal law allowed the regulatory
agency to require that refuge chambers be installed in coal mines. Until 2008, however this
authority was never exercised.

21.10 EMERGENCY PROCEDURE AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The manner in which a major fire or explosion in a mine is handled depends largely on the
forethought and planning that has been expended on such an eventuality. The early stages of an
emergency are often fraught with uncertainty, and chaos can easily occur. It is, therefore, vital that
those in charge of subsurface operations should have established and documented a definitive

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

procedure to be followed when a dangerous condition is discovered. All key personnel should be
very familiar with that procedure. This final Section discusses the three areas that should be
addressed.

21.10.1. Immediate response

There are two sets of actions that should occur immediately and simultaneously when a major fire
or an explosion takes place. First, all available warning systems for underground personnel should
be activated; the numbers of persons underground and their work locations should be established,
return airways should be evacuated, and responsible persons should be sent to inspect the
affected area (as far as is possible). While this is in progress, telephone messages should be
transmitted to key persons or agency representatives not already at the site. These include

• mine management and senior supervisory staff

• heads of mine specialist departments (e.g. ventilation, safety, electrical, mechanical)
• regional mine rescue centres and rescue stations at neighbouring mines
• government inspectorate or enforcement agencies
• union officials
• local police, fire and medical facilities.

A list of these persons or agencies and their telephone numbers should be posted permanently in
a prominent position in the surface operations centre of the mine and updated whenever
necessary. At all times, when people are in the mine, there must be a designated person on
surface who has the authority and responsibility to initiate these immediate actions.

21.10.2. Command centre

An emergency command centre should be established in a surface office as rapidly as possible.

This should be manned by a few key officials, normally the senior management of the mine and
others with detailed and expert knowledge of firefighting and rescue operations. Those persons
should have the authority to take part in decision making. However, they should be supported and
advised by specialist engineers, other government officials and union representatives. Office
accommodations equipped with desks, telephones, mine maps and stationery should be made
available for these supplementary groups adjoining the command centre. Provision should also be
made for rescue personnel and those involved in the analysis of gas samples.

It is important that the chain of command is firmly established. There should be one person in
overall control. Decisions are usually arrived at after consultation and discussion. However, the
final word lies with that one person. Instructions relating to firefighting, rescue and evacuation must
be issued only from the command centre. Direct communication should be maintained between the
command centre and the mine telephone system as well as to surface fans, power centres and
pumping stations.

21.10.3. Disaster management

In addition to the operations that are conducted underground during an emergency, there are
numerous other facets that require detailed organization and management. It is to be expected that
many other people will arrive at the mine site throughout the emergency, including the news
media, family and friends of underground workers and volunteers varying from willing but unskilled
lay persons to specialist consultants. Police authorities should be asked to assume control of traffic
and all access roads to the mine property including surface buildings and mine entrances. Medical
facilities may require to be set up on the mine surface and vehicles made

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Subsurface fires and explosions Malcolm J. McPherson

readily available for transportation to hospitals. Medical personnel should be established on site
and who must be able and willing to be escorted underground if necessary.

Accommodation may need to be found for immediate family members of trapped miners. This
should, preferably, be close by but off the mine site. The presence of clergy and specialists in
trauma reactions can be of tremendous assistance in those facilities. Responsible persons should
be put in charge of continuous catering facilities and janitorial services.

Every effort should be made to establish good liaison with media personnel and to accommodate
them with arrangements for interviews and telephones. One spokesperson for the mining company
should be responsible for all statements to the press. As part of disaster preparedness, that person
should have been trained in communicating through the media; in particular, making accurate and
relevant statements and responses to questions within a 30 or 60 second television interview. It
assists in maintaining good relationships with media personnel to keep them informed of the time
of forthcoming statements.

Both company personnel and reporters should be aware of their mutual responsibilities. The latter
have a duty to inform the public while, at the same time, they should not engage in any activities
that will interfere with rescue or firefighting operations. As televised interviews can be broadcast
immediately or within seconds, it is of great importance that information relating to individuals be
given to concerned family members before being made available to the media. While the great
majority of news people act in a responsible manner, there is the occasional renegade whose
enthusiasm exceeds his/her common sense. In one such incident, a young reporter managed to
evade the check-in procedures at the top of a mine shaft and reached an underground fresh-air
base during rescue operations. He was brought out on a stretcher, having fainted at the scene.

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