ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

THEORY OF STRUCTURE I

CHAPTER Two: Loads of Structure

OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION

2. Loads of Structure:
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Dead Load
2.3. Live Load
2.4. Environmental Loads (wind loads, earthquake forces, …)
2.5. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
2.6. Load Combinations
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 2.1. INTRODUCTION

 This chapter provides a discussion of some of the preliminary aspects of structural

analysis.

 First, followed by an introduction to the types of structures and Classification of

loads.

 Finally, a detail explanation is given of the various types of loads that must be
considered for an appropriate analysis and various load combinations.

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2.1. INTRODUCTION CON…
 Determination of loads that act on a structure is very important steps in the overall process
of design.
The loads that enter a system are
 Concentrated loads: are those that are applied over a relatively small area.
eg. a single vehicular wheel load.
 Line loads: are distributed along a narrow strip of the structure.
eg. The weight of a member itself and the weight of a wall or partition.
 Surface loads: are loads that are distributed over an area.
eg. The loads on a warehouse floor and the snow load on a roof..

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 2.1. INTRODUCTION CON…
•
Loads on Structures classified based on:
Direction:- Gravity - Vertical (e.g. DL,LL)
Lateral - Horizontal loads(e.g. EQ, WL)

Variation with time:- Dead load (permanent) load

Live Loads (temporary) loads which are vary with time

Structural Response:- Static (loads applied gradually) and

Dynamic (loads applied over a short period of time and vary in
magnitude with time)

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2.1. INTRODUCTION CON…
 The loads that act on a structure can be grouped as follow:

 Dead loads

 Live loads and

 Environmental loads and

 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures

 All loads could be combined before the analysis is performed.

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2.1. INTRODUCTION…
The some loads act on buildings are shown in the following

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2.2. DEAD LOADS

 are loads that act on the structure which are due to the self weight of the structure
and the weights of other permanent fixtures.

 (eg. self weight of the beam, columns, walls, floor slab, roofing, ceilings,
windows, doors and other fixture of the building and so on.)

 are always characterized as having fixed magnitudes and positions.

 is consists of the weight that are permanently applied on the structure.

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2.2. DEAD LOADS CON…
Components of structures
 Structural components: - load bearing. eg. Foundation, column, beam, slab, staircase, shear walls
 Non-structural components :- non load bearing . eg. doors, window, ceiling, walls
Estimation of dead loads
 To determined dead loads of the structure the following inputs are required:
1. The size or dimension of the components of the structure.
2. Types of the material
 The calculation of dead loads of each structure are calculated by the volume of each section and multiplied with
the unit weight.
Dead load = weight w = unite weight (Υ) * volume(v) a given component

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SOME OF STANDARD MATERIAL UNIT WEIGHTS ARE SHOWN IN TABLE 2.1.

Unite weight of construction materials

Material type Unite weight Material type Unite weight kN/m3
kN/m3
Reinforced concrete 25 Marble 23
Cement mortar 23 PVC 16
Steel 78.5 Ceramic 21
Plastering 23 Clinker/Brick wall 22
HCB wall 14 Asphalt mastic 22
Cement screed 23 Aluminum 27
Plain cement concrete 24 Glass 27
Lime mortar 18 Lime cement mortar 20

Read: unit weight and density of different construction materials (Refer ES-EN, 2015, part 1- 1).
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EXAMPLES - 1

A simple supported beam of 5m span is to be designed for the following loads

a. Load transferred from slab, w1 = 15kN/m

b. Load coming from 3m height wall of ᵞ = 14kN/m3 and thickness = 206mm(w2).

c. Self weight of the reinforced concrete beam of ᵞ = 25kN/m3 with the dimension of
(B250mmx500mm)(w3). Draw shear force and bending moment diagram

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 SOLUTION

Calculation of dead loads on the beam

A. Dead load from slab = w1 = 15kN/m
B. Dead load from wall = w2 = 14*3*0.206 = 8.652kN/m
C. Dead load from self weight of beam = w3 = 25*0.25*0.5 = 3.125kN/m
Total dead load; w = w1 + w2 + w3 = 15 + 8.652 + 3.125 = 26.777kN/m

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2.3. LIVE LOADS
 Live loads are either movable or moving loads with out any acceleration or impact.
 These loads are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building including
weights of movable partitions or furniture etc..
 Loads of temporary nature which can vary in their magnitude and location.
eg. loads of people, load of moving vehicle on bridge, weight of chair in the room, and so on.
 Imposed load
 Load on a structure during construction and due to the occupants of the structure.
 Neither fixed in magnitude nor fixed in position.

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
Live loads are classified in three groups on the structure
1. Moving loads: are loads which change their position rapidly.
- eg. vehicular loads on bridges or crane loads in industrial buildings.
2. Movable loads: are loads which change their position gradually.
- eg. people, Goods, simple machinery
3. Time dependent (variable) loads: are loads which change their magnitude with time.
- eg. a load induced through the operation of machinery.
 The magnitude of live load is depending on the function of the room/building. From our design code
ES – EN – 2015, Part 1,we can get magnitude of Live loads for different buildings.

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
2.3.1 Occupancy live loads
 Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum
values that must be used for design purposes.
 For areas which are intended to be subjected to different categories of loadings shall
consider the most critical load case.
 Area of the structure shall be divided in different categories according to their
specific uses are listed in Table 6.1 to 6.3 of ES – EN 1991:1-1: 2015.
 Minimum floor Live loads for some common types of buildings are given in different
tables.
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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
 Imposed loads on buildings are those arising from occupancy and the values given include :
- Normal use by persons
- Furniture and moveable objects
- Vehicles
- Rare events such as concentrations of people and furniture, or the moving or stacking of objects during
times of re-organization and refurbishment
 Live load is most applicable to floors, but it can apply on roof during repair project due to the weight of workers
and their materials.
 Loads specified are represented by uniformly distributed loads, concentrated loads, line loads or combinations.

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…

 Floor and roof areas in buildings are sub-divided into 11 categories according to use.
Main Categories of Use:
• Residential, social, commercial and administration areas
- 4 categories (A, B, C and D)
• Areas for storage and industrial activities
- 2 categories (E1 and E2)
• Garages and vehicle traffic (excluding bridges)
- 2 categories (F and G)
• Roofs
- 3 categories (H, I and K)

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
Minimum floor Live loads for some common types of buildings are given in table 2.2 below.

NOTE-1. Depending on their

anticipated uses, areas likely to be
categorised as C2, C3, C4 may
becategorised as C5 by decision of
the client and/or National annex.

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
 Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings
Table 6.2. Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings

NOTE:
 Where a range is given in this table, the
value may be set by the National annex.
 The recommended values, intended for
separate application, are underlined. qk is
intended for the determination of
general effects and Qk for local effects.

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
Additional loading from movable partitions

 Provided that a floor allows a lateral distribution of loads, the self-weight of movable partitions may be
taken into account by a uniformly distributed load qk which should be added to the imposed loads of floors
obtained from Table 6.2. (Cat. A to D).

 This load depends on the self-weight of the movable partitions, as follows :

- Self-weight < 1 kN/m, qk = 0.5 kN/m2

- 1 kN/m < Self-weight < 2 kN/m, qk = 0.8 kN/m2

- 2 kN/m < Self-weight < 3 kN/m, qk = 1.2 kN/m2

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
Imposed loads on floors due to storage

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…
 Garages and vehicle traffic areas

• Category F (e.g. garages, parking areas, parking

halls)
• Category G (e.g. access routes, delivery zones,
zones accessible to fire engines)

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…

 Categories of loaded area (of a roof):

• Category H – Accessible for normal maintenance and repair only
• Category I – Accessible with occupancy according to categories A to G
• Category K – Accessible for special services e.g. helicopter landing areas

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…

2.3.2 Traffic Loads for Bridges

 Bridges must be designed to support the vehicular loads associated with their functional use
and minimum loads are mandated for designed purposes.

 These loads are specified in AASHTO/Bridge Design Manuals to design flexible/rigid pavement

 The approach is to specify the weights and spacing of axles and wheels for a design truck, a
design tandem, and the design lane load.

 These loadings provide for a set of concentrated loads (which represent a truck type loading)
and a uniform load (which simulates a line of vehicles).

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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…

 Traffic loading is the most important factor in pavement design and

analysis.
The most important traffic loading factors are:
 Loading magnitude
 Loading configuration
 Number of repetition
 Speed of loading.
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2.3. LIVE LOADS CON…

2.3.3 Impact loads

 Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have a greater effect on
the structure than would occur if the same loads were applied statically.

 The manner in which a load varies with time and the time over which the full
load is placed on the structure will determine the factor by which the static
response should be increased to obtain the dynamic response.
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 2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS

 The loads that act on the structure due to natural forces occurs as a result of natural agencies such as air, snow,
rain, earthquakes and it is also a result of topography.

 Snow and Ice Loads- act as permanent loads, that if not mitigated can cause collapse
of whatever structure it is resting on.
 Rain Loads – Ponding can cause structure in roofs to collapse and waterproofing
systems to fail.
 Hydrodynamic Loads – water surges, reservoir loads…
 Wind Loads - Can cause vibrations and damage in severe cases.
 Earthquake Loads- Cause drastic damage and even collapse of structure if not
accounted for.
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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…
2.4.1 Snow and Ice Loads

 The distribution of snow on a roof is complex, and many different approaches are

used.

 Factors considered in calculating snow and ice loads are location, exposure factor,

thermal factor, the effects of unloaded portions of roof, unbalanced or non-uniform

loads on various roof configurations, sliding snow, and extra loads induced by rain on
snow.
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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

 ES- EN, 1991-1-3, 2015. provides guidance for the determination of the snow load to
be used for the structural design of buildings and civil engineering works for sites at
altitudes under 1500m.

 In the case of altitudes above 1500m advice may be found in the appropriate
National Annex.

 Snow loads in general are classified as variable/accidental, direct, fixed, static actions
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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…
2.4.2 Rain Loads

 Roof loads that result from the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious problem.

 This condition is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water accumulates faster than it
runs off, either because of the intensity of the rainfall or the inadequacy or blockage of the drainage
system.

 The real danger is that as ponding occurs the roof deflects into a dished configuration, which can
accommodate more water, and thus greater loads result.

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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

The best way to prevent the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs problem is

 to provide a modest slope to the roof (0.25 in. per ft or 2cm. per m or more) and to
design an adequate drainage system.

 In addition to the primary drainage, there should be a secondary system to preclude

the accumulation of standing water above a certain level.

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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…
2.4.3. Wind loads

 Wind load is air movement relative to the earth, driven by several different forces,
especially pressure differences in the atmosphere.

 Wind load is required to be considered in structural design especially when the

heath of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed
wind surface.

 Wind loads are randomly applied dynamic loads.

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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

 Wind load caused by the movement of air from high pressure locations to low
pressure.
 Wind load are classified as variable fixed actions.
 Affect the structures by
 Imposing direct pressure on the surface/s exposed
 Developing a difference in pressure between the interior and exterior of the
structure envelope.

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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…
 Wind loads generally act perpendicular /normal to the surface of the structure
and in some cases tangentially.

Response of the structure depends on:-

 Size, Shape, Orientation and Dynamic Properties of the structure

 Location of structure, wind speed, air density (which in turn depends on the
altitude, temperature and barometric pressure of the location)

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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

Simplified representation of wind on a building

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 2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

The effects of wind on a structure

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 2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

The effects of wind on a structure

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 2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…
 Wind loads are the positive or negative pressures exerted on a house when it obstructs the follow of moving air.

38

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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

Typical wind pressure on roof

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WIND LOAD

• Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural height

40
WIND LOAD

Air flow

41
 WIND LOAD

 Main wind force resisting system?

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WIND LOAD

Two method of analysis is provided

 The static procedure
- Only used for structures whose structural properties do not make them
susceptible to dynamic excitation (Cd ≤ 1.2)
 A detailed Dynamic Procedure
- Must be used for those structures which are likely to be susceptible to dynamic
excitation (Cd > 1.2)
 In order to determine Dynamic coefficient Cd , Charts and figures can be used (EBCS 1-1995 fig 3.7 to 3.13)

43
WIND LOAD (THE SIMPLE PROCEDURE)

Wind Pressure: external and internal wind pressures are given as:
We = qref Ce (ze )Cpe
Wi = qref Ce (zi )Cpi
Where: We and Wi are the external and internal pressures;

Ce(ze ) and Ce(zi ) are the external and internal exposure coefficients;
Cpe and Cpi are the external and internal pressure coefficients.
 The design wind pressure that is used to establish the wind load on a structure is
directly related to reference(pick) velocity pressure (qref) and is given by:
44
 WIND LOAD
 Where: ρ is the density of air and

Vref is the reference wind velocity to be taken as 22m/s.

 The air density is a function of altitude and depends on the temperature and pressure
to be expected in the region during storms.

 A temperature of 200C has been selected as appropriate for Ethiopia and the variation
of mean atmospheric pressure with altitude is given in Table.

45
WIND LOAD

 Table 2.1 Values of air density ρ

Site Altitude (m) above sea level r (kg/m3)

0 1.20
500 1.12
1000 1.06
1500 1.00
2000 0.94
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WIND LOAD

Exposure Coefficient: takes into the account the effects of terrain, topography and elevation.

2 2  7 kT 
C e ( z e )  C e ( z i )  C r ( z )Ct ( z ) 1 

 C r ( z ) Ct ( z ) 


Where: KT - the terrain factor

Cr(z ) - the roughness coefficient
Ct(z ) - the topography coefficient

*** Or use table from ES- EN 1995 1-4, 2015 for Ce(ze ) & Ce(zi ).
47
 WIND LOAD
Terrain Category: The terrain category attempts to take into account the effect of the land coverage.

Table 4.1: Terrain categories and terrain parameters

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 WIND LOAD

For flat Terrain where Co(Z) = 1.0 (see 4.3.3), the exposure factor Ce (Z) is illustrated in figure 4.2 as a function of height
above terrain and a function of terrain catagory as defined table 4.1.

From Figure 4.2 - Illustrations of the exposure factor ce(z) for c0 =1,0; kI =1,0.
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WIND LOAD
Cr(z ) - the roughness coefficient
 Attempts to take into account the effect of the land coverage

 z 
C r ( z )  k T ln   for Z min  Z  200 m The roughness factor, accounts for the variability of the
 zo 
mean wind velocity at the site of the structure due to:
C r ( z )  C r ( z min ) for Z  Z min  the height above ground level

Where , kT terrain factor  the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the
zo roughness length defined in Table 4.1 structure in the wind direction considered.
zmin minimum height defined in Table 4.1
Zmax is to be taken as 200m.

 For ground height above 200 m specialist advice is recommended. 50

WIND LOAD

Terrain factor (KT) is terrain factor depending on the roughness length [m]
calculated using;
0.07
 zo 
kT  0.19 

 zo , II 
Where,
KT = Terrain fator
Z0 = minimum height defined in table 4.1
Z0,II = minimum height of category II (0.05)

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 WIND LOAD

Ct(z ) - the topography coefficient

It accounts for the increase of mean wind speed over isolated hills and escarpments
Ct(z ) = 1 for φ < 0.05
Ct(z ) = 1+ 2S φ for 0.05 ≤ φ < 0.3
Ct(z ) = 1+ 0.6 S for φ > 0.3
Where:
S the orographic location factor,
φ the upwind slope H/Lu in the wind direction
Le the effective length of the upwind slope,
Lu the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction
Ld the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind direction
H the effective height of the feature
X the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the crest
z the vertical distance from the ground level of the site 52
 WIND LOAD

Pressure Coefficient: The shape factor takes into account the effect of shape of
structure on the pressure distribution.

 The external pressure coefficients Cpe for buildings and individual parts of building
depend on the size of the loaded area A.

 They are given for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the relevant tables for the
appropriate building configuration as cpe,1 and cpe,10, respectively.

 For areas between 1m2 and 10m2, values are obtained by linear interpolation. That is:
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 Wind Load (Ext. Pressure Coeff.)
 Cpe = Cpe,1 …………………………for A ≤ 1m2
 Cpe = Cpe,1 + ( Cpe,10 – Cpe,1)log10A …. for 1m2 < A < 10m2 Where; A is the loaded area.

 Cpe = Cpe,10 ………………………… for A ≥ 10m2

54
WIND LOAD (ON BUILDING FACE) OR DIVISION OF WALL
 Values of external pressure coefficients for different cases are given in Table 7.1 to
Table 7.5 of ES-EN; 1991-1-4, 20155.

55
 Wind Load (on building face)
• It accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure in different zones
of the structure due to
• Its geometry
• Area and
• proximity to other structures

56
 Wind Load (on Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings face)
 Reference height and wind pressure profile
b - cross wind direction
h - building height
ze - reference height

Note:
The velocity pressure should be
assumed to be uniform over each
horizontal strip considered

57

Figure 7.4 Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure profile
 Wind Load (on Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings face)
 Reference height and wind pressure profile

b - cross wind direction

h - building height
ze - reference height

Note:
The velocity pressure should be
assumed to be uniform over each
horizontal strip considered

58

Figure 7.4 Reference height, ze, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure profile
Wind Load (ON VERTICAL WALLS OF RECTANGULAR PLAN BUILDINGS face)

The external pressure coefficients CPE,10 and cpe,1 for zone A, B, C, D and E are defined in Figure 7.5.

e = b or 2h whichever is smaller
b - cross wind direction
h - building height

AAIT-SCEE-CHAIR OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS Figure 7.5 Key for vertical walls 11/22/2022 59
Wind Load (ON VERTICAL WALLS OF RECTANGULAR PLAN BUILDINGS face)

The external pressure coefficients Cpe,10 and Cpe,1 for zone A, B, C, D and E are defined in Figure 7.5.

AAIT-SCEE-CHAIR OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS Figure 7.5 Key for vertical walls 11/22/2022 60
Wind Load (ON VERTICAL WALLS OF RECTANGULAR PLAN BUILDINGS face)

 In cases where the wind force on building structures is determined by application of the pressure
coefficients on windward and leeward side (zones D and E) of the building simultaneously, the lack of
correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side may have to be taken into
account.

 The lack of correlation of wind pressures between the windward and leeward side may be considered as
follows. For buildings with h/d > 5 the resulting force is multiplied by 1. For buildings with h/d < 1, the
resulting force is multiplied by 0,85. For intermediate values of h/d, linear interpolation may be
applied.
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 Wind Load (ON VERTICAL WALLS OF RECTANGULAR PLAN BUILDINGS face)

Table 7.1: Recommended values of external pressure coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular plan Buildings

Note 2:
For buildings with h/d > 5, the total wind loading may be based on the provisions given in Sections 7.6 to 7.8 and 7.9.2.
62
 WIND LOAD (ON BUILDING FACE)

INTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR VERTICAL WALL.

 For building with a dominant face the internal pressure should be taken as a fraction
of the external pressure at the openings of the dominant face. The values given by
Expressions (7.2) and (7.3 ) should be used.
 When the area of opening at the dominant face is twice the area of openings in the
remaining faces,
Cpi = 0.75Cpe
 When the area of opening at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of
openings in the remaining faces,
Cpi = 0.90Cpe
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2.4. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS CONT…

Wind load effect

 The significance load varies depending on the geographic location of the building,
its height and its roof pitch.
 Wind loads have the most significant impact on the roof framing, overhanging and
large openings, especially, those near building corners.
 On large scale, shear resisting elements, like the roof, floor framing, and shear
walls are affected by wind loads.
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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION
Computation of net critical wind pressure on surfaces
STEP 1- Calculate the basic wind velocity from

 Vb - basic wind velocity, defined as a function of wind direction and time of year at
10m above ground of terrain category II
 Vb,0 - fundamental value of the basic wind velocity.
 Cdir – Directional Factor, (1.0) is recommended
 Cseason - Season Factor, (1.0) is recommended
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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION

STEP 2 - Calculate the peak velocity pressure qp(z)

 qb is the basic velocity pressure

 Ce(Z) is the exposure factor

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION

 Basic velocity pressure qb can be calculated as:

 ρ is the mass density of air (under normal conditions 1.25kg/m3.

 Where Ce(Z) can be computed from the following graph using the structure’s
terrain category and height above terrain.

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION

STEP 3-

Compute the values of the pressure coefficients.

 Cpe: pressure coefficient for external pressure

 Cpi: pressure coefficient for internal pressure

Depends on roof/building configuration

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION

STEP 4-

 split up the building into pressure areas and compute the relevant dimensions and
areas accordingly

 Use figures 7.6 - 7.9 of ES-EN 1991 1-4: 2015 for the specific roof type used.

 Be careful to select the right configuration for each specific direction(angle) of wind.
(θ = 0, 90, 180…)

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION

 Flat Roofs

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION
STEP 5-
 Look up Cpe values using TABLE 7.1-7.5 of ES-EN 1991 1-4: 2015.
 Use the following equation based on the value of the area, A, for a
specific region.

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WIND LOAD COMPUTATION
STEP 6-

Compute Cpi , with due consideration to openings on the structure

 Either Cpi = 0.75Cpe

 OR Cpi = 0.9Cpe

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 EXAMPLE
The structure illustrated in fig below is to be located in Addis Ababa, on a site surrounded by buildings of
similar height. It is an apartment building with internal partitions. Wind from the north and south is
transmitted from the clad faces to the east and west masonry walls.
 Calculate the external wind pressure on each wall.
 Calculate the external wind pressure on the flat roof.

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 EARTHQUAKE LOAD

 ES-EN 1998 -1:2015

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INTRODUCTION

 Vibration of earth produced by rapid release of accumulated energy in elastically strained rocks.
 It is the earth’s natural means of releasing stress.
 Energy released radiates in all directions from its source, the focus;
 Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves;
 Mostly caused by:-
 Rupture of geological faults
 Volcanic activity
 Landslides
 Mine blast
INTRODUCTION

 Degree of Damage to the structure depends on:

 The regularity in plan and elevation
 Load Path
 Redundancies in structural configuration
 Symmetry and uniformity in stiffness and mass distribution

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INTRODUCTION

The purpose of seismic design is to ensure that in the event of

earthquakes:

- human lives are protected;

- damage is limited; and

- structures important for civil protection remain operational.

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 METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Linear-Static
 Equivalent Lateral Force Method-
 Modal response spectrum analysis
Non-Linear
 Non-linear static (pushover) analysis
 Non-linear time history (dynamic) analysis
 Response history analysis (RHA) or (THA)
 Response spectrum analysis (RSA)

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 IMPORTANCE CLASSES FOR BUILDINGS (ᵞI):

Buildings in EN 1998-1 are classified in 4 importance classes depending on:

 The consequences of collapse for human life;

 Their importance for public safety and civil protection in the immediate post-
earthquake period

 The social and economic consequences of collapse.

 The environmental effect collapse of the structure.

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IMPORTANCE FACTORS FOR BUILDINGS

Importance Importance
Buildings
category factor
Bldgs of minor importance for public
I safety, e.g. agricultural bldgs., etc.
0.8
ordinary buildings not belonging to other
II categories
1.0
Bldgs whose collapse results in serious
III consequence, e.g. schools, assembly halls,
1.2
Bldgs whose during EQ is vital importance,
IV e.g. hospitals, fire stations, ...
1.4
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GROUND TYPES (CONDITIONST)

The earthquake vibration at the surface is strongly influenced

 by the underlying ground conditions and the ground characteristics

 This ground investigation has two main objectives:

 To classified the soil profile, in view of defining the ground motion appropriate to the
site (i.e. allowing the selection of the relevant spectral shape).

 To identify a soil behaviour during an earthquake.

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 GROUND TYPES (CONDITIONS)

- According to ES-EN 1998-1. there are five typical ground types (A, B, C, D, E) and 2 special
ground types (S1, S2) that may be used to account for the influence of local ground
conditions on the seismic action.

Three parameters are used in the classification of ground types:

 The value of the average shear wave velocity, VS

 The number of blows in the standard penetration test (NSPT)

 The undrained cohesive resistance (Cu)

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 GROUND TYPES (CONDITIONST)

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 SEISMIC HAZARD MAP AND ZONES

 The seismic hazard map is divided in to 5 zones, where the ratio of the design
bedrock acceleration to the acceleration of gravity g = ag for the respective zones
indicated in the following Table.

Table of Bedrock acceleration ratio (m/s2)

Zone 5 4 3 2 1 0

0.20 0.15 0.1 0.07 0.04 0

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 Seismic Hazard Map

Figure 2.15 Seismic Hazard map along the horn of Africa 11/22/2022 86

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 SEISMIC HAZARD ZONE

Table 2.17 Seismic Hazard zonation for some selected Towns

Seismic
Zone 5 4 3 2 1 0

Afdera, Dubti, Adigrat, Akaki, Adwa, Agaro, Adi-Arkay,Ataye,

Asaita, Alaba, Arisi-Negele; Axum, Ambo, Bahidar,
Menz-Mama Alamata, Dila , A.A, Kebri, Jimma, Assosa,
Towns
Midir,Ankober Babile, Aleltu Aleta- Beyah, Areka, D/markos,
Ambasel, wondo, Burayu, Merhabete Finoteselam
Adama, Kombolcha Bati, Asgede-
Hawassa, Holeta, Tsimbila
Kemise Maji
D/berhan
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 SEISMIC HAZARD MAP OF ETHIOPIA

 Design bedrock
acceleration agk agk =0.10g
0.15g

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 TYPES OF DESIGN SPECTRUM

According to ES - EN 1998-1 two types of earthquakes: Type 1 and Type 2 design spectrums.

Design Spectrum Type 1:

 In general Type 1 should be used.

 The shift of the Type 1 spectrum (Larger Magnitudes) towards the longer periods

 Type 1 for the more seismically active regions of southern Europe, and

 Spectrum type 1 refers to earthquake sizes close to M-7 .

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 DESIGN SPECTRUM TYPE 1:

The effect of the different ground types A, B, C, D and E.

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 DESIGN SPECTRUM TYPE 1:

Table 1.4; values for the elastic response spectrum Type 1 according to ENES 1998-1, 2015.

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 DESIGN SPECTRUM TYPE-2.

 The site have a surface-wave magnitude, Ms, not greater than

5.5
 Type 2 for the less seismic regions of central and northern
Europe.
 Spectrum type 2 is suitable for earthquakes have(Smaller
Magnitudes).

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 DESIGN SPECTRUM TYPE-2

The effect of the different ground types A, B, C, D and E.

93
Recommended spectral shapes for Type 2 seismic action (Ms < 5,5) for various ground types.

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 DESIGN SPECTRUM TYPE-2

Table 1.4; values for the elastic response spectrum Type 2 according to ENES 1998, 2015.

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BEHAVIOR FACTOR

 The behavior factor q expresses the ability of a structural model to absorb energy through
the inelastic behavior of structural members, without drastic reduction in strength on local
and global level.
 In this way, the seismic accelerations of the structures are reduced, compared to the
accelerations that would be applied on a perfectly elastic system.

 The design spectrum represents the elastic response spectrum but adjusted for energy
dissipation and due consideration to inelastic effects developed by the structure.

 The elastic response spectrum is thus reduced by a factor called behavior factor, accounting
for the plastic dissipation of energy in the structure or structural damping.
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BEHAVIOR FACTOR
 Damping is controlled by adjusting the ductility of the structure.

 Ductility is a function of several material and geometric properties in the

structure.
The value of the behavior factor (q) depends on:
 The ductility class (the structural material).
 The type of the structural model (Frame, Wall and dual system).
 The regularity of the structure (plan and elevation regularity).

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BEHAVIOR FACTOR
Computation of behavior factor(q):
q = qo*kw
Where, qo = is the basic value of the behaviour factor
kw = is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems with walls
where, qo = 3* αu /α1 for DCM and
= 4.5* αu /α1 for DCH
αu = seismic action at development of global mechanism or represents the strength at the
development of a plastic collapse mechanism.
α1 = seismic action at 1st flexural yielding anywhere or α1 the force corresponding to first yielding
in the structure.
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COMPUTATION OF BEHAVIOR FACTOR

Note:
For buildings which
are not regular in
elevation, the value
of qo should be
reduced by 20%.

98
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COMPUTATION OF BEHAVIOR FACTOR
The factor Kw reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems can be taken as follows:

where,
ao - is the prevailing aspect ratio of the walls of the
structure system.
If aspect ratios hw/lw of all walls of a structural
system do not significantly differ, ao can be
calculated as follow
ao = Ʃhw / Ʃlw
hw = is the height of wall i and
lw = is the length of the section of wall i.

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 SEISMIC ACTION

Horizontal elastic response spectrum

For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the elastic response spectrum Se(T) is defined by the following

expressions (see Figure. 3.1):

Where;
Se(T) is the elastic response spectrum;
T is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;
ag is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag = γI*agR);
TB is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch;
TC is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch;
TD is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement
response range of the spectrum;
S is the soil factor;
ᶯ is the damping correction factor with a reference value of η= 1 for 5%
viscous damping,
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HORIZONTAL DESIGN RESPONSE SPECTRUM
For the horizontal components of the seismic action the design spectrum, Sd(T), shall be defined by the following expressions:

Where;
Sd(T) is the design spectrum;
q is the behaviour factor;
β is the lower bound factor for the
horizontal design spectrum.
The recommended value for β is 0,2.

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DESIGN VERSUS ELASTIC RESPONSE SPECTRUM

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 VERTICAL ELASTIC RESPONSE SPECTRUM
For the vertical components of the seismic action, the elastic response spectrum Sve(T) is defined by the following
expressions (3.8)-(3.11).

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VERTICAL ELASTIC RESPONSE SPECTRUM

 Table 3.4: Recommended values of parameters describing the vertical elastic response spectra

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 DESIGN BASE SHEAR FORCE

Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected lateral force that will occur
due to seismic ground motion at the base of a structure.
Where,
Sd (T1) - is the ordinate of design spectrum(see 3.2.2.5) at period
T1 - is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the direction considered;
m - is total mass of the building above the foundation or above the top of a rigid basement.
𝜆 - is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to; 𝜆 = 0.85 if T1 ≤ 2Tc and the building has
more than two storeys, or 𝜆=1.0 otherwise.
Note: The factor λ accounts for the fact that in buildings with at least three storeys and translational degrees of freedom in each horizontal direction, the effective
modal mass of the 1st (fundamental) mode is smaller, on average by 15%, than the total building mass.
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 FUNDAMENTAL PERIOD( T1)

For buildings with height of up to 40m and the smaller of 4TC and 2.0s, the value of T1
[in sec]. where ,TC is given in Table 3.2 or Table 3.3; may be used.

Where , H - is the height of the building

Ct - is 0.075 for moment resisting space for concrete frames.
- is 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames and
- is 0.050 for all other structures
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 DISTRIBUTION OF THE HORIZONTAL SEISMIC FORCES
The seismic action effects shall be determined by applying, to the two planar
models, horizontal forces Fi to all storeys and determined using equation(4.10).

Where,
Fi - is the horizontal force acting on storey i;
Fd - is the seismic base shear in accordance with expression (4.5)
mi(mj) - are the stotey masses and
zi(zj) - are the height of masses above the basement level( above level of application of
the seismic action).
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 DISTRIBUTION OF THE HORIZONTAL SEISMIC FORCES

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 EXAMPLE

 For an ordinary building (reinforced concrete frame structure) shown below, determine the value of the seismic
base shear force Fb, and the distribution of lateral load (horizontal seismic forces) to each floor level of the
building. Assume that the structure is going to be constructed on very stiff clay soil around Kombolcha town.

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COMBINATION OF LOADS

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 Thank you for your attention!

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