CSWIP 3.

4U Underwater Inspection Controller

DIS4

COURSE BRIEFING
START: 23 FEBRUARY 2025
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 CSWIP 3.4U - Underwater Inspection
Controller
Contents
Section Subject
Preliminary pages
1 Engineering Offshore Structures
1.1 General background
1.2 Design specifications
1.3 Construction activity monitoring system
1.4 Guidance on design and construction
1.5 General design considerations
1.6 Pipelines
1.7 Offshore oil terminals
1.8 Future trends
2 Offshore Structures and Installations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Steel production platforms
2.3 Terminology
2.4 Concrete and steel gravity platforms
2.5 Terminology associated with different offshore structures
2.6 Floating production storage and offloading units (FPSO)
2.7 Inspection of FPSO systems
3 Loading on Offshore Structures Engineering Concepts
3.1 General introduction
3.2 Properties of materials
3.3 Mechanisms of fracture
3.4 Stress concentration
3.5 Residual stresses
3.6 Forces on a structure
4 Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
4.1 General comments
4.2 Categories of deterioration and damage
4.3 Accidental damage
4.4 Corrosion
4.5 Fatigue
4.6 Wear
4.7 Embrittlement
4.8 Structural deterioration
4.9 Repairs to offshore structures
4.10 Repair inspection

5 Deterioration of Offshore Concrete Structures

5.1 The nature of concrete
5.2 Aggregate
5.3 Binder (cement and water)
5.4 Additives
5.5 Loading on concrete
5.6 Types of concrete
5.7 Weight coat
5.8 Organic polymers
5.9 Concrete construction techniques
5.10 Other features of offshore concrete structures
5.11 In-service deterioration of concrete structures
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5.12 Imperfections of concrete

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5.13 Inspection of concrete structures

5.14 General concrete terms
 6 Marine Growth
6.1 Types of marine growth
6.2 Factors affecting the rate of marine growth
7 Corrosion
7.1 Energy considerations in corrosion
7.2 The corrosion process
7.3 The anodic reaction
7.4 Electrochemical aspects of corrosion
7.5 Electrical theory
8 Types of Corrosion
8.1 Corrosion cells
8.2 Dissimilar metal corrosion cell (galvanic corrosion)
8.3 Concentration cell corrosion
8.4 Pitting
8.5 Intergranular corrosion
8.6 Grain boundary corrosion
8.7 Stress corrosion cracking
8.8 Corrosion fatigue
8.9 Erosion corrosion
8.10 Fretting corrosion
8.11 Biological corrosion
8.12 Temperature
8.13 Water flow rate
8.14 The pH value of the water
9 Corrosion Protection
9.1 Cathodic protection
9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems
9.3 Cathodic protection: impressed current method
9.4 Using coatings to protect the structure
9.5 Inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte)
9.6 Corrosion protection by design
9.7 Anodic protection

10 Corrosion Protection Monitoring

10.1 Inspection requirements
10.2 Cathode potential measurement
10.3 High purity zinc electrodes (ZRE)
10.4 CP readings utilising silver/ silver-chloride (Ag/ AgCl) electrodes
10.5 Current density measurements
10.6 Calibration procedures for hand-held CP meters
10.7 Necessary equipment
10.8 Procedure
10.9 Calibration of the meter
10.10 Operating procedures
10.11 Normal cathode potential readings against Ag/ AgCl
11 Welding and Welding defects
11.1 Joining metal components
11.2 Fabricating offshore structures
11.3 Welding processes
11.4 Flux-shielded arc welding
11.5 Metal inert or metal active gas welding (MIG/ MAG) welding
11.6 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding
11.7 Submerged arc welding (SAW)
11.8 Types of welded joint
11.9 Types of weld
11.10 Welding metallurgy
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11.11 Further considerations for weld control

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11.12 Welding terms

 11.13 Plate preparation terms
11.14 Terms defining weld features
11.15 Welding process terminology
11.16 Weld defect terminology
11.17 Cracks
11.18 Cavities
11.19 Solid inclusions
11.20 Lack of fusion and penetration
11.21 Imperfect shapes
11.22 Miscellaneous
11.23 Reporting defects in welds
12 Ultrasonic Inspection
12.1 Physics of ultrasound
12.2 Wavelength
12.3 Further effects of ultrasonic properties in materials
12.4 The direction of propagation of an ultrasonic wave
12.5 Generating ultrasound
12.6 Types of transducers (probes)
12.7 The sound beam
12.8 Principles of ultrasonic testing
12.9 Ultrasonic test systems

13 Magnetic Particle Inspection

13.1 History of magnetism
13.2 Types of magnetism
13.3 Theory of magnetism
13.4 Electromagnetism
13.5 Magnetic Hysteresis
13.6 Definition of terms
13.7 Flux leakage
13.8 Methods of magnetisation
13.9 Continuous and residual magnetisation techniques
13.10 Detecting media, UV light and other equipment
13.11 Demagnetisation
13.12 Alternative forms of electric current applied in MPI
13.13 Verification of magnetisation
13.14 MPI test procedure
13.15 Recording indications
13.16 Factors affecting MPI sensitivity
14 Photography
14.1 Light and photography
14.2 The camera
14.3 How digital cameras compare with conventional cameras
14.4 Bracketing – getting the exposure right
14.5 Focusing
14.6 The lens focal length
14.7 Depth of field
14.8 Framing the subject
14.9 Light and underwater photography
14.10 Artificial light for underwater photography
14.11 Close-up weld mosaic photography
14.12 Specific applications for offshore photography
14.13 Picture grabbers
14.14 Specific requirements for inspection photographs
14.15 Recording photographs and care of equipment
14.16 Procedure for close-up mosaic photography of a weld
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15 The Use of Video in Offshore Inspection

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15.1 Introduction
15.2 Advantages of video
 15.3 Disadvantages of video
15.4 Videography systems
15.5 Video cameras
15.6 Video transmission standards
15.7 Video recording and storage
15.8 Ancillary video equipment
15.9 Deployment of underwater video
15.10 Preparation for deployment of underwater video
15.11 Practical techniques for underwater video inspection
15.12 Video commentary
15.13 Video pointer
15.14 Post-inspection

16 Inspection Methods Available to Assess Underwater Structures

16.1 Visual inspection
16.2 Videography
16.3 Photography
16.4 Ultrasonic techniques
16.5 Radiography
16.6 Crack detection techniques
16.7 Flooded member detection (FMD)
16.8 Taking measurements underwater
16.9 Crack depth measurement
16.10 Cathodic potential (CP) measurement
16.11 Recording shapes and surface profiles
17 Inspection Maintenance and Repair, Quality Assurance and Quality
Control, Recording, Reporting
17.1 Legislation relating to inspection of offshore structures
17.2 Structural integrity management of ageing installations
17.3 The importance of QA and QC
17.4 Databases and trend analysis
17.5 The importance of documentation and record keeping
17.6 Types of reporting systems
17.7 Reasons why inspection is required
17.8 Continuity of inspection
17.9 Design stage
17.10 The Box Matrix system
17.11 Clock orientation and datum points
17.12 Safety Critical Elements (SCE)
17.13 Production of the raw materials
17.14 Fabrication stage
17.15 Launching and installation
17.16 Damage survey
17.17 How the criteria of non-conformance system is applied
17.18 Documentation in an anomaly based reporting system
17.19 Verbal reporting
17.20 Corrosion protection and coating inspection report requirements
17.21 Procedure for the close visual inspection of a weld
17.22 Summary of other recording methods used underwater
17.23 Certification of personnel and equipment
17.24 Inspection activities in an anomaly based system
17.25 Decommissioning
18 Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
18.1 Cleaning
18.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) advice
18.3 Standard of surface finish
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18.4 Profile grinding

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19 Intervention Techniques Used Underwater

19.1 How inspection data is gathered underwater
 19.2 Pressure
19.3 The gas laws
19.4 Important gases
19.5 Buoyancy
19.6 Air diving
19.7 Methods used to deploy air divers
19.8 Saturation diving
19.9 Advantages and disadvantages of divers for inspection tasks
19.10 ROVs

20 Appendix 1 Technical drawings – how they apply to inspection

21 Appendix 2 Exercise in writing an engineering description of a component
22 Appendix 3 Types, capabilities and limitations of ROVs and submersibles
23 Appendix 4 Communications techniques
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 The Certification Scheme for Personnel (CSWIP) Organisation and Examination
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Government’s Board of Trade and
Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, The Welding Institute (TWI).
TWI
A world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent organisation for TWI
Certification.
Company profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's foremost
independent research and technology organisations. TWI provides industry with
engineering solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated technologies
(surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through:
 Information - Advice and technology transfer - Consultancy and project support
 Contract R&D - Training and qualification - Personal membership.
TWI Single source of expertise
in every aspect of joining technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics,
ceramics and composites.
Non-profit company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, offer independent advice. It is internationally
advanced joining technology or to solve problems arising at any stage - from initial
design, materials selection, production and quality assurance, through to service
performance and repair.
Confidential consultancy
TWI undertakes contract R&D in confidence for both industry and governments.
TWI Certification Ltd
This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993.
Certification management board
Professional Board of TWI: Certification Management Board (TWI Certification Ltd)
Membership, Education & Registration Committee (MERC): INCLUDEING
- CSWIP Welding Specialists & Practitioners Management Committee
- CSWIP Plastics Welders Certification Management Committee
- Welding Fabricator Certification Management Committee
- Certification Scheme for Welder Training Organisations
- CSWIP In-Service Inspection Management Committee
Responsibilities of the board
The Certification Management Board:
 Acts as the Governing Board for Certification in keeping with the requirements of the
industries served by the scheme.
 Appoints specialist Management Committees to oversee specific parts of the scheme.
 Comprises 12 representatives of industry and other parties with a valid interest in the
certification schemes, for example, fabricators, client organisations, design authorities
and training associations.
The management committees
 Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the examinations.
 Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that the examinations can be
improved to meet the requirements of industry
 Discuss new certification ideas.
The scope of CSWIP includes welding inspectors, welding supervisors, welding instructors
and underwater inspection personnel.
CSWIP certification for underwater inspectors
Requirement documents : All CSWIP examination requirements documents may be
downloaded from www.cswip.com.
Inspector categories
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There are four categories of certification in the Underwater Inspector scheme:

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 3.1U Diver Inspector. - 3.2U Diver Inspector.

 3.3U ROV Inspector.
3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller.
The CSWIP 3.4U examination
The 3.4U course this prefaces is CSWIP approved. The examination consists of two main
elements, a theoretical examination and a practical assessment.
The theory examination (three parts, A-C)
Parts (A & B) are 3 hour papers and Part C is 3 hours paper.
The question papers
Part A - 50 multiple choice questions.
Part B - General inspection, 6 written answer questions from 5 sections. You must
answer 1 question from each section & 1 additional question from any of the 5 sections.
The sections contain questions about:
 Magnetic particle inspection - Ultrasonic inspection - Corrosion protection systems.
 Underwater visual inspection - Non-destructive testing (general knowledge).

Part C - Application aspects of inspection: 8 written answer questions from 7 sections.

Answer 1 each/sec + 1 additional. The sections contain questions about:
- Remotely applied inspection systems - Recording and processing data
- Quality assurance - Inspection planning and briefing - Capabilities and limitations of
divers - Capabilities of ROVs and submersibles - Care and deployment of equipment.

Practical examination (seven parts)

 Data recording - Commenting on the video inspection of a component.
 Written reports - Written description of a component - Technical drawing evaluation.
 Telex précis - Work scheduling.
Concrete examination
Twenty multi-choice questions and reporting on eight photographs of typical concrete
blemishes, this is an optional extra.

Course Objectives
 To become competent to plan & co-ordinate a Subsea Inspection Programme
 To become proficient in recording & processing data produced by Subsea Inspection Campaigns
 To gain eligibility to sit the CSWIP 3.4U exam

Important note:
 You must pass an end-of-course written examination to gain eligibility to take the CSWIP certification examination
This examination consists of:
 Paper A – 50 multi-choice questions - 1hour 60% pass mark
 Paper B – 10 written questions, one from a choice of two from 10 sections - 2 Hours 60% pass mark
 You are allowed ONE re-test only should you fail this Exam (Test at the end of the course)

CSWIP Theory Examination:

The paper is in 3 sections
Part A and B are given together as one paper
 Part A - Multi choice: 50 questions, Pass mark 70% - 1hour
 Part B - Written Paper: 6 questions from 5 sections, Pass mark 50% - 2hours
 Part C - 8 written answers from 7 sections, Pass mark 50% - 3hours

Practical Examination:
Data handling - 3 hours allowed for first part:
 Data recording including data sheet & video log design
 Your designed sheets will be photocopied & the originals handed back to you for your use
 Report writing [300 - 500 words] - Audio commentary
 Object description summary (approx. 150 words) - Telex/e-mail précis
Remainder consists of:
 Work scheduling – 1hour 30mins
 Isometric drawing evaluation – 1hour

Section 1
Engineering Offshore Structures
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 1 Engineering Offshore Structures
1.1 General background
In the initial stages of development of offshore oil platforms, the designs evolved from
land-based structures and were constructed on site. During the 1950’s, Since then many
advances have been made, particularly in the field of materials. Governments’ legislation
has also played a role in shaping the design of production platforms.
Economics are very important and play a leading role in platform design. Not only
warrant the initial capital cost but will also guarantee a good income for a long period of
time. There is also a growing concern for the environment.

Another factor of prime importance is safety of personnel.

There are two facets to this:
1.1.1 Safe to operate
The 1st concern of engineers to design a structure which is 1 elegant if possible, 2
conservative in its use of materials, 3 fit for the design purpose,4 able to operate for the
prescribed length of time, 5 safe to operate and 6 within the allowed budget.
1.1.2 Government Legislation
The 2nd is Government Legislation. This is put in place to ensure that structures are fit in
all aspects, including safety, for the purpose they are designed to fulfil.

1.2 Design specifications

The full design specification will contain many different factors. The following list should
serve to indicate some of those affecting load bearing and cost.
1.2.1 Materials
Should be readily available from suppliers in the required form and should meet the
requirements of the design specification.
1.2.2 Working life
This may typically be 25 years.
1.2.3 Loading
The platform should provide a safe working environment for the purpose of recovering
hydrocarbon reserves. It must be capable of 1 withstanding the loads imposed on it by
the drilling and other works performed in and 2 it must withstand the forces imposed by
wind and wave action.
1.2.4 Environment
Especially the Jacket, consideration must be made to the effects of corrosion in open sea.
1.2.5 Maintenance
This should be kept to a minimum. Consideration must be given to the underwater
maintenance, to use the most cost effective means of achieving any necessary works.
1.2.6 Weight
The weight of the deck modules must be considered.
1.2.7 Dimensions
The size of the structure will be dictated by the work functions and will be strongly
affected by the requirements to keep the topside weight to the minimum.
1.3 Construction activity monitoring system
At the same time as the design specification is drafted, it is possible for the Quality
Assurance (QA) function to be implemented. This can take the form of an Activity
Monitoring System that would comprise:
 Full certification for the location of all components, normally by way of as-built
drawings. This include any repairs and the actual location of J tube.
 Full material certification.
 Non-destructive testing (NDT) and inspection certification, which would include
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personnel qualifications.
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1.4 Guidance on design and construction

 With these engineering requirements in mind as the basic starting point, design and
structural engineers will be able to obtain guidance as to what minimum standards are
acceptable to the appropriate authority or government body, whatever country they are
operating in.
Changes in UK regulations
In 1988, there was a substantial leakage of gas condensate on Piper Alpha, which was a
large North Sea oil platform. The leakage led to an explosion and loss of 167 lives.
A Public Inquiry was established with the aims of establishing the causes of the disaster
and making recommendations for changes to the safety regime. The enquiry was chaired
by Lord Cullen and made its recommendations in 1990.
There were 106 recommendations aimed at improving the regulation of Health and
Safety Offshore and all were accepted by the Government. A central recommendation
was subsequently developed and implemented by the UK Regulator, Health and Safety
Executive (HSE), in the form of ‘the Offshore Installations (Safety Case) regulations’,
which came into force in 1992.
These regulations require the operator/owner (known as the Duty Holder) of every fixed
and mobile installation operating in UK waters to prepare Safety Cases for each
installation on the UK continental shelf, which the HSE must accept before operations are
permitted.
The Safety Case is expected to demonstrate that the Duty Holder has the ability and
means to control major accident risks effectively. This requires that the Duty Holder has
identified the major accidents, hazards, assessed the major accident risks, implemented
control measures to ensure that the risks are reduced to as low as reasonably
practicable (ALARP), in compliance for auditing and reporting.
The new Safety Case regime effectively replaced the pre-1988 prescriptive system for
SIM with risk based and goal setting activities structured around the management of
safety critical elements (SCEs). SCEs are defined as the parts, or components of an
installation and its plant, whose failure could cause, or contribute substantially to a major
accident, or whose purpose is to prevent, control or limit the effects of a major accident.
The Safety Case regulations were revised in 2005, to reflect 13 years of experience.
Under the 1992 regulations, a Safety Case lasted three years before it had to be
resubmitted for acceptance. According to the 2005 regulations, a Safety Case will last
the life of the installation, without the need for routine resubmissions.
However, the Safety Case is intended to be a living document, kept up-to-date and
revised as necessary to ensure it remains current and reflects actual operational
conditions on the installation.

The Duty Holder is review of the current Safety Case at least every five years, or as
directed by the HSE. In addition, resubmit revisions that make a material change to the
HSE for acceptance (a material change such as significant modifications or repairs,
introduction of new activities, extension of life beyond original design life or major
changes in technology).
In addition to the Safety Case Regulations, the new goal-setting regulation (replacing the
previous prescriptive regulations) was introduced, as outlined below.
1.4.1 Guidance in UK regulations
The regulatory requirements for the asset integrity management of structures operated
on the UK specified in the following documents (Stacey, OMAE-49089):
 The Offshore Installations (Safety Case) Regulations 2005 (SCR05), which make
preparation of a Safety Case a formal requirement (described above).
 The Offshore Installations And Wells (Design And Construction, etc.) regulations 1996
(DCR), which require the Duty Holder to ensure that suitable arrangements are in place
for maintaining the integrity of the installation, through periodic assessments and
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carrying out any remedial work in the event of damage or deterioration.

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 The DCR place a requirement on the Duty Holder to design installations to withstand
such forces acting on and to enable action to be taken to safeguard the health and safety
of personnel on.
The Offshore Installations (Prevention Of Fire And Explosion And Emergency Response)
Regulations 1995 (PFEER), which require that the Duty Holder takes appropriate
measures for the protection of persons on offshore oil and gas installations from fire and
explosion and for securing effective ‘emergency response’, which means action to
safeguard the health and safety of persons on such installations in an emergency.
The Duty Holder is expected to perform ‘an assessment’ which consists of:
(a) the identification of the various events which could give rise to a major accident
involving fire or explosion; or the need for evacuation, escape or rescue to avoid or
minimise a major accident;
(b) the evaluation of the likelihood and consequences of such events;
(c) the establishment of appropriate standards of performance to be attained by anything
provided by measures for ensuring effective evacuation, escape, recovery and rescue to
avoid or minimise a major accident. This requires inherent safety by design, preventive,
detection, control and mitigation measures (which include plant and management
systems).

The Pipelines Safety Regulations 1996 (PSR), which require the operator to ensure that
a pipeline has been designed adequately (it can withstand internal and external forces
arising from its operation); all hazards relating to the pipeline with the potential to cause
a major accident have been identified and the risks arising from those hazards have been
evaluated and that the Safety Management System is adequate.
The Provision And Use Of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (PUWER), requires
employers to ensure that work equipment is fit for the purpose for which it is used;
Employers are required to identify and control potential risks from hazards due to
equipment failure; put in place appropriate inspection procedures after installation; and
appropriate inspection and maintenance procedure during service to ensure that the
work equipment is in efficient working order and in good repair.
ISO standards for offshore structures
Standards the ISO 19900 series giving guidance on the design, construction,
transportation, installation, integrity management and reassessment of offshore
installations.
Structures covered by these standards include: fixed steel structures; fixed concrete
structures; floating structures, such as FPSOs, semi-submersibles and spar platforms,
arctic structures and site-specific assessment of jack-up platforms.
The following ISO offshore structures standards have been published:
 ISO 19900: 2002 General requirements.
 ISO 19901 Specific requirements.
 ISO 19901-1: 2005 Metocean design and operating considerations.
 ISO 19901-2: 2004 Seismic design procedures and criteria.
 ISO 19901-3: 2010 Topsides structures.
 ISO 19901-4: 2003 Geotechnical and foundation design considerations.
 ISO 19901-5: 2003 Weight control during engineering and construction.
 ISO 19901-6: 2009 Marine operations.
 ISO 19901-7: 2005 Station keeping systems for floating offshore structures and mobile
offshore units.
 ISO 19902: 2007 Fixed steel offshore structures.
 ISO 19903: 2006 Fixed concrete offshore structures.
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 ISO 19904-1:2006 Floating offshore str. –mono-hulls, semisubmersibles & spars.

 ISO 19905-1: 2013 Site specific assessment of jack-ups.
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 ISO 19906: 2010 Arctic offshore structures.

 ISO standards for oil and gas production are implement in the most regions of the world
for the design of new offshore installations and for modification to and reassessment of
existing offshore structures and that.

1.5 General design considerations

Typical design considerations are outlined below (extract from DNV-OS-C101:
2011 – General Design of Offshore Structures, LRFD method).
1.5.1 Aims of the design
Structures and structural elements are designed to:
 Sustain loads liable to occur during all temporary, operating and damaged conditions.
 Maintain acceptable safety for personnel and environment.
 Have adequate durability against deterioration during the design life of the structure.

1.5.2 General design considerations

The design of a structural system, its components and details is required, as far as
possible, to account for the following principles:
 Resistance against relevant mechanical, physical and chemical deterioration is
achieved.
 Fabrication and construction comply with relevant, recognised, techniques and practice.
 Inspection, maintenance and repair are possible.

1.5.3 Limit States

In a Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) standard
The design considers a number of limit states such as:
 Ultimate Limit States (ULS) corresponding to the ultimate resistance for carrying
loads.
 Fatigue Limit States (FLS) related to the possibility of failure due to the effect of
cyclic loading.
 Accidental Limit States (ALS) corresponding to damage to components due to an
accidental event or operational failure.
 Serviceability Limit States (SLS) corresponding to the criteria applicable to normal
use or durability.
Examples of limit states within each category:
Ultimate limit states (ULS)
 Loss of structural resistance (excessive yielding and buckling).
 Failure of components due to brittle fracture.
 Loss of static equilibrium of the structure, or of a part of the structure, considered as a
rigid body, eg overturning or capsizing.
 Failure of critical components of the structure caused by overloading (in some cases
reduced by repeated loads).
 Transformation of the structure, for example, due to buckling, plastic collapse or
excessive deformation.

Fatigue Limit States (FLS)

 Cumulative damage due to repeated loads.

Accidental Limit States (ALS)

 Structural damage caused by accidental loads.
 Ultimate resistance of damaged structures.
 Maintain structural integrity after local damage or flooding.
 Loss of station keeping (free drifting).

Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

 Deflections that may alter the effect of the acting forces.
 Deformations that may change the distribution of loads between supported rigid objects
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and the supporting structure.

 Excessive vibrations producing discomfort or affecting non-structural components.
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 Motion that exceeds the limitation of equipment.

 Temperature induced deformations.
 1.6 Pipelines
Offshore pipelines are used to transport oil or gas from platform to loading towers or to
shore. They are fabricated from high-grade steel pipe (eg API/5LX), which is bitumen
wrapped for corrosion prevention and coated with a layer of reinforced concrete to
provide a weight coating, which gives additional protection as well.
The sizes normally vary from 50mm (2 inch) to 914mm (36 inch) and the wall thickness
normally varies according to the pressure rating required.
1.6.1 Pipeline laying
Lay barges on which standard 12m lengths of pipe are welded together along the centre
of the specially designed and fitted out deck of the vessel.
Each joint is inspected by X-ray, then coated with bitumen and wrapped with a protective
sheathing. Modern day inspection involves automated ultrasonic techniques.
As new lengths of pipe are added, the assembly is fed over the stern and the barge is
moved forward, usually by pulling on anchors, which have been laid by an associated
anchor-handling vessel. An alternative approach is laying pipe from a reel barge.
The welding and preparation work on land is carried out in a spooling yard, where the
pipe sections are supplied in 12m (40ft) lengths. These are welded together to form
stalks, usually about 518m (1700ft) long. All the welds are X-rayed (or inspected by
automated ultrasonic testing), coated and the stalks are stowed in racks alongside the
spooling dock.
All welding and loading operations are performed at the shore facility and therefore are
less affected by weather conditions. The reeling and unreeling of the pipe actually causes
yielding of the steel and the maximum diameter pipeline that can be laid is 600mm (24
inch).
1.7 Offshore oil terminals
Large oil tankers are cheaper to run than small ones. Many solutions were proposed to
solve the problem of shrinking docking facilities, which included artificial harbours,
artificial offshore islands, multiple buoy mooring systems, tower mooring systems and
single point mooring (SPM) or single buoy mooring (SBM) systems.
The SPM is the most widely used because of its relatively low operational cost, reliability
and flexibility.
1.8 Future trends
1.8.1 Drilling
This is a branch of engineering which has seen numerous developments.
There will surely be, for instance, increased use of:
 Horizontal drilling enables more formations to be exposed to production and reduces
reservoir problems, It is useful for thin and tight, low permeability reservoirs.
 Extended reach drilling can reduce the number of platforms required to develop a
field as a greater reservoir area can be drained from one central platform. Horizontal
distances up to 7000m have been achieved.
 Slim-line well design involves cost-effective casing design around an optimal
production conduit; this can also reduce the number of wells needed to achieve optimum
reservoir drainage.
Rig automation allows several labour intensive tasks, such as pipe handling, to be
carried out automatically. Removing personnel from the drill floor means more cost-
effective and potentially safer operations.
 Temporary (lightweight) topsides on platforms can make production platforms
lighter and cheaper than traditional platforms, which include permanent integrated
drilling facilities.
Tender assisted operations also help to minimise the weight of the production
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platform by providing most drilling support equipment on a floating, anchored, ship-

shaped tender in calm waters or an anchored semisubmersible unit for deeper or harsher
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environments.
 Mobile drilling units are jack-up or semi-submersible rigs, depending on water depth.
They can be used to drill production wells where size and economics of the reservoir do
not justify the installation of a platform.
1.8.2 Design practices
Fixed platforms are now lighter, slimmer and simpler than the giant platforms built in the
1970s.

Figure 1.3 Comparisons of capital costs.

Studies of a purpose-built production jack-up unit, a concrete gravity structure and a
tripod tower platform have shown that all three are technically viable and could offer cost
saving for applications in water depths around 100m.
Greater use of sub-sea satellite technology instead of building a platform can reduce
costs, especially where infrastructure already exists nearby, which can be used as a host
platform.
The capital costs of constructing a sub-sea satellite 20km from an existing platform are
much lower than the costs of constructing an additional platform.

General Background
Initially, design for offshore platforms taken from:
 Civil engineering - Naval architecture.
 The 1950’s saw new technology & many advances.
Structural design is also influenced by:
 Government Legislation – Economics – Environment - Safety of Personnel.
Designers try to achieve a structure:
 Elegant if possible - Conservative in material - Fit for purpose - Can operate for the design life - Safe to operate.
 Within budget.

Government Legislation is put in place to ensure TWI Ltd

Materials - Readily available within specification –

Working Life - Typically 25 years
Loading - Platform is a safe working environment
Environment - Corrosion & offshore conditions
Maintenance - Kept to a minimum, especially underwater
Weight - Will have ramifications on the cost
Size - Dictated by the work functions

Quality Assurance (QA) function can be implemented. This can take the form of an Activity Monitoring
System:
 Full certification by way of ‘As-built’ drawings.
 Full material certification.
 NDT - Inspection Certification – Personnel Qualifications.

With these engineering requirements in mind, design & structural engineers will be able to:
 Obtain guidance as to what minimum standards are acceptable to the appropriate authority.
 In 1988, a gas leak on the Piper (A) destroyed the platform & cost 167 lives.
 A Public Enquiry, chaired by Lord Cullen, then made 106 recommendations aimed at improving safety.
 The HSE developed “The Offshore Installations (Safety Case) Regulations” in 1992.
 These require the Duty Holder to prepare Safety Cases for each installation in UK waters.
 The HSE must accept these before operations are permitted.
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The Safety Case is expected to show:

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 The Duty Holder has the ability to control major accident risks effectively.
 This requires that the Duty Holder has identified the major hazards.
Implemented control measures to ensure that the risks are reduced to being:  ‘as low as reasonably practicable’ (ALARP).
  To be in compliance with all Statutory Provisions.
 Make adequate arrangements for auditing & reporting.

Safety Case Regulations were revised in 2005.

 1992 regs, a Safety Case lasted 3 years. As of 2005, a Safety Case lasts the lifetime of a structure, without routine
re-submissions.
 It is intended to be a living document, kept up-to-date & revised as necessary.

The Duty Holder is to conduct a review of a Safety Case at least every 5 years or, as directed by the HSE.
Revisions that make a material change, are required to be re-submitted to the HSE.
A material change is one that changes the basis on which the original Safety Case was accepted:
 Significant modifications or repairs.
 Introduction of new activities.
 Extension of design life.  Major changes in technology.

Aims of the Design

Structures & components are designed to:
 Sustain loads liable to occur during all temporary operating/damaged conditions.
 Maintain acceptable safety for personnel & the environment.
 Have durability against deterioration.

The design of a structure & its components is required, as far as possible:

 Have resistance against relevant mechanical, physical & chemical deterioration.
 Fabrication & construction comply with relevant, recognised, techniques & practice.
 Inspection, maintenance/repair are possible.

 Limit States.
 ULS (Ultimate) Carrying loads.
 FLS (Fatigue) Cyclic loading/unloading.
 ALS (Accidental) Accident/failure.
 SLS (Serviceability) Normal use or durability.

 Offshore Pipelines are fabricated from high grade steel pipe (API-5LX).
 Bitumen wrapped for corrosion prevention.
 Coated with a layer of Gunite.
 Sizes vary from 50mm to 914mm.
 Wall thickness depends on pressure rating.

Pipe Laying from a Lay Barge

 12m lengths are welded together on a Lay Barge
 Each joint is X-rayed & bitumen wrapped
 Pipe is fed over the stern as barge moves forward

Pipe Laying from a Reel Barge

 Lengths of pipe; kilometres long; are made up ashore.
 Wound onto reels mounted on a special vessel.
 Vessel then un-reels it on location.

Temporary Topsides:
 This design innovation allows for the removal of the derrick after drilling is completed.
Future Design Practices:
 Continue to make structures slimmer & simpler.
 The main emphasis to be the topside modules.
 Greater use of sub-sea satellite technology.
These trends will help to reduce costs.
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 Section 2
Offshore Structures and Installations
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 2 Offshore Structures and Installations
2.1 Introduction
Some of the biggest installations are in the North Sea and consist of concrete gravity
structures.
Then there are the more common steel platforms, which can be of the eightlegged type
or may be of a lightweight four-legged variety. There are also jack-up rigs, which are
mobile, and tension leg platforms (TLP), which float.
Apart from these production facilities, there are also seabed wells, manifold centres and
thousands of kilometres of pipelines. Another common structure seen worldwide is the
single point mooring (SPM) which comes in a variety of designs, some of which
incorporate storage facilities.
2.2 Steel production platforms
With steel fixed platforms the jacket supports the superstructure, which contains all the
necessary facilities.
These types of platforms are sometimes referred to as steel piled structures because the
jacket is piled into the seabed. Once it is in the upright position, with piles either driven
through the legs or positioned around the main legs and driven through pile sleeves, so-
called skirt piles.
One example of the large fixed production platform is the Brent A, which is installed in
Shell-Expro’s Brent Field in the North Sea (figure 2.1).
An example of a lightweight platform servicing seabed wellheads and facilities is the
Gannet ‘A’ platform in Shell-Expro’s Gannet field in the central North Sea (Figure 2.2).
The structure is of the same basic design but not as massive as the production platform.
2.3 Terminology
The production platforms are the most massive installations and they may be of steel or
concrete construction, steel being the most prevalent. Both types have standard
components and a thorough working knowledge of this terminology is necessary to be
able to communicate with other engineers.
Figure 2.3 A steel platform.
Following is the common terminology for the components making up the steel sub-sea
structure:

 Can: The vertical section making up a node, ie the main body of the node.
 Conductor guide frame: Horizontal sections of framework, which restrain and guide
the conductors.
 Leg or chord: Main vertical component, constructed from a number of sections welded
together, supporting the rest of the structure.
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 Member: The horizontal, vertical diagonal or horizontal diagonal braces of the jacket.
  Node: Point on the welded steel structure where two or more members meet and are
joined.
 Pile guides: A steel cylinder that supports the pile while it is driven into the sea-bed.
Pile guides are mounted in clusters around each leg at various levels. They are usually
removed on completion of piling operations.
 Pile sleeves: Long steel cylinders, grouped around the base of the legs into which the
piles are located before being driven into the sea-bed. The tops of the piles should be
level with the tops of the sleeves on completion of piling.

Figure 2.7 Pile sleeves.

Additional to these components are a number of attachments. The more important of
these are:
 Caissons: Open-bottomed tubular components terminating at various depths for the
purpose of the intake or discharge of water or waste.
 Conductors: Tubes for drilling purposes connecting seabed wells to the topside.
 Flowline bundles: Pipework bringing oil or gas from satellite wellheads into the
platform and containing control lines, product lines and well injection lines.
 Oil and gas risers: Vertical sections of the pipeline extending up the full height of the
jacket that are used for transporting oil or gas. Production risers carry oil or gas up from
the seabed wellheads via the submarine pipelines. Export risers take the processed
hydrocarbons down to pipelines.
2.4 Concrete and steel gravity platforms
Steel gravity structures have not proliferated while concrete structures have.
The concept of a concrete structure came about because of some of the problems
associated with steel structures, namely the necessity for a large number of large, heavy
piles and the corrosion problem with steel in a hostile environment. Concrete gravity
structures require no piles and are immune to corrosion.
Initially, there were perceived additional advantages of storage space within the base
cells and potentially huge deck space, which could be fitted out in calm sheltered water,
which in turn would minimise on-site commissioning, therefore reducing expensive
offshore construction manpower.

Figure 2.9 Shell-Expro’s Brent D concrete gravity platform North Sea.

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2.4.1 Disadvantages of concrete structures

In spite of the initial optimism for the design of concrete structures, there are a number
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of disadvantages.
 Stability problems during tow-out to site have to be counteracted by limiting the topside
weight, thus reducing the apparent advantage of large deck space fitted out in sheltered
waters.
The very heavy-lift derrick barges now available, thus reducing the cost of offshore steel
structure installations, and therefore, limiting the cost advantage of concrete
constructions.
Concretecannot withstand tensile forces, so the use of the base storage cells must be
carefully monitored at all times to avoid the storage of crude oil causing a build-up of
differential loadings between cells, thus causing excessive tensile stresses.
Also, pressure must not be allowed to build up in the cells; vapour pressure must not
exceed 2bar (30psi). Oil temperature in the cells must not exceed 38°C to avoid thermal
stresses. If crude oil is not carefully monitored, emulsions formed by the interaction of oil
and associated water can accumulate permanently within the cells.
Reservoir sand must not be allowed to accumulate and steps have to be taken to
eliminate this from the crude before it reaches the cells.
At least one of the main shafts will house utilities, and because it is some 100m tall and
very narrow, ventilating it is difficult, so breathing apparatus is issued to maintenance
staff working there, making routine maintenance and operations of the equipment
difficult.
Stagnant water accumulated in the structure encourages the growth of anaerobic
bacteria, which generate ideal conditions for the formation of sulphate reducing bacteria
(SRB).
The growth of SRB’s leads to the production of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), which
necessitates the creation of safety zones and special procedures to avoid risk to
personnel.
2.4.2 Basic components of a concrete gravity structure
Gravity structures may be made of steel or a mixture of steel and concrete, but the most
common is concrete. They are anchored to the seabed by their own mass, hence the
term gravity. Common features of this type of design are the large diameter columns
supporting the deck module and numerous ballast/storage cells making up the base.
Anchorage points (cachetage points)
Are an essential part of the tensioning components in pre and post-stressed concrete
structures. The anchorage point is cast into the concrete at the ends of the tensioning
tendon or bundle of tendons. It grips the tendon and thereby transfers the load from it to
the structural concrete. It is commonly encased in protective concrete domes
Breakwater walls
Are concrete walls in the splash zone, containing
cast in holes that dissipate the wave energy and
thus protect the structure within the walled area.
Tetra pods
Are four-legged concrete blocks that are used on
jetties and sea shores to break up the wave-slam.
Jarlan holes
Term used to describe the cast in holes in the
breakwater walls, used to break up waves to
reduce their force on the structure ahead.

Figure 2.11 Close-up of a Jarlan hole and its effect

on waves.
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Support columns
The concrete or steel columns supporting the deck module.
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Support domes
 The tops of the tanks, at the base of the structure, which are used as buoyancy during
the launch of the structure, may then be used to store oil, water or drilling mud.

2.5 Terminology associated with different offshore structures

2.5.1 Jack-up rigs
Used for wildcat drilling, production drilling and work-overs.

The Jack-up platform consists of a main deck, which is watertight

(the hull) and floats for transit. Attached to the hull, via a rack and
pinion assembly, are the tubular steel lattice frame legs. The gears
lower the legs to the seabed and the hull is then jacked up by this
same method to clear the water. On completion of the drilling, the
whole operation is reversed and the rig is towed away to a different
site.
In deeper water the legs of a Jack-up platform would be so long as to
give concern about its stability. Therefore, it is not used in water deeper than 60m.
2.5.2 Semi-submersible rigs
Used for the same tasks as Jack-ups and may be self-powered.
At greater water depths, the semi-submersible platform is used. The rig has large hollow
legs and pontoons, which can be flooded or pumped dry at will, thus ballasting the
platform.
When moving from site to site the rig is ballasted up to reduce water drag during transit
and, when drilling, the rig is ballasted down to improve stability.
It does float at all times and when drilling is kept in place usually by anchors, but it may
keep position by dynamic positioning (DP).
2.5.3 Drill ship
Used for the same tasks as a jack-up, but in deeper water and so is more weather
dependent, but more manoeuvrable and mobile.
Either DP or anchors normally keep drill ships on station dependent on the water depth,
site and project parameters.
2.5.4 Compliant towers
These are tall, slim, steel structures designed to sway slightly so that
they comply with wave action. The design is conceived as a half-way
house between fixed and floating structures. It is possible to use this
design in water depths up to some 1000m in moderate environments.

Figure 2.17 Artist impression of the GB 260 Compliant Tower.

2.5.5 Tension Leg Floating Platforms (TLP)

Tension Leg Platforms (TLP’s) consist of a hull anchored to the sea-
bed by vertical tendons, as shown in Figure 2.18. Vertical movement
is constrained by the tendons, thus allowing production wells to be
located on deck. This design is suitable for deep-water production
could be extended to water depths of 3000m.

2.5.6 Floating production systems (FPS)

Floating production systems consist of a floating vessel with production facilities
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connected to seabed wells by flexible risers (Figures 2.19 and 2.20). Vessels may be
purpose built, or converted and may be mono-hulls or semisubmersible.
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Tankers, for example can be converted for this task relatively quickly and cheaply.
 In this case they are usually known as Floating Production Storage and Offloading Units
(FPSO). These vessels are quite weather dependent, which is why purpose built vessels,
have been developed.
2.6 Floating production storage and offloading units (FPSO)
FPSO’s have been used since 1977 when the first was installed off Spain. A schematic of
an FPSO setup is shown in Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21 FPSO layout.

2.6.1 Reasons for using an FPSO
 Water depth too great for installing a fixed platform.
 Shallow water locations, where the size of the hydrocarbon accumulations are not large
enough to make a fixed installation commercially viable.
 Remote locations where export pipelines would be too expensive.
 Where the hydrocarbon accumulations are dispersed so far as to make drilling from one
platform unviable.
 Where weather conditions are extreme, using purpose designed units.

2.7 Inspection of FPSO systems

Inspection programmes for FPSOs revolve around the dry docking programme.
As they are vessels, it is usual for them to be dry docked every 5 years. This is not a hard
and fast rule in every part of the world, as there are arrangements for these vessels to be
inspected on site over a longer period than this. Also, extensions are possible even on a
five year regime.
However, a typical inspection programme would include:
 Mooring and riser inspection.
 ROV visual hull survey.
 Specific inspection of all sea chests.
 Turret Inspection.
 Inspect mid-water arch and confirm the lazy ‘S’ configuration.
 Measurement of individual mooring chain links for wear.
These inspections should be carried out when it can be videoed. The FPSO is loaded so
the entire wetted area of the hull is under water. More detailed inspections are normally
carried out during refit or dry-dock and include:
 Eddy current, ACFM or MPI of specified components.
 Wall thickness measurements in specified areas, CP survey and replacement of anodes.

2.7.1 Seabed facilities

Christmas Tree Developments now allow these tasks to be completed remotely, thereby
importantly, extending the depth range for installation and maintenance.
Apart from seabed wellheads, there are also manifold centres, such as the Underwater
Manifold Centre (UMC), and sub-sea isolation valves (SSIV) as installed throughout the
North Sea.
22

Currently there are more than 650 sub-sea wells. These structures can offer advantages
over platforms to:
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 Reach remote parts of the field inaccessible to the existing platform.

  Develop a field too small to warrant the cost of a fixed platform where process facilities
can be provided as required by a floating facility.
 Develop a wide spread field using dedicated FPSO’s and linking the wells with pipelines.
 Develop a number of smaller fields in the same district again using FPSO’s.

2.7.2 Pipelines
Are used extensively for the transport of crude oil and gas. Traditional pipelines are
constructed of steel and may be made up of nominal 40 foot (12.0m) lengths of pipe
sections up to 3 feet (0.9m) in diameter which are
welded together. Grade of steel used AP1 5LX.
Alternatively, smaller diameter steel pipe up to 2
foot (0.6m) diameter can be laid up onto special
reels and then laid in long lengths off the back of
specially designed reel-laying vessels.
Modern developments in materials have led to the
widespread use of composite pipes made of a
variety of polymers. One such pipe is known as
Coflexip. This type of pipe is commonly laid from
specially designed reels off the back of suitable
vessels.
Figure 2.28 Gullfaks flowline bundle.
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 Section 3
Loading on Offshore Structures
33
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 3 Loading on Offshore Structures
3.1 General introduction
The strength a material needs to have and how thick it needs to be, stress, defined by
the load a material can support by area of the cross-section taking the load, is used.
Stress is used so that comparisons with loading on other structures, of different sizes and
shapes, can be made.
Stress is defined as the force (or load) divided by the cross-sectional area carrying that
load. Stress is denoted by the Greek letter  (sigma) and is defined mathematically as:
or stress = Load or force = F/A
Area
Types of stress
Tensile stress: Load trying to pull a component apart,
Compressive stress: The opposite of tensile stress, in compression, a component or
structure is being pressed together
Bending: Structures are sometimes loaded so that they are subjected to a mixture of
tensile and compressive stresses. A simple beam supported at the ends and loaded in
the middle is a good example.

Figure 3.3. A simple beam with a point load.

The top surface shortens as it experiences compressive stresses and the bottom surface
lengthens as it experiences tensile stresses. This type of loading gives a stress
distribution that varies from maximum compressive stress on one side, to zero at an
unstressed layer called the neutral axis, to maximum tensile stress at the other side.
Most braces in platform structures experience this mixture of stresses
Shear stress: Parallel planes shifted in relation to each other
In general, fluids and gases cannot produce shear resistance when stationary, so internal
or external pressure result in either tensile or compressive stresses.
Most rotating motion is transmitted by shear; for example, the drive shaft of a car, or the
force to tighten a valve, often referred to as torsion.
3.2 Properties of materials
Materials are identified by their characteristic qualities such as hardness, rigidity,
thermal or electric conductivity, magnetic or not and so on. Engineers compare one
material with another by their properties commonly considered when selecting a material
for a particular application are:
 Yield strength – The stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.
 Elongation – Measure of ductility.
 Toughness – Resistance to fracture (crack extension).
 Electrical conductivity.
 Thermal conductivity.
 Density – Weight per volume of material.
 Hardness – Wear resistance.
There are others but these will serve to illustrate the principle.
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3.2.1 Yield stress

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 When a component is loaded, the material initially behaves elastically. When the load is
removed, the component returns to its original size and shape. This will continue while
the component is in use, unless the yield stress is exceeded.
Yield stress is the stress at which the material will no longer behave wholly elastically.
If the loading is continued beyond the yield point, the material will deform and some of
that deformation will be permanent. If a structure or part of it is dented or bent, this
indicates that it has been loaded above the yield stress.
3.2.2 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
If loading is continued well into the yield region, the applied stress reaches a maximum
value known as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
3.3 Mechanisms of fracture
Ductile and brittle fracture: Fracture can occur in a brittle or ductile fashion.
A ductile fracture is characterised by significant plastic deformation prior to and during
crack extension, whereas brittle fracture is characterised by the rapid unstable
propagation of a crack and can occur at an applied stress significantly below yield
strength levels and is frequently catastrophic, with no prior warning.
Very little plastic deformation is associated with the propagation of brittle fracture and so
limited permanent deformation occurs. Susceptibility to brittle fracture is enhanced by
any factor that decreases the yield strength such as: low temperature.
Fatigue fracture: Fatigue is a mechanism of failure experienced by materials under the
action of a cyclic stress. It involves initiation and growth of a crack under applied stress
amplitude, which may be well within the static capacity of the material. Discontinuities,
such as welds, changes in section or material flaws are favoured sites for fatigue
initiation.
During subsequent propagation, the crack often remains tightly closed and is thus
difficult to find by visual inspection during the majority of its life. If cracking remains
undiscovered, there is a risk that it may propagate across a significant portion of the
load-bearing cross section, leading to final separation by fracture of the remaining
ligament. Fatigue occurs in metals, plastics, composites and ceramics. It is the most
common mode of failure in structural and mechanical engineering components.
3.4 Stress concentration
This is caused within a material because geometric irregularities locally magnify applied
stresses. These irregularities can be large or small including; holes, notches, sharp
corners, weld toes and cracks. What is vitally important about a stress concentration is
its shape, not its size.
A standard emergency remedial procedure is
to drill holes at the crack tips. This is referred
to as crack stopping or blunting. This same
principle applies to the toes of welds to reduce
undercutting and to crack-like features that
may then be ground out,
Figure 3.5 Crack stopping or blunting.
3.5 Residual stresses
The residual stresses in a component or structure are stresses caused by incompatible
internal permanent strains. They may be generated or modified at any stage in the
component life cycle, from original material production to final disposal. Welding is one
of the most significant causes of residual stresses and typically produces large tensile
stresses of the order of magnitude of the yield strength of the materials being joined.
Tensile residual stresses may reduce the performance or cause failure of manufactured
products. They may increase the rate of damage by fatigue, creep or environmental
degradation. They may reduce the load capacity by contributing to failure by brittle
fracture, or cause other forms of damage, such as shape change. Compressive residual
stresses are generally beneficial, but cause a decrease in the buckling load.
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3.6 Forces on a structure

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 These are of two types; steady and cyclic. Several different effects produce these
forces; for example the weight of the equipment, the reaction of the drilling forces, the
hydrodynamic forces due to wind and wave action.
3.6.1 The steady force on a structure in a
fluid flow
The steady force exerted by a fluid as it passes a
stationary structure is known as the Drag Force.
Therefore, if a structure is placed in a current of
water or air, it will experience a force in the
direction of the flow trying to move it in that
direction. Force on a cylinder in a steady
flow

3.6.2 Cyclic forces on a structure in a fluid

flow
This time look at the flow pattern behind the
cylinder.
Note: The flow behind the cylinder is not
symmetrical, but those vortices are shed
alternately from each side.
Von Karmen Vortices shed
From a cylinder in a fluid flow.

The effect of this is to create on the

cylinder an alternating force at right
angles to the fluid flow and drag
force direction.

Figure 3.8 Variations in side forces on a cylinder in a

fluid flow.
The cyclic forces generated by the wind and water flowing past the structure cause the
vibrations at right angles to the flow that are so important, when considering the fatigue
life of a structure.

3.6.3 Wave loadings

Waves provide an oscillatory motion to the structure, producing forces that act in
addition to the forces produced by tidal currents. Wind forces deform or try to overturn
the structure.
The waves have a predominant direction for their maximum effect, but can come from
any direction, since they are wind generated.
Waves produced in a storm are generally short and very confused. However, when
produced by winds blowing over a long distance, or fetch, the waves tend to moderate
into long, high swell waves with a long period (distance peak to peak). A period of 14
seconds produces a wavelength of about 300m.
The height of the waves is independent of the period but depends upon the stability of
the waves and the energy content.
For the purposes of classification by the Duty Holder and for insurance, there are
standards for any design; these are based on statistical data. Using wave rider buoys, as
much information as possible is collected over as long a period as possible on:
 Wave heights.
 Wave directions.
 Wave periods.
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The analysis of this data produces two main results:

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 1 The maximum wave to be expected in a given time span, generally a 100 year period,
(this so-called 100 year wave is only a statistical quality adopted for design, so more
than one of these waves, or even larger waves, might actually occur).
2 An energy spectrum of the waves (ie the graph of the energy in the waves at different
periodic times).
Structures are therefore designed for two wave loading conditions:
1 Static Loading Using the maximum 100 year storm wave data.
2 Dynamic Loading Using the energy spectrum graph.
Owing to the directional properties of the waves, the structure will be designed and
placed so that the largest waves from the predominant direction are taken on its
strongest orientation, but all other directions should be considered.
Inaccuracy in placing the structure can create loads greater than the design loads in
that direction.
3.6.4 Structural response to wave loading
When a structure is placed in the sea it will experience a range of wave energies and
frequencies causing the structure to deflect:
 As the frequency of the wave energy peak approaches the natural frequency of the
structure, so the deflection of the structure increases and with it the stress.
 The further the peaks of wave energy, frequency spectrum and natural frequency of the
structure are separated, the lower the maximum deflection of the structure.
The same analysis applies to diving and other floating vessels in heave, roll, yaw and
pitch. Thus vessels designed for use in one part of the world may be unsuitable for use in
another, where the frequency spectrum differs.
The natural frequency decreases as the depth of the structure increases. Thus new
designs of structures developed for open water applications, such as the Compliant
Tower and the TLP, have natural frequencies below the wave energy peak.
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 Section 4
Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
42
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 4 Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
4.1 General comments
As soon as any piece of engineering equipment, such as offshore structure is brought
into service, it starts to wear out because of use and if it is not maintained, it will
eventually cease to operate satisfactorily or by failing in a catastrophic manner. The
possible causes of deterioration of an offshore structure including accidental damage,
corrosion, fatigue, wear and embrittlement are discussed in this section.
4.2 Categories of deterioration and damage
Broadly speaking, the modes of deterioration may be classified into six groups:
1 Gross structural damage.
2 Corrosion and erosion.
3 Fouling defects.
4 Coating defects.
5 Scour.
6 Metal and weld defects.
Specific types of deterioration and damage within these groups may be categorised as:
 Deformation of the structure caused by impact.
 Loss of concrete matrix through impact or internal flaws.
 Missing bolts.
 Coating damage through abrasion or impact or deterioration.
 Damaged cables or ducts caused by impact or deterioration.
 Unstable foundations through poor geology.
 Missing members caused by accidental damage or failure.
 Debris, which may cause impact damage or create fouling or overload the corrosion
protection system.
4.3 Accidental damage
Engineers will try to anticipate all the different modes of failure but deterioration due to
accidental damage is difficult to design against.
In the United Kingdom, Safety Cases have to be submitted to the HSE for evaluation
and assessment, in an attempt to prevent accidental damage from being a threat to
safety. Because of the difficulties associated with preventative design, one of the prime
methods for dealing with accidental damage is the implementation and effective
execution of reporting procedures for informing the appropriate responsible persons
as soon as any accidental damage has occurred.
This type of damage is also likely to occur on any structure because of the reliance
placed on being serviced by boats and helicopters. This presents a real possibility for
damage caused by accidents, such as collisions and the dragging of either anchors.
Ideally, this type of accident happen should be reported and surveyed as soon as it
happens. But in the past, at least, such accidental damage was discovered during routine
inspections; the event not having been reported.
4.4 Corrosion
Because steel is placed in a hostile environment, namely salt water, one of the ever-
present deterioration mechanisms on the structure will be corrosion.
Corrosion takes place in two different ways:
 Firstly, uniform corrosion is the process whereby metal is removed from all over the
surface as anodic areas continually shift, so that progressive thinning of the member or
pipe wall goes on until the thickness is reduced, necessitating renewal of the component.
Secondly, pitting corrosion is a localised corrosion which takes place in an otherwise
corrosion free material, creating a pit in the surface of the material.
These pits deepen with time and, if another failure mechanism does not take over, the
pit will penetrate the full thickness of the material, causing leakage in the case of a
43

pipeline or service duct and so necessitate local repair.

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 Corrosion are accelerated by erosion, increase in temperature and increase in oxygen
content, added chemical attack from biological sources and loading on the member from
either external loading or residual stresses caused in manufacture.
The latter is known as stress corrosion. As corrosion is such an important deterioration
mechanism in the offshore environment.
4.5 Fatigue
Fatigue is the local failure of the material by crack growth caused by cyclic loading.
The cracks can grow from flaws in the material, such as a welding defects or notches
caused by accidental damage. Alternatively, they can initiate in regions of highly
stressed material, which are brought about by residual stresses or stress
concentration. Fatigue cracks can also start from pits created by corrosion. This
condition is known as corrosion fatigue and is covered in section 8.
Fatigue causes more in-service failures of machines, vehicles, bridges and similar
structures than any other mode of failure.
The main reason for fatigue failure being so prevalent and therefore so important, is that
it can occur when the applied stress is significantly lower than the yield stress of the
material. Indeed, even if the stress intensity is kept below the fracture toughness limit,
Kic-crack growth can occur.
Fatigue is a cumulative form of failure, in that a crack is initiated at some point of stress
concentration and then propagates through the material by acting virtually as its own
stress raiser.
The final fatigue crack is the result of the accumulation of the small-scale events
associated with each of a great many load cycles. The fatigue crack eventually reduces
the cross-sectional area to such an extent that final failure occurs by rapid fracture, often
with gross deformation of the remaining uncracked area.
Fatigue cracking does not affect the material properties (fracture toughness remains
unchanged). Different materials have varying resistance to fatigue, although the
experience of service failures and laboratory testing has demonstrated that fatigue is
difficult to predict. This is because the process is sensitive to a large number of variables
including:
 Number of load cycles.
 Stress or strain amplitude.
 Mean stress level.
 Temperature.
 Environment.
 Microstructure of the material.
 Surface condition.
For design purposes the metallurgist and the design engineer centre their interest on the
results of laboratory tests that assess the number of loading cycles N of a given type that
the sample survives before fracture occurs.
Measurements of N are made as a function of the stress amplitude. When N is plotted on
a logarithmic scale against stress amplitude the S-N curve for the material is obtained.
4.6 Wear
The loss of material from surfaces that have been rubbed against one another, it is often
measured in terms of the mass lost in a given time under specified conditions. More
precisely, wear involves a redistribution of material that adversely alters the surface. In
the offshore environment, wear is the thinning of material due to uniform corrosion,
erosion or a combination of the two. In the wider sense wear can be caused by a number
of different mechanisms.

Adhesive
When two surfaces rub together it causes
friction and to explain this it is assumed that
44

some welding of the two contact surfaces

occurs within the contact area.
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 The mechanism of adhesive wear follows directly from this. When the two surfaces slide
over each other, material breaks away at the weakest sections.
These are the hills which make contact, as indicated in the sketch in Figure 4.1.

Abrasive wear
In the mechanism for abrasive wear, a hard particle in one surface indents, grooves
and then cuts material from the other surface. In service, the main cause of abrasion
between sliding metals is the presence on one of the two surfaces of particles of hard
materials, such as carbide in steels, work hardened wear fragments or hard oxide films.
The particles may also be air or waterborne dirt such as grit.
Wear caused by fatigue
When there is relative motion between two surfaces in contact, the state of stress at
any given point on or near the surfaces varies with time and this may cause fatigue, the
slow growth of cracks. The development of such cracks may eventually detach pieces of
material from the surfaces, thereby constituting wear.
Chemical and corrosive wear
Chemical effects are most commonly exemplified by the repeating cycle of the
formation, removal and reformation of oxides (Rust films).
4.7 Embrittlement
In service could come about due to incorrect welding procedures or by the absorption of
a gas, generally hydrogen. It has been encountered in natural gas pipelines and could
also come about from the absorption of hydrogen produced by an overprotective
impressed current corrosion protection system or associated with sour service. The
temperature of the environment affects the brittle behaviour of steel, brittle fracture
being more likely to occur at low temperatures.
4.8 Structural deterioration
Types of failures for offshore steel structures are divided the life of a structure into four
stages. At every stage defects leading to deterioration and then failure can occur.
4.8.1 Stage one – production of the raw materials
During the manufacturing of the raw
materials, several defects can be
included into what will become the
parent plate, pipe or profile. Defects
include laminations, pores, segregation
of undesirable inclusions, incorrect
chemical composition or heat treatment
condition.

Figure 4.2 Casting defects.

When the molten steel is poured into the mould, some of the material may splash onto
the sides where it cools quickly and hence does not meld with the bulk of the molten
metal. When subsequently rolled they form fishtails, a thinning of the metal.
If the mould is not at the correct temperature, impurities can be trapped in the metal
forming bands, which when later rolled out, form
segregation layers.
These layers can cause problems if the material
is stressed during welding, when the segregated
layer tears, this is known as lamellar tearing.
Pipes may also form if the mould temperature is
incorrect, when rolled these pipes form
45

laminations.
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4.8.2 Stage two - fabrication

 Steel structures fabrication defects
With steel structures the major fabrication processes involve welding. There are
numerous variables associated with welding and each of these can be subjected to either
human or system errors, some of which are listed:
 Incorrect machining of the angle of bevel.
 Improper pre-heat treatment.
 Poor fit-up.
 Using improper weld consumables.
 Incorrect storage of weld consumables.
 Incorrect post-heat treatment.
During the actual welding process, there are a number of possible weld defects that must
be avoided. A short catalogue follows:
Lack of root penetration
This is a weld defect associated with both Submerged Arc and Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
welding. Setting too low a voltage with the submerged arc process causes the defect.
Incorrectly positioning the welding rod is the cause with MMA. In either case, the result is
a crack-like defect in a potentially very sensitive part of the weld.
Slag inclusions
These defects are likely to occur when MMA welding is the weld method utilizing a multi-
pass technique. The cause of the defect is when slag from the previous run is not cleaned
off completely. This leaves isolated pieces of slag that remain and are over-welded by
the next run. These inclusions form the sites for potentially dangerous notches.
Porosity
This is a weld defect that must always be guarded against. There may be many causes
for this flaw such as:
 Air contamination of the weld pool.
 Dirt or damp finding their way into the weld.
These contaminants break down in the weld and produce:
 Nitrogen - Hydrogen - Carbon monoxide - CO2.
These gases dissolve in the weld pool and then, as it cools, they come out of solution
forming gas bubbles, which is porosity in the weld.
Hydrogen-induced cold cracking
This final example of a fabrication defect is a type of cracking normally formed in the
heat affected zone (HAZ) quite some time after the weld is completed.
The cracking may occur almost immediately, some hours later, or even days after the
weld is finished, which is why NDT is carried out forty eight hours after completion of
welding, when there has been a risk of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HIC).
The cause of cracking is Hydrogen, initially dissolved in the weld pool, permeating
through the weld into the HAZ in sufficient quantities to embrittle the microstructure;
causing cracking.
4.8.3 Avoiding problems by design
Designers are aware of the problems associated with fabrication.
It is well known that stress is concentrated at any site where there is a sharp change of
geometry such as in weld toes and traditional tubular joints (Figure 4.6).
46
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 Figure 4.6 Stress concentration areas.
As illustrated in Figure 4.6, the stress concentration may be lowered by profiling the weld
cap to make the geometry more contoured and less angular.
By alterations to the design concept the stress concentration areas may be removed
from the nodal areas by utilising cast joints, thus removing the welding to less highly
stressed regions (Figure 4.7).
4.8.4 Stage three - installation
Steel structures are commonly constructed on their side and then floated into position
where they are rotated to the
upright position by flooding
ballast compartments in the
jacket legs. This rotation
imposes a bending moment on
the structure that may impose
stresses that are, briefly,
greater than the working
stresses the structure will
subsequently withstand.
Some modern steel structures
have been positioned with the
ballast tanks pre-flooded to
minimise the stresses involved.
The method is illustrated in
Figure 4.8 and shows the
sequence of events with a self-floating structure.
Figure 4.7 Self-floating structure.
4.8.5 Stage four - in-service
This is the stage in the life of a structure where underwater inspection first becomes
dominant. The major categories of defects that cause concern are outlined below.
Steel in-service defect categories:
Fouling
This covers both marine growth building up on the structure and debris collecting on and
around it. Fouling may cause structural damage, galvanic corrosion (see section 8),
overloading of the CP system or cause safety hazards to divers and ROV’s.
Coating damage
All types of coatings; paint, bituminous, epoxy and metallic may suffer from defects
caused either when they were applied or subsequently because of deterioration or
accidental damage, see section 9.
Cracks
These may be caused during any of the earlier stages in the life of the platform. They are
most often associated with welded joints, especially on nodal areas and cracking may be
47

the end result of a defect initiated at the fabrication stage. Fatigue is the major cause of
component failure in-service.
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 This type of failure may be avoided if the crack is identified at an early stage, before it
propagates. It can be considered to be a notch at this stage and profile grinding will
remove this defect. This will reduce the weld throat thickness and the wall thickness,
however, provided this is kept within design parameters and a smooth profile is
achieved, the possibility of failure is more remote.
Corrosion
An important form of structural deterioration, which is covered in detail in sections 7-10.
Physical damage
This form of deterioration is generally caused by either collision or impact damage
caused by components being dropped. All accidental damageshould be reported
immediately so that it can be assessed.
The foundations of a structure are an obvious area susceptible to movement of material
on the seabed. Any movement is likely to weaken the foundations which, of course,
jeopardises the whole structure.
4.8.6 In-service defect categories that affect both steel and concrete
The in-service defects listed for steel can also affect concrete. Concrete structures may
suffer from cracks, the reinforcement may corrode and physical damage and scour is
also quite possible. Cracks in the concrete surface are less serious than cracks in steel
because offshore structures fall into the pre-stressed category and major components
are therefore kept in compression.
There are other considerations that do affect both steel and concrete structures and that
may cause defects in service:
Inter-tidal and splash zones
The inter-tidal and splash zones on any structure are regions of particular susceptibility
to deterioration:
 Corrosion is more aggressive in this area and must be more carefully monitored.
 Marine growth build-up is greater in the top 20m of the sea and is particularly dense in
the inter-tidal region. This will increase mass and drag in a part of the structure most
vulnerable to these effects. Marine growth may also affect corrosion rates.
 The risk of physical damage is greater in this region due to the risk from floating
objects.
Risers
Are components common to both types of structures, although on concrete platforms
they may be installed inside the shaft. Risers are inspected annually because they can
suffer the same deterioration as pipelines. The clamps, guides and flanges are subjected
to the same regime.
Conductors and conductor guide frames
They are exposed to the same risk of failure as risers, perhaps more so as there are
greater vibrations possible with these components than the rest of the platform.
Furthermore, conductors are normally kept in place by guides rather than clamps, which
allow relative movement between the conductor and its guides; hence wear must be
monitored, as there is a real possibility for fatigue cracking to occur.
Caissons
The pump at about 18m water depth is commonly suspended from the surface inside the
caisson. Conditions at this point on the inside of the caisson are near perfect for
corrosion to progress at excessive rates. This has caused component failure on more
than one occasion.
Overloading
Changes in the working practices and other commercial factors may lead to extra items
of equipment being installed, such as a newer, bigger crane and needs carefully
monitored.
4.9 Repairs to offshore structures
48

The Duty Holder’s engineering department will make a decision on what course of action
to take depending on the severity of the defect and its position on the structure. The
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types of defect that may be identified are:

  Welding defects - Impact damage - Fatigue damage - Corrosion.
Welding defects will normally be the most sensitive items and remedial action.
Impact damage may well be monitored.
Fatigue damage is the most difficult to identify and component failure may well occur
before this type of defect is identified.
Corrosion consumes metal in the corrosion process and reduces the wall thickness of the
structural members.
4.9.1 Welding repairs
Underwater welding repairs may be completed by wet welding or by deploying a
hyperbaric chamber and using dry welding procedures.
Wet welding
The problems associated with it such as:
 Uncontrolled cooling rate.
 Brittleness caused by the quenching effects of the water.
 Lack of sidewall fusion.
 Lack of inter-run fusion.
 Hydrogen embrittlement.
This technique has only been considered to be a temporary repair or a non-structural
repair to low stressed components.
Hyperbaric welding
Requires that a hyperbaric chamber is sealed onto the repair site and the weld is then
completed in dry conditions by specially qualified welder divers.
4.9.2 Clamp repairs
Two types of clamps may be used for repairs:
1 Grout clamps.
2 Friction clamps.
Grout clamps
These are used to repair pipeline leaks and nodal joints.
The clamp is positioned and, once it is in place with the bolts tightened, the annulus is
pumped full of grout which completes the repair.
Friction clamps
Fitted by bolting on and will be manufactured to close tolerance so that when the bolts
are tightened the repair clamp offers a proper stress path for the loads imposed on the
repaired area. This type of clamp is fitted to at least one offshore structure, where it has
been in place for some 40 years without further deterioration of the structure.
4.10 Repair inspection
All repairs will be inspected to ensure compliance with the procedure, the damage
register is maintained up to date.
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 Section 5
Deterioration of Offshore
Concrete Structures
55
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 5 Deterioration of Offshore Concrete Structures
Concrete is a man-made stone-like material which may be cast to form a wide variety of
components or structural elements.
Concrete derives its strength from the stones and sands (coarse and fine aggregates)
that it contains and not from the cement binder. Cement with no aggregate has roughly
the same strength as a baked biscuit.
The aggregate in concrete gives the material excellent compressive strength and
stiffness. Concrete structures have long design lives. Concrete is readily available
throughout the world. It is also relatively cheap to produce when compared to other
structural materials like steel.
Unfortunately, concrete is relatively weak when loaded in tension or shear. However,
higher-performance concrete systems have been developed that overcome these
weaknesses, although they do increase complexity and cost of the structure.
5.1 The nature of concrete
Concrete is a composite material composed of three basic ingredients. There is often a
requirement for some flexibility in concrete structures in order to avoid in-service
cracking.
5.2 Aggregate
Aggregate is hard material that is responsible for the compression strength and stiffness
of the concrete. Typically, stone is used that is quarried locally to the construction site.
Aggregates may be manufactured by crushing larger rocks or they may be harvested
from beaches (It may contain significant levels of salt (sodium chloride)).
In this case, it is important that the aggregate be washed thoroughly in fresh water in
order to remove the salt. If salt-contaminated aggregate then it may accelerate the
corrosion of built-in steelwork.
Salt-contamination in concrete may be discerned by observing the formation of salt
crystals on the surface of the concrete. This effect is termed efflorescence. Salt crystals
will not form underwater and their presence in the splash-zone is not definitive of salt-
contamination.
The size and shape of aggregate are important factors that determine the mechanical
properties of the concrete. Generally, we classify fine aggregate as stones that will pass
through a 5mm sieve (sand). If only sand is used in the concrete mix then the concrete
(termed mortar) will be more flexible but less strong than concrete made with coarse
aggregate.
Coarse aggregate is generally defined as stone that will not pass through a 5mm sieve
(gravel). Concrete made with a mixture of sand and gravel will have greater strength
than mortar and will be stiffer (and thus less flexible). By specifying the proportions of
sand and gravel and in the concrete the material properties can be precisely controlled.
5.3 Binder (cement and water)
There are two types of cement – hydraulic and non-hydraulic. By far the most
common type is hydraulic cement. This is formed by baking calcium (limestone – calcium
carbonate) and silicon (clay) until it forms nodules called clinker. This clinker is then
ground with gypsum to a fine powder to form the highly alkaline cement.
Hydraulic cements react with water in a process called hydration. The cement forms a
solid binder that holds the aggregate together to form a monolithic mass of material – ie
the mixture is said to set.
For cement to hydrate properly around 25% water (by weight) is required. In practice
excess water is added (often a total proportion of 40% or more) to improve workability of
the liquid concrete. Better workability means that the concrete flows more easily through
pipes and into moulds. The pouring of the concrete at this stage is called placement.
Excess water forms capillary voids within the concrete and must be lost from the bulk of
the material. This happens by migrating to the surface of the concrete (bleed water)
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and by evaporation from the surface. It is true to say that the less excess water in the
concrete mixture; the stronger the final material. Thus, it is beneficial in terms of
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material strength to limit the water to the minimum possible whilst still maintaining the
required workability.
 If the water content is too high then proliferation of capillary voids will result in a porous
and weak material. Also, as the excess water migrates to the surface to be lost by
bleeding and evaporation, then volume shrinkage will occur in the outer layers of the
concrete. This shrinkage effectively tightens the surface of the concrete over the sub-
surface layers forming a skin of tensile stress. As concrete is relatively weak in tension
this often leads to plastic shrinkage cracking.
If there is embedded steelwork like reinforcement close to the surface of the concrete,
then excessive water may also lead to settlement of aggregate particles around the
steel. This may result in plastic settlement cracking which will mimic the pattern of
the reinforcement.
Hydration is an exothermic reaction – that is, it generates heat. If a large amount of
concrete is poured all at once then the heat produced during the hydration process
causes the sub-surface material to expand. Cooling at the surface causes contraction
and a skin of tensile stress forms. This may cause thermal cracking. Thermal cracking
may be avoided by limiting the bulk of each pour or by laying sacrificial chilled-water
pipes within the mould.
As the concrete hydrates it moves from a liquid state, gradually becoming increasingly
viscous until it sets as a solid. During this time the alkalinity stabilises at around pH
12.5.
After the concrete has set to a solid a period of curing continues during which silicon
polymers form. The initial cure phase is considered to last from a number of days to a
number of weeks, during which time the temperature and evaporation must be carefully
controlled.
In fact, concrete reaches around 70% of its final strength after the initial cure and around
90% of its final strength after about one month. After that the material very slowly
becomes harder and stronger, reaching full maturity after around 27 years.
To control temperature and evaporation during the post-placement cure, the concrete is
often protected from the environment by covering with fabric or plastic sheeting or using
spray system to reduce the likelihood of cracking.
Concrete slabs may be flooded with water during this time for the same reason (called
ponding). Vertical walls such as slip-formed structures may be painted with curing
compounds and curing compounds may be removed or left in place following the initial
cure.
5.4 Additives
Additives (termed admixtures) are chemicals that are added to the concrete mix to
enhance its properties or to change its workability or rate of hydration:
Plasticizers: By adding a plasticizer we may reduce the water content of the mix yet
still retain adequate workability during construction. For this reason, plasticizer is
sometimes referred to as water-reducer.
Accelerators/retarders: These chemicals change the rate of hydration to suit the
construction method used. It is sometimes critical to accurately control the rate at which
the concrete sets, eg when slip-forming.
Others: The final properties of the concrete may be enhanced by the addition of other
admixtures. For example, a water-retardant may be added to enhance resistance to
penetrating water.
5.5 Loading on concrete
Concrete is extremely strong when loaded in compression. It also has very good
compression stiffness. Unfortunately, it is relatively weak when loaded in tension or
shear.
Engineers may design a structure or a component to avoid loading the concrete in
tension or shear. For example, a concrete dam.
However, tension and shear cannot always be avoided by design. For example, when a
57

beam is supported at either end and is loaded from above, we see that the lower face will
be in tension and that shear stress is imposed at either end.
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 In this case, the concrete can be strengthened by embedding reinforcement or by using
a pre-stressed beam.
5.6 Types of concrete
There are several types of concrete that are commonly used in construction:
5.6.1 Grout
Grout is a mixture of cement and water. It may contain admixtures but does not contain
any aggregate.
It is obvious when we consider that the strength of concrete comes from its aggregate
that grout is not a strong material. It is, however, flexible and so is used where we
require some movement in the structure.
Typical applications for grout include:
 Sealant, to seal construction joints.
 Filler or packing material, between steel piles and the pile-sleeves.
 Repair material, typically for relatively small areas of repair.
Grout is never used as a structural material.
5.6.2 Mortar
Mortar is a mixture of fine aggregate (sand), cement and water. It often also contains
admixtures.
Since mortar contains fine aggregate, it is stronger than grout but is still significantly
weaker than concrete. Like grout, it is used when some flexibility is required. It is often
used as a jointing material – effectively forming a flexible interface between two stiffer,
stronger components.
Typical applications for mortar include:
 Jointing - Sealant - Filler or packing material - Repair material.
The same as for grout, mortar is not used as a structural material.

5.6.3 Plain concrete

Plain concrete is a mixture of coarse and fine aggregate, cement and water.
Again, it often contains admixtures.
The term plain concrete refers to the fact that this type of concrete does not contain
any reinforcement. Thus, plain concrete is very strong and stiff in compression but
relatively weak in tension and shear.
Typical applications for plain concrete include:
 Structures and structural elements that are principally loaded in compression.
 Repair material, typically for relatively large areas.

5.6.4 Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is plain concrete that has embedded steelwork. The function of the
steel is to take any tensile or shear loading that the material is subjected to. As such,
the reinforcement is only laid in locations within the concrete which will be subject to
tension and/or shear – see Figure 5.1.
The steel reinforcement most commonly takes the form of bars (reinforcement-bar or
re-bar). Re-bar is usually round-section, ribbed bar with a diameter of between 10-
50mm.
Typical applications of reinforced concrete include:
 Structures and structural elements that may be subjected to tension and/or shear
stresses.
It is important to note that when first loaded, a reinforced concrete component will
deform as it takes up the load (strain). At this stage, the concrete may crack as the steel
reinforcement takes up any tensile or shear stresses. This is known as settlement
cracking and is common in reinforced concrete components. This type of settlement
should stabilize and the cracking should not progress after the initial loading of the
component.
The steel reinforcement is protected from corrosion whilst within the concrete because of
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the high pH (around 12.5) of the material. This stimulates the formation of a passive
skin of Fe2O3 oxide around any embedded steelwork. As a result, the steel is passivated.
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It is very important that the passive environment around the reinforcement is maintained
and that no water is allowed to seep in around the steel.
 The current standard relevant to concrete structures is EN 1992: Design of Concrete
Structures, (Eurocode 2). This standard replaces CP110 under which many existing
structures were built. Both standards require a minimum cover of 60mm over any
embedded steel reinforcement (between the steelwork and the outside environment) in
order to protect against water ingress causing loss of passivation.
If passivation is lost by water ingress causing chloride attack or by carbonation, then the
Fe2O3 oxide skin will be lost and replaced by Fe2+. This form of oxide expands as it forms,
creating an increase in volume of the oxide layer around the re-bar. This effectively
pushes the concrete apart in the area local to the corroding reinforcement.
A shear zone is created around the expanding oxide and the concrete will eventually fail
in shear. This failure is characterised by a crack along a 45° line to the action of the
shear stress. The resulting defect is therefore characterized by a 45° crack surrounding
material that has been pushed away from the surface of the concrete.
Depending upon the orientation of the
re-bar relative to the surface of the
concrete, this process will result in a
popout or delamination – see Figure
5.3.

Figure 5.3 Loss of passivation causes

expansive oxidation of the re-bar.

A popout as the end of the re-bar pushes a cone of concrete away from the surface. A
delamination where a plate of material comes away from the surface. Both are forms
of spalling – a general term used to describe the loss of material from the surface of
concrete.

5.6.5 Pre-stressed concrete

Pre-stressed concrete contains steel rods or
tendons that run within the component. The
tendons are pulled to a predetermined
tension and locked into anchor points
(Cachetage Points), effectively
compressing the concrete component.
The tension of the tendon is calculated to be greater than any inservice tensile stress
and the concrete is maintained in its strongest loading state – see Figure 5.4.

If the tendon is stressed before the concrete is placed it

is termed pre-tensioned.
Post-tensioned components are built with conduits
(ducts) cast within them.
The tendon is placed within the conduit and stressed
using screw-threads or a stressing ram after the
concrete has been placed – see Figures 5.5, 5.6 and
Once the tendons are locked into the cachetage points,
grout is injected into the conduit to protect the steel by
passivation.
As the concrete is maintained in a compressive load
condition then this type of concrete should not exhibit
59

any settlement cracking or in-service cracking.

5.7 Weight coat
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 Weight coat is a generic term applied to the concrete-type covering of a pipeline. Its
primary function is to control the buoyancy of the pipeline and ensure sufficient on-
bottom mass to maintain stability. It also has the secondary functions of impact
protection and corrosion protection.
Although often called concrete weight coat, the actual material is commonly a form of
mortar called Gunite. The coating is commonly sprayed onto a pre-laid wire mesh or
reinforcement web. As such, it is often a very viscous mix with very low water
content.
5.8 Organic polymers
Although strictly not a form of concrete, organic polymers are often found associated
with concrete structures. The term organic refers to the carbon chain chemical nature of
these materials, eg Epoxy.
Typical applications for organic polymers are:
 Sealant.
 Repair material for relatively small areas.
 Bonding material.
Organic polymers are very commonly used for defect repairs and may be injected into
the surface of a concrete structure to stabilize the material. They are often activated by
mixing with a chemical hardener just prior to application.
They may be readily identified by their hard, glassy or plastic-like texture.
5.9 Concrete construction techniques

Initially, the dry ingredients are dry-mixed and

then water and any admixtures are added. Quality
control of the proportions of the ingredients and
water are essential at this stage.

After a thorough mixing the concrete is given a

unique batch number, a time-stamp and any
samples taken for testing. With projects such as
offshore structures, each batch of concrete has a
use-by time associated with it – if it is not placed
by the expiry of that use-by time then it is
rejected.
Offshore concrete structures are built in a shore-
based construction yard. The structure is built in
the upright orientation. Smaller structures may be
entirely constructed in the yard and then towed
out when completed. With larger structures, once
they reach a certain height the yard is flooded and
the structure moved to sheltered water for
completion.
There are three basic methods used to place the concrete to form a structure;
pre-casting, fixed shuttering and slip-form shuttering.
5.9.1 Pre-cast concrete
Pre-cast concrete is manufactured in a factory and is commonly used to produce
multiple items of a certain design of component – eg
pipe sections.
Because of economies of scale, high-quality, re-usable
moulds are used which give good surface finish
without the need for tie-bolts.
5.9.2 Fixed shuttering
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With fixed shuttering construction, walls (formwork)

are built to contain the concrete whilst it sets. The
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height of the formwork is limited by the hydrostatic

pressure exerted on the bottom of the formwork by
 the wet concrete. When the concrete is placed within the formwork, it is consolidated by
vibration or tamping. When the concrete has set, the formwork may be removed and
reassembled higher up ready for the next pour of concrete.

There are various formwork systems available:

 Wooden formwork: Versatile and useful for creating complex shapes.
 Engineered formwork: Re-usable steel or aluminum modules.
 Plastic formwork: Re-usable plastic modules.
 Structural formwork: Not removed after the concrete has set – it forms part of the
reinforcing system.
The use of fixed shuttering necessitates that each successive layer of concrete sets
sufficiently to allow for removal and reassembly of the formwork. This gives rise to a
series of horizontal construction joints in the structure.
Construction joints are joints made between successive placements of concrete in the
fixed shuttering. They are weak points in the structure in terms of lateral shear
loading and are also potential places where water may penetrate the structure. To help
seal the joint, it is often rebated (set back) and filled with sealant, such as grout,
mortar, bitumen or epoxy – see Figure 5.10.
Slip-form shuttering
Slip-form shuttering is useful when constructing tall components with unchanging shape
such as the cells and columns of offshore structures.

The formwork is built onto a jacking system. The

concrete is continually placed within the slip-
form as it fills with material; it is jacked upwards
using hydraulic rams. The typical rate of climb is
200-250mm per hour
Because the concrete is continuously being
placed, there are no construction joints ie the
structure is monolithic ‫ متجانسة‬with no
structural weak points.
As the slip-form creeps upwards, the concrete
that is exposed at the lower skirt of the
formwork tends to bulge ‫ انتفاخ‬slightly. This
gives rise to a characteristic feature of slip-
formed structures – a set of regular horizontal ridges ‫ حافة‬known as weatherboarding.
Other features characteristic of slip-formed structures include irregular horizontal ridges
caused by slight variations in the concrete and the construction process, and vertical
drag marks caused by minor debris being trapped between the formwork and the
structure.
Slip-forming is a rapid and efficient method of constructing extremely tall structures.

5.10 Other features of offshore concrete

structures
5.10.1 Jarlan holes
A feature sometimes found set into concrete
breakwater walls and anti-scour fences – (top/bottom
of structure).

The Jarlan hole is a nozzle that forces water to

speed up as it is forced through by tidal or wave
action. At a critical velocity the flow becomes
turbulent, dissipating ‫ تبديد‬the fluid energy and
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reducing hydrodynamic loading.

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5.10.2 Columns
 Columns of concrete structures may be dry or free-flooding. Indeed, there may be both
types on the same structure with one column acting as a utility shaft containing risers
and conductors. In such shafts, bacterial attack may lead to the release of hydrogen
sulphide gas and great care must be taken to ensure that the column is sufficiently
ventilated.
5.10.3 Expansion joints
Expansion joints are narrow gaps, which are sometimes left between large masses of
concrete to allow for thermal movement. Even if in-service thermal variations are not
significant, expansion joints may be required to allow for movement during the hydration
phase of the construction.
On offshore structures, expansion joints may allow for thermal movement caused by
storage of hot production fluids or to allow some structural flexibility.
Often, expansion joints will be sealed with a flexible sealant such as bitumen
5.10.4 Tow-out, placement and commissioning of concrete structures
Once completed, the structure is towed to location by tugs. When positioned correctly, it
is ballasted to sink gently to the seabed. The structure is maintained in an upright
orientation during this phase, limiting the imposed bending moments. Depending on the
nature of the substrate and underlying rock, the structure may sit directly on the bed of
the sea or on a prepared foundation (Base raft).
Once on the seabed, on-bottom mass is increased by further water ballasting and
possibly also solid ballasting using dense material such as iron ore. Suction anchors or
skirt piles may also be employed to aid stability.
It should be noted that not all of the cells in the caisson of the structure will be used for
ballast – cells are also available for storage of production fluids and product.
Loading of the deck, modules and superstructure may take place at the construction site
or at the final location utilising heavy-lift barges.
5.11 In-service deterioration of concrete structures
Concrete structures deteriorate by two means – physical and chemical attack:
5.11.1 Physical attack
Physical attacks include the following assaults:
 Impact – the inter-tidal zone is most at risk of impact damage from floating objects.
 Overload – eg storage cells need careful management to avoid overloading diaphragm
walls with hydrostatic imbalance.
 Freeze/thaw cycles ‫ التجمد والذوبان‬can attack the exposed part of the structure forcing
small crevices ‫الشقوق‬and cracks to widen and eventually lead to spalling. ‫تقشير‬
 Expansion of reinforcement caused by corrosion can lead to cracking and spalling.
 Abrasion – concrete is relatively easily abraded ‫ التاكل‬and care must be taken to avoid
any rubbing or fretting of concrete surfaces.

5.11.2 Chemical attack

Chemical attacks include the following:
 Alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR).
 Sulphate attack.
 Chloride attack.
 Carbonation.
 Corrosion of inset steelwork.
 Biological attack.
The degradation of concrete by environmental action is termed weathering.

5.11.3 Alkali-aggregate reaction

Most types of aggregate used in the production of concrete are chemically stable. Some
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aggregate, however, reacts with the high pH of concrete. In particular, aggregate

containing silica will undergo alkali-silica reaction.
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During the alkali-silica reaction, silica forms a gel and begins to absorb water.
 The gel swells and starts to exert an internal pressure within the concrete. Gel may
weep )‫يسيل (يتسرب‬from the surface of the concrete (exudation) and can lead to
expansion, cracking and spalling.
5.11.4 Sulphate attack
Seawater contains sulphates that, if allowed to penetrate into the concrete, will react
with the hydrated cement to form a crystalline solid called ettringite (calcium-
aluminium sulphate). This causes a volume expansion, leading to cracking and spalling.
5.11.5 Chloride attack
If seawater seeps next to the steel reinforcement within the concrete then chlorides will
destroy the passive iron (3) oxide skin. This will initialise the reinforcement corrosion
process– Reinforced concrete, eventually resulting in cracking and spalling.
5.11.6 Carbonation
If atmospheric carbon dioxide reaches the steel reinforcement within the concrete then
passivation will be lost in a similar way to chloride attack. This will eventually result in
reinforcement corrosion, cracking and spalling.
Although carbonation is a theoretical risk for an offshore structure, if it has been built
according to either EN 1992 or CP110, then the process would be too slow to pose any
real threat to an offshore structure, although a crack could theoretically speed up the
process.
5.11.7 Biological attack
Under anaerobic conditions, sulphate-reducing bacteria living in the small voids in the
concrete produce hydrogen sulphide. Some of this gas may escape to the surface of the
material and if allowed to build up, can pose ‫ تشكل‬a significant health risk.
However, some of the hydrogen sulphate may be captured by aerobic bacteria that
oxidise it to form sulphuric acid. This will dissolve away the carbonates from the
hydrated cement and weaken the material. Eventually this will lead to cracking and
spalling.
5.11.8 Corrosion of inset steelwork
If, for example, the anchor point for an external fixing such as a riser clamp should make
electrical contact with the embedded reinforcement, then a corrosion cell will form. In
this case, the embedded part of the inset steelwork becomes cathodic and the external
part of the steelwork becomes anodic, leading to accelerated corrosion.
5.12 Imperfections of concrete
The U.K. government has published an offshore technology report (OTH-84-206)
that categorises twenty six imperfections that may be seen on concrete structures. This
report defines three categories:
1 Category A: Defects. 2 Category B: Areas of Concern.
3 Category C: Blemishes.
These imperfections may be either a construction or an in-service imperfection
5.12.1 Category A: Defects
Category A (defects) usually require detailed investigation and are likely to generate an
intervention to repair the defect.
The category A (defects) are:
 Cracks - Impact damage - Popouts – Delamination - Variable cover – Exposed –
reinforcement - Tearing - Poor repairs.
Popouts and delamination may be referred by the general term of spalling – the loss of
material from the surface of the concrete.
5.12.2 Cracks
Cracks may form because of:
 Plastic shrinkage cracking.
 Plastic settlement cracking.
63

 Thermal cracking.
 Overload.
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 Freeze/thaw cycles.
 Alkali-aggregate reaction.
  Settlement cracking.
 Internal corrosion.
 Sulphate attack.
Cracks may take the form of individual, distinct general cracks, or of a network more
fine pattern cracking – see Figure 5.18.
5.12.3 Category B: Areas of concern
These will usually be monitored but may require an intervention to repair.
The category B (areas of concern) are:
 Embedded objects. Embedded objects (wood and wire-ties).
 Recessed metal plates.
 Cast-in sockets. Soft edges indicate that this is a cast-in socket
and not one that was drilled after the concrete had set.
 Abrasion.
 Water-jet damage.
 Honeycombing. is caused by lack of consolidation during
placement

5.12.4 Category C: Blemishes )‫عيوب (خلل‬

Category C are surface imperfections that have no structural significance.
Category C (blemishes) are:
 Construction joint.
 Blowholes. When the concrete is vibrated during consolidation, air tends to
migrate outwards until it meets the face of the shutter. Upon solidification the
bubbles of air form blowholes.
 Scabbling. The intentional roughening of the surface and when it is done
using a machine, the pattern will be regular.
 Good repair. A good repair does not refer to the neatness of the repair; it
refers to the integrity of the repair, eg is the material bonded well?
 Resin mortar repair. often have a hard glassy or plastic texture, eg epoxy.
 Sealant run.
 Rubbing-down marks. are caused by troweling or wiping the
surface during construction.
 Formwork misalignment. is caused during construction.

 Regular horizontal ridges.

Typically, the slip-form spends a period of time paused and then creeps upwards at set
intervals – often every one hour. This results in a series of regular horizontal ridges,
formed when the concrete bulges slightly as it departs the lower skirt of the formwork.
 Irregular horizontal ridges. Irregular horizontal ridges are caused by minor
variations in the construction process and the material.
 Vertical drag marks. are formed by minor debris becoming trapped between the
formwork and the surface of the structure. Often the debris consists of a piece of
concrete adhered to the shutter. As the slip-form moves upwards then the debris is
dragged with it.
 Curing compound. Curing compound is painted on the surface of the concrete to
control evaporation. It may or may not be removed after the initial curing period.
64
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5.12.5 Uncategorised imperfections

 There are a few additional features and imperfections that OTH-84-206 does not
categorise.
These include the following:
 Expansion joints.
 Missing or damaged sealant.
 Surface staining. Surface staining may be the result of:
 Exudation (from alkali-aggregate reaction).
 Efflorescence (salt crystals formed during evaporative loss of water).
 Lime encrustation.
 Corrosion.
Corrosion is the only stain that is likely to be seen during an underwater
survey.
It is important when photographing staining to include a colour bar so that
the photograph may be presented in true colour. The engineer may then be
able to gauge the age of the defect by the colour of the stain.
 Corrosion of inset steelwork. The corrosion of the brackets could be caused by
earthing of the inset steel against the reinforcement.
 Biological attack. Barnacles do not attack concrete; however some species of tube-
worms will bore into the surface of the material.

5.13 Inspection of concrete structures

5.13.1 Cleaning for Inspection
Concrete is prone to abrasion injury and must be cleaned with care. Indeed, a high
pressure water-jet will effectively cut into the concrete surface and such damage is
classified as an area of concern.
The acceptable methods of cleaning concrete structures include:
 Low pressure water-jet.
 Hand brushing with nylon brushes.
 Plastic hand scrapers.
Brush-carts may be used so long as they are fitted with nylon brushes.
5.13.2 Navigation and positioning
Navigation and location reporting particularly difficult due to huge size. An ideal solution
to this problem is to equip the inspector with an underwater
transponder; however, this is not always possible.
One solution is to mark up a grid on the surface of the
structure. The grid must be referenced to a known datum,
such as a riser. The grid squares may be named according to
an alpha-numeric system as shown below in Figure 5.47.

Note: The grid is referred to a riser as a datum.

A major drawback of the alpha-numeric grid system is that it
is time-consuming to set up.
A quicker solution is to use a down-line and distance-line technique, although the
down-line may be replaced with a datum such as a riser. Using this method, the feature
positions may be reported using their depth and distance-from-datum. When depth is
quoted then the controller must be aware of the tidal height at the time of the inspection
in order to convert the depth to an elevation according to the structural height datum.
65

Due to the problems in navigating and location reporting when inspecting concrete
structures, very often ROVs are used in preference to divers.
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5.13.3 Reporting requirements

 As a general guideline it would be good practice to include the following data in the
verbal report:
 Location of imperfection.
 Type of imperfection.
 Severity.
 Orientation and/or pattern.
 Extent of imperfection (length, width or percentage area).
 Maximum depth (penetration into the surface).
When describing cracks, we can classify the appearance of the cracking into two types:
General cracking: These appear as well-defined, distinct cracks where a length, width
and shape will be apparent. – see Figure 5.49.
Pattern cracking: These cracks form a network that is best described by their pattern
and the area that they cover – see Figure 5.49.
When describing the width of cracks, the convention below may be used:
 Fine cracks: Less than 1mm in width.
 Medium cracks: Between 1mm and 2mm in width.
 Wide cracks: Over 2mm in width.
A full summary of typical reporting requirements is contained within table 5.1.

5.14 General concrete terms

Spalling
Spalling is considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose
piece of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area.
Grout
Grout is semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. It will have high strength and density, used to
repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colour than normal concrete.
Cable duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally grout filled
after tensioning.
Pre-stressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction of
compressive stress on the structure.
Base raft
The foundation slab bearing on the seabed.
Caisson
Large cylindrical structure often referred to as a cell.
Cell
Void bounded by diaphragm walls, term used synonymously with caisson for the base
cells of a structure.
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Invert
The lowest point of an opening or tunnel.
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Soffit
 The underside of a concrete beam.
Jarlan hole
Perforation in a breakwater wall, used to dissipate the forces from wave action, some of
the force will be repelled and some will be admitted through the wall where the Venturi
principle dissipates the energy thus reducing the forces acting on the wall.
Laitance
This is a fine powdery substance, which accumulates on the surface of concrete as it
sets; it will need to be removed prior to any new pour being applied.
Exudation
Exudation consists of salts, which dissolve, in the concrete when fluid is passing through
a crack; it shows on the surface of the concrete as a whitish semi-fluid, which
accumulates around the crack.
Note: On the surface it will always run downwards, however in water it may drift
sideways or even upwards, owing to the fact that its density may be less than the water
around it.

Concrete is a man-made material.

 Ancient Romans called it Liquid Stone.
 They enacted the first ever regulations aimed at controlling the quality.
 It derives its strength from the stones & sand (aggregates) that it contains.
Concrete is very durable, but it needs to be regularly inspected & maintained.
 It’s readily available throughout the world  Cheap compared to other materials like steel
 It is weak when loaded in Tension or Shear
 Systems have developed that overcome this but these increase the complexity & the cost.
Concrete is a composite of 3 basic ingredients.
 Civil Engs. will specify the exact type & proportion of each ingredient.
 Often a requirement for some flexibility in concrete structures, to avoid in-service cracking.
 A compromise needs to be met between stiffness & strength.

Aggregate is a hard material that is responsible for the compression strength & stiffness of concrete.
Aggregates may be:
 Quarried from land sites.
 Manufactured by crushing larger rocks.
 Harvested from beaches.
If from a beach, it may contain significant levels of salt, & must be washed thoroughly in fresh water

If salt-contaminated aggregate is used:

 May accelerate the corrosion of built-in steelwork.
 Salt crystals on the surface of the concrete, is termed Efflorescence.
 Salt crystals will not form underwater so, their presence in the splash-zone is not definitive.
Aggregates’ size & shape are important factors that determine the mechanical properties of the concrete.
 Sand - fine aggregate, less than 5mm dia.
 Mortar - If only sand is used it will be more flexible, but will have less strength than
concrete made with sand & gravel.
 Gravel - coarse aggregate more than 5mm dia.
 Concrete - made with sand & gravel is stronger than mortar but, stiffer & less flexible.
Hydraulic Cement is the most common type of cement.
Formed by baking limestone & clay into clinker.
Then ground with gypsum to a fine powder.
This reacts with water in a process called Hydration.
This forms a binder that holds the aggregate together to form a mass of material – the mixture is said to Set
67

Cement to hydrate properly, 25% water is required.

 Often, 40% or more is added to improve workability.
 Better workability means concrete flows more easily through pipes & into moulds.
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Pouring of concrete at this stage is termed Placement.

Excess water forms capillary voids within the concrete that must be lost from the bulk of the material.
 This happens when:
 The water migrates to the surface - Bleed Water.
 By evaporation from the surface.
 The less excess water in the mix; the stronger it is.
 Beneficial in terms of strength, to limit water to a minimum, while still maintaining good workability.
Too high a water content, results in a porous/weak material.
 As excess water migrates to the surface, volume shrinkage occurs in the outer layers.
 This effectively ’tightens’ the surface, forming a skin of tensile stress, which leads to Plastic Shrinkage Cracking.
 Excessive water may also lead to settlement of aggregate around the steel reinforcement, which may result in Plastic
Settlement Cracking.
In a large pour, the heat produced causes the sub-surface material to expand.
 Cooling at the surface causes contraction.
 A skin of tensile stress forms, which may cause Thermal Cracking.
 As concrete hydrates, it moves from a liquid state, becoming increasingly viscous, until it sets as a solid.
The alkalinity stabilises at a pH 12.5.

After concrete has set, a period of Curing continues, during which, silicon polymers form.
 The initial cure may last from days to weeks.
 Temperature & evaporation must be controlled.
 70% of its final strength after the initial cure.
 90% of its final strength after one month.
 Full maturity after around 27 years.

Admixtures - chemicals added to the mix to enhance its properties, change its workability or hydration rate.
 Plasticizers - added to reduce the water content.
 Accelerators/Retarders - used to change the rate of hydration to suit the construction method.
 Water-retardant - added to enhance resistance to penetrating water.
Concrete is strong when loaded in Compression.
Relatively weak when loaded in Tension or Shear.
Engineers design a structure to avoid loading it in tension or shear.
A concrete dam is often curved in order to translate the hydrostatic pressure on the convex side of the dam, into
compressive stress within the dam wall.
Grout is a mixture of cement & water.
It’s not a strong material, but it is flexible.
Used where some movement is required.
Typical applications include:
 To seal construction joints.
 Packing between piles & pile-sleeves.
 Repair material, for relatively small areas.
Grout is never used as a structural material.

Mortar is a mixture of sand, cement, water & often, admixtures.

 Stronger than grout, weaker than concrete.
 Used as a jointing material, forming a flexible interface between two stiffer components.
 Not used as a structural material.

Plain Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, cement, water & often, admixtures.
The term ‘Plain Concrete’ refers to the fact that it does not contain any reinforcement.
Typical applications include:
 Structural elements that are loaded in compression.
 Repair material, typically for relatively large areas.
Reinforced Concrete.
Plain concrete with embedded steelwork.
 The function of the steel is to take any tensile or shear loading.
 Reinforcement is only laid in locations which will be subject to tension &/or shear.
Reinforcement-bar or Re-bar is, usually, round-section, ribbed bar with a diameter of between 10mm & 50mm
When first loaded, a reinforced component will deform as it takes the strain.
 The concrete may crack as the re-bars take up any tensile or shear stresses.
 This is common & is known as Settlement Cracking.
 Re-bar is protected from corrosion due to the high pH.
 This stimulates the formation of a passive skin of Fe2O3.
 The passivation must be maintained & no water is allowed to seep in.
EN 1992 Design of Concrete Structures (Eurocode 2).
Replaces CP110 under which, many existing structures were built.
Both Standards require a minimum cover of 60mm over any steel reinforcement
If passivation is lost by water ingress causing Chloride attack, or by Carbonation, then the
Fe2O3 skin will be lost & replaced by Fe2+. This form of Ferrous Oxide expands as it forms, creating an increase in
volume of the oxide layer around the re-bar.
 This pushes the concrete apart in the local area.
A Shear zone is created around the expanding oxide & the concrete will eventually fail in shear.
Depending upon the orientation of the re-bar, this process will result in either:  Popout or a Delamination.
Both are forms of Spalling – a general term used to describe the loss of material from the surface.
Pre-stressed concrete contains steel rods or tendons that run within the component.
68

Pulled to a predetermined tension & locked into anchor points (Cachetage Points).
The tension is calculated to be greater than any in-service tensile stress, so the concrete is kept in compression.
Pre-tensioned tendons are stressed before the concrete is placed.
Post-tensioned components are built with conduits within them.
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The tendon is placed within the conduit & stressed, using screwthreads or a stressing ram, after the concrete is placed.
 Once the tendons are locked into the cachetage points, grout is injected into the conduit to protect the steel by
passivation.
As the concrete is maintained in a compressive load, this type should not exhibit any settlement or in-service cracking.
type of concrete covering of a pipeline, actually a form of mortar called Gunite.
Primary function is to control the buoyancy, to ensure sufficient on-bottom mass to maintain stability.
It has the secondary functions of:
 Impact protection.
 Corrosion protection.

Organic Polymers are often found associated with concrete structures, e.g. Epoxy.
Typical applications include:
 As a sealant.
 As repair material for relatively small areas.
 As bonding material.
 Injected into the surface of concrete to stabilise it.
 Readily identified by their hard, glassy texture.

Before concrete can be placed, it must be produced, usually in bulk, in a concrete plant.
 Such plant may be sited at the construction yard.
 Structure is built in the upright orientation, from the ground upwards.
 Smaller structures may be entirely constructed in the yard then towed out when completed.
With larger structures, once they reach a certain height the yard is flooded & the structure moved to sheltered water for completion
There are three basic methods used to place the concrete:
 Pre-casting.
 Fixed-shuttering.
 Slip-form shuttering.
Pre-cast concrete is manufactured in a factory & used to produce multiple items of a certain design - pipe sections.
High-quality, re-usable moulds are used, which give a good surface finish.
With fixed-shuttering construction, walls, called Formwork, are built to contain the concrete while it sets.
 Height is limited by the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the bottom of the formwork by the wet concrete.
 When the concrete is placed within the formwork, it is consolidated by vibration or tamping.
 When the concrete has set, formwork may be removed & reassembled higher up, ready for the next pour.
Formwork systems available:
Wooden formwork.
 Versatile & useful for creating complex shapes.
Engineered formwork.  Re-usable
steel/aluminium.
Plastic formwork.
 Re-usable plastic modules.
Structural formwork.
 Not removed after the
concrete has set – forms part of the reinforcing system.
Fixed-shuttering requires that each successive layer of
concrete sets sufficiently to allow for removal/reassembly of the formwork:
 This causes a series of horizontal Construction Joints.
 These are weak points in the structure in terms of lateralshear & are potential places where water may penetrate.
 To seal the joint, it is often rebated then filled with sealant, such as grout, mortar, bitumen or epoxy.
when constructing tall components with unchanging shape, such as columns.
 The formwork is built onto a jacking system.
 Concrete is continually placed within the slip-form & as it fills with material, it is jacked upwards using hydraulic rams.
 The typical rate of climb is 200 to 250mm per hour.
Slip-form is continually moving as the concrete is being placed.
 There’s no construction joints.
 As the slip-form moves upwards, the concrete exposed at the lower skirt tends to bulge slightly.
 Gives rise to a characteristic feature of slip-form – regular horizontal ridges known as Weatherboarding.
Other features characteristic of slip-formed structures:
 Irregular horizontal ridges caused by slight variations in the concrete & the construction process.
 Vertical drag marks caused by minor debris being trapped between the formwork & the structure.
Without the Slip-forming method, offshore structures would simply take too long to build.
Jarlan Holes.
Sometimes found set into concrete breakwater walls & anti-scour fences.
At a critical velocity, the flow becomes turbulent & so dissipates the fluid energy, reducing the hydrodynamic loading.
Columns of concrete structures may be dry or free-flooding.
 There may be both types on the same structure, with one acting as a utility shaft, containing risers & conductors.
 In these, bacterial attack may lead to the release of H2S.
 Great care taken to ensure that the column is ventilated.
Expansion Joints - narrow gaps, sometimes left between large masses of concrete to allow for thermal movement.
 May be required to allow for movement during hydration.
 Allow for thermal movement caused by storage of hot production fluids or to allow some structural flexibility.
 They will be sealed with flexible sealant such as bitumen. structure is towed to location by tugs.
 On location, it’s ballasted to sink to the seabed.
 Depending on the nature of the substrate, the structure may sit directly on the seabed or on a Base Raft
Once on the seabed, mass is increased by water or iron ore.
 Not all the cells will be used for ballast, some are available for storage of production fluids.
 Loading the superstructure may take place at the construction site or at the final location using heavylift barges.
Concrete Structures deteriorate by two means:
Physical attack & Chemical attack:
Physical Attacks include:
69

 Impact Damage.
 Overloading.
 Freeze/Thaw Cycles.
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 Corrosion of Reinforcement.
 Abrasion.
 Chemical Attacks include:
 Alkali-aggregate Reaction (AAR).
 Sulphate Attack.
 Chloride Attack.
 Carbonation.
 Corrosion of Inset Steelwork.
 Biological Attack.
Degradation of concrete by environmental action is termed, Weathering.
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (AAR).
 Aggregate containing silica will undergo alkalisilica reaction, this forms a gel & begins to absorb water.
 The gel swells & exerts a pressure within the concrete.
 Gel may weep from the surface of the concrete, termed Exudation, can lead to spalling.
Sulphate Attack.
 Seawater contains sulphates, if allowed to penetrate into the concrete, will react with the hydrated cement to form a
crystalline solid (Ettringite).
 This causes expansion, leading to cracking & spalling.
Chloride Attack.
 If seawater seeps next to the reinforcement within concrete, Chlorides will destroy the passive Fe2O3 skin.
 This initialises the reinforcement corrosion process, resulting in cracking & spalling.
Carbonation.
 If atmospheric CO2 reaches the reinforcement within the concrete, passivation will be lost.
 This will result in reinforcement corrosion, cracking & spalling Biological Attack.
 Under Anaerobic conditions, sulphate-reducing bacteria living in the small voids in the concrete, produce H2S.
 Some of the H2S may be captured by aerobic bacteria, that oxidise it to form Sulphuric Acid.
 This dissolves away the carbonates from the cement & weakens the material, leading to cracking & spalling.
Corrosion of Inset Steelwork.
 More likely than reinforcement corrosion.
 Different types of steel components cast into the structure - riser clamps - steel skirts - towing eyes.
 Should any of this be in contact with the internal reinforcement, the exposed steelwork acts as an anode & the
reinforcement becomes the cathode.

The U.K. Government has published an Offshore Technology Report that categorises 26
Imperfections that may be seen on concrete structures.
This report defines three categories:
 Category A – Defects.
 Category B - Areas of Concern.
 Category C – Blemishes.
Each of these may be either, Construction or Inservice

Category A (Defects).
Usually require detailed investigation & are likely to generate an intervention to repair.
 Crack.
 Impact Damage.
 Popout.
 Delamination.
 Variable Cover.
 Exposed Reinforcement.
 Tearing.
 Poor Repair.

Tearing Premature movement of the shutter or slumping of the concrete whilst in a semi-liquid state Construction
Poor Repair Showing multiple defects In-Service
Regular Horizontal Ridges.
 Concrete bulges slightly as it departs the lower skirt.
Irregular Horizontal Ridges.
 Minor variations in the construction process & material.
Construction
70

Navigation & Positioning:

 Concrete structures are usually very large & relatively featureless.
Page

 This makes navigation & location reporting particularly difficult.

 An ideal solution to this problem is to equip the inspector with an underwater transponder.
 Reporting Requirements.
Reporting requirements for inspection will be specified by the Client’s Procedure & should be made explicit in the
Inspection Controller’s briefing.
Include the following data in the verbal report:
 Location, type & severity of imperfection.
 Orientation &/or pattern.
 Extent of imperfection (length, width or percentage).
 Maximum depth (penetration into the surface).

General Cracking:
 Well-defined cracks, length, width & shape is apparent.
Pattern Cracking:
 Forms a network best described by pattern & area.
When describing the width of cracks:
 Fine cracks: < 1mm
 Medium cracks: 1 to 2mm
 Wide cracks: > 2mm
71
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 Section 6
Marine Growth
72
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 6 Marine Growth
Once any structure is placed into the sea, planktonic marine growth will colonise it. This
build-up will have two effects:
1 The profile area of any component presented to the water flow will be increased. This
will increase the force on the structure overall.
2 Marine growth will change the texture of the surface from a smooth, round steel or
painted surface, to a surface made much rougher by the presence of the marine growth
on it. This roughness will increase with time as the surface becomes more irregular due
to parts of the dead marine growth sloughing off. The effect of this is to increase the
Drag Coefficient.
Both these effects increase the force on the structure. Information on the types and
amounts of marine growth build-up is required to confirm or modify the design-
predicted loads on the structure (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1

These two effects of marine growth will have a knock-on effect on the structure that will
manifest itself by:
 Producing an increase in mass without any significant change in stiffness.
This causes a reduction in the structure’s natural frequency.
 Increasing the mass, there will be added slam effect and drag forces on the
structure. Marine growth, being most abundant (adj) ‫ غزيرة‬- ‫ وفيرة‬at and just below the
water level, coincides (v) ‫ يتطابق‬- ‫يتزامن – يتوافق‬with the zone of maximum wave and water
force. Therefore, the effects on the structure are increased in the region of maximum
water force.
 Affecting the corrosion rate, either by accelerating or retarding it.
 Reducing the effective area of the service inlets and outlets, hence reducing system
efficiency.
 Obscuring the important features on the structure, such as diver orientation marks,
valve handles, anodes and similar objects.
 Making inspection impossible before cleaning.
73

6.1 Types of marine growth

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Two main categories of fouling; soft and hard.

 Soft organisms fouling have a density approximately the same as seawater. They are
bulk but easy to remove
Hard organisms fouling are 1.4 greater denser than seawater. They are more firmly
attached to the structure and, more difficult to remove.
Both categories of marine growth have the potential to damage coatings.
These organisms will colonise the structure at different rates and at different depths,
dependent on the natural propensity of the particular species.
Using this and other data, designers can predict the most suitable time of the year to
launch and install a structure.
Table 6.1 Typical distribution of marine growth in the North Sea,(extract from
Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design, Construction and Certification,
Fourth Edition.
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 6.1.1 Soft fouling
Organisms in this group include:

Soft MG Fouling Depth

Algae 0-20m Large plants family from microscopic to giant Kelp species.
1st organism to inhabit an offshore structure.
Seaweeds 0-20m There are many. kelp produces the longest fronds, grow up to 6m in length in
North sea.
Anemones 0-120m (called anthozoans) means flowering animals
The colours and shapes are extremely variable even within the same species.
Dead Man’s 0-120m Colonies have been observed on pier piles, rocks on the foreshore and
offshore structures.
Fingers Grow to 150mm (6 inches) in length.
(Alcyonium It is white to yellow or pink to orange in colour, but when out of the water it is
digitatum) flesh coloured and the similarity to the human hand gives it its common
name.
Bacteria >1000m These are microscopic organisms which are also amongst the first inhabitants
of an offshore structure
Sponges > 1000m Are colonial animals found as a fouling species on offshore platforms
Sea squirts 0-1000m These are soft-bodied animals and sometimes grow in large.
Hydroids 0-1000m These grow in colonies and from their appearance can be mistaken for
seaweed, but they are in fact animals related to sea anemones.
Bryozoa Moss-like ‫ يشبه الطحلب‬appearance and is really an animal with tentacles.
‫مخالب‬
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 6.1.2 Hard fouling
Composed of calcareous or shelled organisms, the common types in this group
include:

Hard MG Fouling Depth

Mussels 0-50m The main species is Mytilus edulis. The hard-shelled mollusc attaches itself
Main to to the structure by byssus threads at the hinge of the shell. These threads
20m are very strong and mussels generally form dense colonies.
Tubeworms 0-100m White colours Calcareous - forms on flat surfaces. Grows in colonies, very
Main to firmly attached to the metal surface.
50m Power cleaning is required to remove this growth.
Barnacles 0-120m The common species is Balanus balanoides.
Bryozoans 0-1000m

6.2 Factors affecting the rate of marine growth

If no steps are taken to prevent growth, such as application of an anti-fouling solution or
paint, the formation of bacterial slime occurs in two to three weeks.
Marine Growth can mature very rapidly with barnacles and soft fouling
MG reach maturity in three to six months.
It generally takes two seasons for mussel colonies to develop, often on top of the dead
earlier fouling.

Development and growth rate factors affect on MG as the following:

6.2.1 Depth
The diagram shows clearly that
Most weight is added in the vicinity of the surface, which is the region of highest
water-induced loading.
Note: The long lengths of seaweed have not been included.
Increase in depth reduces light intensity, which therefore reduces the ability of
organisms such as algae to photosynthesise.
Algae therefore, gradually disappear with depth and there is also a change in species to
red algae at the greater depths.

Plants such as seaweed also photosynthesise (convert light) to enable growth.

The area between the surface and approximately 20m is known as the Photic Zone.
Below the Photic zone plants will not flourish.

Figure 6.14 gives a generally accepted representation of the combined effects of weight
and volume on the various types of marine fouling in British waters. This should be read
in conjunction with Table 6.1
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 6.2.2 Temperature
A rise in water temperature will increase the growth rate of a colony; the growth rate
approximately doubles with a 10°C rise in temperature. There will of course be a limit
and most organisms cease growth at 30-35°C. As the temperature variation is greatest
near the surface, there is seasonal growth in the marine colonies near the surface and
continuous, slower growth as the depth increases.
6.2.3 Water current
The speed at which the water flows over the surface plays an important part in the type
of fouling colony that develops. There are two aspects to consider, the first being that of
the larvae attaching themselves to the structure.
1st aspect: Many larvae are unable to attach themselves at speeds greater than 1
knot. However, once attached, most fouling can withstand water currents of more than
6 knots.
The larvae can attach themselves to structures during slack flow periods, or in localised
spots of slower flow or dead water, such as crevices and locations between hard fouling.
2nd aspect: a strong current brings more food and growth is accelerated.
6.2.4 Salinity
In nearly fresh water, fouling is usually confined to algal slime. As the salinity
increases, so the amount and type of fouling increases. First hydroids and barnacles and
finally mussels occur. The normal salinity of seawater is about 3-3.5% and the size of
mussels, for example, increases five-fold from a salinity of 0.6-3.5%.
6.2.5 Food supply
Growth of the fouling is obviously dependent on the quantity of nutriment available.
Growth rates seem to be faster in coastal waters than those a few miles offshore
where the water is deeper. Investigations suggest that the slow currents that circulate
around platforms become enriched with nutriments from sewage and other waste that
will increase the growth rate.
6.2.6 Cathodic protection
In impressed current, on a limited amount of evidence, the marine growth rate is
increased.
77

Currently the mechanism that encourages an increased growth rate is not understood.
More data is required.
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 Section 7
Corrosion
78
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 7 Corrosion
7.1 Energy considerations in corrosion
Most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion,
Reaction of Polymers (plastics) degradation
In concrete is named weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction between
a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three consequences:
1 The removal of the metal.
2 The formation of an oxide.
3 The formation of another chemical compound.
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state) of the
system is considered.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states:
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
As a direct consequence of this law, when spontaneous changes occur they must follow a
rule, which is:
 Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy from the system
to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

 When corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous process.
Take the case of a metal, such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are found in
nature as ores and when analysed, are found to be chemical compounds including
oxygen and carbon amongst other elements.
This necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it can
be used in fabrication.
The process whereby the metal is extracted requires either the smelting of the ore (iron)
or an electrolysis process (aluminium). The final metal produced is, therefore, at a higher
thermal energy level than the ore from which it was extracted ie energy is added to the
system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill, reducing its potential energy
level as it flows. In similar fashion, metals tend to reduce their energy and, therefore,
obey the rule imposed by the second law. So free energy is released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is chemical
energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like metal oxide,
which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of various types) is such an
important material in building and industry the corrosion of iron has a special term, rust.
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7.2 The corrosion process

Knowing the basic structure of the atom will assist in the understanding of the topic.
 An atom is a positive nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 7.2

The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom, so composed, has a negative
charge of electrons equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds each
atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer zero. This
condition of the atom is called ionic.
If the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, and the atom now has a
positive charge.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a negative
charge.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state from being
metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having a charge on the
atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell. The process of corrosion then
goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing one or more (usually no more than three)
electrons to become an ion.
7.3 The anodic reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state to its ionic state is
known as the anodic reaction. It is part of an overall reaction involving the metal and
other species present in the environment. This process is also called oxidation.

The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons, as shown in figure 7.3 which
represents a freely rusting iron surface immersed in seawater (the electrolyte).
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 This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in the
presence of an electrolyte; that is often water or a water-based solution of ionic
compounds, such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into solution and the
electron passes through the metal, that is not actually being corroded, that is; an electric
current flows as indicated in Figure 7.4.
The cathodic reaction
These free electrons, formed in the anode reaction, must be used up if the reaction is to
proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion process, therefore
takes place at the site where the free electrons are neutralised and is known as the
cathodic reaction. Alternatively, reactions such as this that consume electrons are also
known as reduction reactions.

Typically, a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by positive ions and
atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative charge. Oxygen,
however, readily accepts the free electrons because its electron stability needs eight
electrons in its outer valence shell, yet occurs naturally with only six.
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 Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where negative ions form
and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte where they combine with
elements creating different compounds. The site of this reaction is known as the
cathode.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the composition of the
electrolyte. Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic.
Oxygen reduction is also very common, since any aqueous solution in contact with air is
capable of producing this reaction.
It is, of course, the reaction encountered in seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common
and is normally found in chemical process streams. The common denominator with all
these reactions is that they consume electrons and this is the most important point to
note.
7.4 Electrochemical aspects of corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion is:
Corrosion is the degradation of a metal by an electrochemical reaction with its
environment.
For corrosion to take place four criteria must apply:
1 There must be an anode: This normally corrodes by loss of electrons.
2 There must be a cathode: This does not normally corrode.
3 There must be an electrolyte: This is the name given to a solution that conducts
electricity.
4 Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while seawater is.
5 There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the cathode for the free
electrons to travel along.
These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.7 and all electrochemical
corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this.
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 As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on already a
few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
7.5 Electric theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally occurs
through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions but the electrical charge is
then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given electron flow is
passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and is given the symbol I.

In the MKS (metre, kilogram, second) system, one ampere is defined as that constant
current which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel wires of
negligible cross-section; placed one metre apart, in a vacuum, will produce between the
wires a force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per metre length.
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference between two
points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.

 In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical potential between two
points of a wire carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when the power dissipation
between those points is 1 watt.
The flow of an electric charge is impeded by a quantity called resistance and between
any two points there is always some resistance to the passage of the current. The unit of
resistance is the ohm which has the symbol Ω.
 The MKS system defines the unit of electrical resistance as being the resistance
between two points of a conductor when a constant potential difference of 1V, applied
between these points, produces in the conductor a current of 1A.
During the majority of this section all discussion and illustrations will be in terms of
electron or ion flow and as far as possible, positive and negative notations will be
avoided so as to avoid confusion, which often occurs when corrosion is studied.
This confusion arises because of an historical accident that resulted in producing what is
now called conventional current. Electron flow is exactly opposite to conventional
current, this is what causes the confusion as studies in corrosion so often involve
discussion on electron or ion flow.
To avoid such problems on corrosion only electron flow will be considered.
Figure 7.8 illustrates the two types of flow.
83
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Page 84
 Section 8
Types of Corrosion
85
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 8 Types of Corrosion
8.1 Corrosion cells
There is some dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
 Dissimilar metals. (Galvanic Corrosion)
 Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal.
 Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the metal.
 Dissimilar ion concentrations.
 Dissimilar oxygen concentrations.

8.2 Dissimilar metal corrosion cell (galvanic corrosion)

It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte) a
potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
When insert two rods of different metals in water and connecting a voltmeter between
them. The voltmeter measures a voltage and current flows from the anode (negative)
to the cathode (positive) via the outside connection.
The cell acts as a low powered battery and in battery terms the anode is the negative
and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.8 Section 7 refers.
Galvanic Series will tell which metal is cathode and which one is anode. The rule is that
metals found lower in the series are anodic to any metal above them.
For example, zinc is lower in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc is connected to
mild steel and immersed in seawater, zinc will be the anode and corrode and mild steel
will be the cathode and not corrode.
If, on the other hand, mild steel, in the form of a ship’s hull is connected to manganese
bronze, the ship’s propeller, the mild steel now becomes the anode and corrodes and the
propeller is the cathode, which does not corrode.

Table 8.1 Galvanic Series in seawater.

Graphite – Gold – Platinum – Silver - Stainless steel –

Monel – Copper – Niobium – Tungsten -
Lead - Cast iron - Mild steel – Aluminium – Zinc -
Magnesium

8.3 Concentration cell corrosion

Corrosion of this type is associated with crevices in the order of 20-100μm wide
(1 micrometre, μm = 1000 nanometres, nm) and commonly involves chloride ions in
the electrolyte.
The stages in the process are:
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 Corrosion will at first occur over the
entire surface of the exposed metal at a slow rate, both inside and outside the crevice.
During this period of time the electrolyte may be assumed to have a uniform composition
and normal anodic and cathodic processes take place.
Under these conditions positive metal ions and negative hydroxyl ions are
produced, so as to maintain equilibrium within the electrolyte.
This process consumes the dissolved oxygen, which results in the diffusion of more
oxygen from the atmosphere at any surface where the electrolyte is in contact with air.
In turn, the oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte is replaced more easily at metal surfaces
rather than in any small crevices. This creates a low oxygen situation within the
crevice, that in turn impedes the cathodic process and the production of hydroxyl
ions is therefore reduced.
This results in excess positive ions accumulating in the crevice, which causes negative
ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte outside in order to maintain
minimum potential energy overall.
The metal ions, water molecules and chloride all react in complicated chemical reactions
forming complex ions, which it is thought, react with water in an hydrolysis reaction,
resulting in corrosion products.
The increase of hydrogen ion concentration accelerates the metal dissolution process,
which in turn, makes the problem worse, as does the accompanying increase of chloride
concentration within the crevice.
An important feature of active crevice corrosion cells is that they are autocatalytic,
that is once started they are self-sustaining. It is worth underlining the fact that the
electrolyte in an active crevice can become very acidic. This is the situation shown in
Figure 8.1. The metal inside the crevice is corroding rapidly while that outside is
cathodically protected.
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8.4 Pitting
 Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface. Once
formed, corrosion pits propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion.

1- Consider the case of a water drop lying on the surface of a sheet of clean mild
steel.
2- The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the steel under the
water. This consumes oxygen (oxygen depletion layer ‫ (طبقة استنزاف االكسجين‬by
the normal cathode reaction in what is a neutral solution at this stage.
3- This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is obvious that
the wetted area around the water/air interface has more oxygen diffusion
from the air than the centre of the drop.
4- This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region, which
dissolves.
5- The hydroxyl ions generated in the
centre of the drop at the cathode
diffuse inwards and react with iron
ions diffusing outwards, causing the
deposition ‫ ترسيب‬of insoluble ‫غير قابل‬
‫ للذوبان‬corrosion product around the
depression, or pit.
‫مما يؤدى الى ترسب منتجات التاكل غير القابلة‬
‫للذوبان حول ال‬pit .
6- This further retards ‫ تاخر‬the diffusion
of oxygen, accelerates the anodic
process in the centre of the drop and
causes the reaction to be
autocatalytic. ‫ذاتى التحفيز‬

As the process continues, the corrosion

products accumulate over the pit and its immediate surroundings, forming a scab and
isolating the environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte.
It is thought that the autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration
of chloride ions within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash
zone of a structure, if it were not protected with a coating such as paint or Monel
sheathing.

8.5 Intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion ‫ تاكل بين الحبيبات‬occurs between the grain boundaries in a
material because of intrusions ‫ اختراق‬- ‫ تطفل‬in these regions. This is, primarily, because
grain boundaries are the preferred sites for the precipitation ‫ ترسيب‬and segregation
‫ عزل – تميز عنصرى‬processes, which occur in many alloys. ‫السبائك‬
These intrusions are of two types:
Intermetallics (intermediate constituents)
‫مكونات الوسيطة‬
 Compounds that are formed from metal atoms and
having identifiable chemical formulae can be either
anodic or cathodic to the parent metal.
Compounds
 These are formed between metals and non-
metallic elements, such as; hydrogen, carbon,
silicon, nitrogen and oxygen.
 Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are
both important constituents of steel, are both
88

cathodic to ferrite (iron).

In principle, any metal that has intermetallics or
Page

compounds at grain boundaries will be susceptible to

‫ عرضه ل‬intergranular corrosion. Plain carbon steel is a two phase metal and some grains
 are cathodic, while others are anodic and intergranular corrosion initiates, as indicated
in Figure 8.3
8.6 Grain boundary corrosion
The area of higher energy found at the
grain boundary itself. These higher
energy regions become the anodic
sites, while the bulk of the grain itself
becomes the cathode. This situation
results in the loss of material in the
anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves, in the form of a
line.

Weld decay ‫ انحالل‬-‫تدهور‬, or

preferential ‫نفضيلى‬corrosion.
In this case the fusion boundary is that forms
along the toe of the weld and is a region of
higher energy.
This region becomes the anode and corrosion
sets in, often giving quite significant visual
indications of its presence.

8.7 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

SCC is the combined action of stress and a
corrosive environment, which leads to the
formation of a crack, which would not have developed by the action of the stress or
environment alone.
The conditions necessary for SCC to occur are:
 Tensile stress.
 Suitable environment.
 Sensitive metal.
 Appropriate temperature and pH range.

Depending on the alloy system and corroding combination, the cracking can be
intergranular or trans granular. SCC cracks have the appearance of a brittle
mechanical fracture, which is readily observed in a scanning electron microscope, Figure
Material /Environment
Brass /Ammonia
Austenitic stainless steels /Chloride-containing solutions
High strength steels /Hydrogen

A common feature of SCC that repeatedly occurs is the

unexpectedness of its manifestation. Often, a material that
has been chosen for its corrosion resistance is found to fail at
a stress level well below its normal fracture stress.

Problems with pipes and tubes are common because of the

hoop residual stresses that are the result of the fabrication
process. Stress-relieving heat treatments are a vital part of
the quality control for these components because of this.
8.8 Corrosion fatigue
89

There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking, but
the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is under dynamic stress,
whereas SCC is under static stress.
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 Fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels well below the UTS. (ultimate
stress)
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metal’s fatigue resistance is
reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack yields:
 Firstly the formation of slip bands.
 Next very small cracks form in the order of 10nm long.
 Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths.
 Finally, macroscopic, 0.1 to 1mm crack propagation; in a direction at right angles to the
maximum principal stress that leads to failure.
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three states indicated by the Pourbaix
Diagram. It can also occur at stress levels much lower than those for stress corrosion
cracking (SCC). It is also true that, while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress
intensity factor during much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always effected
by it.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in the
immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form, tend to inhibit ‫تمنع‬
crack growth, ensuring that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
8.9 Erosion corrosion
A metal is being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface, which accelerates the rate of corrosion.
Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable ‫المنسوبة‬to mechanical effects, such
as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals, such as copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly vulnerable.
‫عرضة لهذا التاكل‬
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
1 Corrosion associated with laminar ‫(رقائق‬fluid) flow.
2 Damage caused by impingement ‫أصطدام‬in turbulent conditions.
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
Where the increased flow replenishes ‫ يجدد‬aggressive ‫ عنيف‬ions, such as chloride and
sulphide, this has a detrimental ‫ ضار‬effect and corrosion rates increase.
If the flow contains any solid particles, protective layers may be scoured away causing
excessive corrosion.
The alternative to this is that it is sometimes possible in pipes for the deposit of silt to
be prevented, thus preventing the formation of any differential-aeration cells in the
crevices beneath.
 A possible beneficial effect is that more oxygen is carried to the area, which minimises
the formation of differential-aeration cells that are normally a common cause of attack.
Another possible beneficial effect is where a steady supply of inhibitor is concentrated
within the flow, as in a pipeline for example.
These combined circumstances make the effects of laminar flow unpredictable.

Taking the case of turbulent flow, however, the situation is much more straightforward.
The fluid molecules now impinge directly on the metal causing wear. This obviously
increases the corrosion rate.
This effect can easily occur inside a pipe
because turbulence can be caused by sudden
changes in bore diameter, or direction:
(ie pipe bends), a badly fitted joint or gasket,
90

circumferential welds or silt deposits.

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 8.10 Fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials
under load; subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance, it shows pits and grooves
in the metal surrounded by corrosion products.
It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in bolted
parts. In essence ‫ جوهر‬this is a form of erosion corrosion.
Fretting corrosion is very detrimental ‫ضار‬due to the destruction ‫دمار‬of metallic
components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance and
may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the extra movement
and the pits acting as stress raisers such as bolted tie plates on railway tracks.
The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are:
 The interface must be under load.
 Vibration or repeated relative motion between
the interfaces must be sufficient to produce slip
or deformation on the surfaces.
The load and relative motion of the interface
must be sufficient to produce slip or
deformation on the surfaces.
This type of corrosion could occur in the metal
adjacent to clamps and collars of risers,
conductors and caissons if there is the slightest
movement underneath them.

8.11 Biological corrosion

Biological corrosion is also referred to as microbiologically-induced corrosion (MIC),
emphasising the effect of living organisms (referred to as bacteria).
Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) is one of many types of bacteria, which can be
found in drilling and pumping machinery, storage tanks, pipelines for water injection, oil
recovery and multiple production. SRB metabolise sulphates and produce sulphuric
acids or H2S, thus introducing hydrogen sulphide into the system, resulting in pitting or
sulphite stress corrosion cracking (SSCC).
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways, by:
 The production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or ammonia, which
result in direct chemical attack on the metal.
 Producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action.

 The reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) under anaerobic (no oxygen present)
conditions.
- The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio desulphuricans. These
thrive ‫ نما‬-‫تزدهر‬in the reduced oxygen conditions created under heavy accumulations of
marine growth, under thick deposits of corrosion products, or under mud.
- There are indications that, because oxygen is unable to diffuse through the heavy
marine growth, the effect of this organism is to take the place of oxygen in the usual
cathodic reaction.
 By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms.
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Fretting corrosion may also occur due to the continued movement of hard shelled
(mussels) creatures on the structure’s surface.
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Other factors affecting corrosion rates

 There are environmental factors that affect the overall corrosion reaction.
 Temperature.
 Water flow rate.
 The pH of the water.

8.12 Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. Hot risers,
exhaust and cooling-water dumps are all sites that can and do corrode more quickly than
other sections of offshore structures. Therefore, these components being more
susceptible must be inspected more regularly.
8.13 Water flow rate
In general, if the water flow is increased then the rate at which the metal is removed is
also increased. If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place
near the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is experienced locally.
The pitting of ship’s propellers and pump and dredger impellers are general
examples of this.
8.14 The pH value of the water
The corrosion rate of metals is directly affected by the pH value of the electrolyte. Steel,
for example, corrodes least when in a solution that has a pH of between 11 and 12.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with one atom of
oxygen (H2O). There is a limited amount of dissociation ‫( انفصال‬separation of positive
and negative charged ions in solution) into Hydrogen ions H+ and Hydroxyl ions OH.
Water represents a neutral substance as it contains both acid H + and alkali OH in equal
amounts.
This can be noted in the form of an equilibrium:
H2O is H+ + OH relationship between these elements forms the basis of a scale of
acidity.
All acids have one common property: that is the presence in aqueous ‫ مائى‬solution of the
Hydrogen ion, whereas, alkali has Hydroxyl ions.
The opposite of acid is alkali (basic), which means that acids are neutralised by alkalis
The method of defining acidity is by means of a term called pH, which indicates the
amount of hydrogen activity. It is measured on a scale of 0-14.
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 Section 9
Corrosion Protection
93
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 9 Corrosion Protection
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings, inhibitors
(controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and cathodic protection.
Before considering these methods a brief examination of the way in which the corrosion
process is influenced by the two main variables;
The electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various
protection methods.
These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix Diagrams.
These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under controlled
conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
There are three distinct possible states of corrosion depending on electrode potentials
and pH values:
Corrosion
At intermediate electrode potentials and over a very wide range of pH values corrosion
takes place and metal is removed.
Passivity
At higher electrode potentials and over a wide range of pH values, there is a passivity
region. This is the region in which a corrosion product film is formed, that in most cases
is an oxide film. It is worth noting that the diagram only indicates that an oxide film is
formed; it does not mean that the oxide film gives protection. The properties of the
film must be known in order to determine this.
Immunity
At low electrode potentials and over almost the whole of the pH range, the rate of
corrosion is so low that the metal is said to be immune.
9.1 Cathodic protection
Apart from the three stages indicated by Figure 9.0 it is also possible to determine basic
strategies for preventing corrosion.
Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at point B.
Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at point C.
Making the electrolyte more basic (Alkali) will produce passivation at point D.

Altering the electrical potential to produce passivation or immunity by the methods of

cathodic or anodic protection is the most useful technique for offshore structures.
In designing a Cathodic Protection system the system designer starts by determining an
94

acceptable corrosion rate. This level of current density will ensure the required
corrosion rate is achieved. All that remains is to read off from the graph the value of the
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necessary potential to match this current.

 In this example the value is –800mV compared to (Ag/AgCl) and referring back to
Figure 9.0 shows this to be in the immunity region of the Pourbaix diagram.
From this example and the diagrams it would seem that potentials more negative than -
850mV compared to (Ag/AgCl) would produce even less metal loss. There are two
reasons why it is not prudent to use very much more negative potentials.
At potentials much more negative than –1100mV compared to (Ag/AgCl) the possibility
of hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen embrittlement.
Secondly large currents are associated with more negative potentials that produce
high local concentrations of (OH) hydroxyl ions that often damage barrier coating such
as paint if it is present.
These last two points are more likely to occur with an electrical impressed current
protection system but none the less are quite valid which makes the choice of -800 to -
1100mV compared to (Ag/AgCl) a valid design parameter in all cases for offshore
platforms.
9.1.1 Cathodic protection: the sacrificial anode method
With this method of corrosion prevention the entire structure is made into the cathode in
a massive corrosion cell. The structure will therefore not corrode but at the expense of
the anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and gives the process its name.
The anode must be picked from the appropriate Galvanic Series. The most appropriate
metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium.
A natural phenomenon ‫ ظاهرة‬does occur which assists in the protection of structures.
Calcium, magnesium and other metal ions are present in sufficient quantities in
seawater to react with the Hydroxyl ions produced by the negative potential of the
cathodic steel surface. The reaction precipitates ‫رواسب‬insoluble calcium and
magnesium salts, known as calcareous deposits. ‫رواسب كلسية‬
These form a strongly adherent film that reduces the current requirement and may
reduce environment-sensitive cracking.
9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems
Table 9.0 Advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anodes.
95

9.3 Cathodic protection: impressed current method

An impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) system works on the same principle as
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the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the cathode. However in the
 case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and current flow is provided by a DC
generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference electrodes
into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary depending on the
circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in subsequent service becomes
damaged this will increase the exposed surface area needing to be protected. The
control unit can deal with this by increasing the current density. If on the other hand
there were a reduction in the surface area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building
up, there would be less surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the potential,
which varies proportionally according to the current.
Table 9.1 Advantages and disadvantages of ICCP.

The anode material is selected from the top of the Galvanic Series not the bottom.
Materials such as titanium, platinised niobium and lead/silver alloys are used.
The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to prevent any of the
problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system because
in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of water, rather than
metal dissolution:
2H2O = O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the
oxidation of Hydroxyl ions:
4OH- O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
In seawater the reaction is usually oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas:
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e

9.3.1 Practical considerations for installing ICCP systems

It would be possible to protect a structure with a few large anodes supplied with a high
current. However, in practice anodes are usually distributed at regular intervals over the
whole structure. This is because:
 The high current density that would be present in the immediate vicinity of a single
anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly cause embrittlement as previously
discussed.
 The use of more anodes reduces the current density for each one and reduces the
96

probability of this type of damage.

 Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that makes it difficult for
corrosion engineers to predict the total distribution potentials.
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 Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes, each one protecting a smaller area thus
minimising the areas at risk of inadequate protection.
When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have any doubts about
protecting any particular area of the structure sacrificial anodes may be installed to
work in conjunction with the ICCP system.
 The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to provide 160mAm-
2 utilising 55 platinum-iridium anodes and 12 reference electrodes. In general in the
North Sea the most common anode materials are platinum sheathed titanium and
lead/silver alloys.
It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity. The
negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the positive terminal
must be connected to the anode. Should these connections be reversed the structure
would corrode catastrophically. Figures 9.2 and 9.3 refer.
Figure

Figure 9.2 Layout of an impressed current cathodic protection system.

As indicated above the actual distribution of the anodes on any structure may be either:
Platform based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around it in similar
fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are insulated from the structure.
Figure 9.2 refers.
Two problems are associated with this method. One is the possibility of shadow areas
where inadequate protection is provided. This problem can be solved by the use of
sacrificial anodes complementing the ICCP system as indicated earlier.
The second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from the anode to the
adjacent structure. This could cause embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid
this dielectric shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also the
current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to provide adequate
protection for the local area only. This limits as well the possibility of embrittlement and
coating damage. See Figure 9.3
There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are at about 80V potential
with some 1000A current. If divers are employed adjacent to any of the anodes they
should be isolated from the system.
Remote from the structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated distance from the
structure.
97

This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly from the anode to the
adjacent structure but there being fewer anodes the current density is higher and
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therefore there is still a possibility of coating damage and embrittlement. As

 discussed earlier design considerations generally favour more anodes distributed around
the structure.
There is a safety issue with divers but as the anodes are some distance away from the
structure it may be possible to ensure safety by imposing a 12m (40ft) exclusion zone
around the anode. See Figure 9.4.

9.3.2 Reference or control electrodes

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These electrodes are commonly:

zinc,
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silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC) or

 copper/copper-sulphate (CSE).

CSE is favoured in applications with reinforced concrete.

Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They
determine the current required from the power source, without these items the system
cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure 9.5 refers.

9.4 Using coatings to protect the structure

Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or enamels and
even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be when consideration is given
to the thickness of a typical paint coat. It is between 25-100 microns thick for some
applications.
9.4.1 Paints
When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture and ions
aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete barrier to oxygen or
water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface of the metal. Any paint system
used underwater must have a strong bond onto the metal surface and therefore high
quality metal surface preparation is required such as SA3. The bonding between
successive coats must also be strong and the topcoats must provide as impervious a
barrier to the electrolyte as is possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents
making up the topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission coefficients.
Coal tar epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They consist of coal tar
and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings are highly impermeable to water and
resistant to attack by most chemicals and hydroxyl ions (that are be produced by the
cathodic reaction).
Zinc coatings utilising a combination of zinc dust and complex silicates with a
solvent-based self-curing binder give good protection to steel surfaces. These
coatings are frequently over-painted by another system and are used on components
such as ladders in a marine environment.
Concrete is used to provide a protective coating to pipelines where it provides a
passive environment for the steel pipe as well as adding weight.
Metallic coatings such as galvanising, using zinc impose a continuous barrier
between the metal surface being protected and the surrounding environment. These
coatings may be applied in a number of ways.
Electroplating utilises a bath of salts as an electrolyte. The component and rods of the
plating metal are immersed in the electrolyte and a potential is applied between the
component and the rods. The component becomes the cathode and the rods the anode
so metal ions of the plating material deposit from the solution onto the component.
Hot dipping involves the component being immersed in a bath of molten coating
metal. Galvanising is accomplished by this method. See Figure 9.6.
99

Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating metal that
are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed in the form of
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droplets travelling at 100-150m s-1 that flatten and adhere on impact with the
 component Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can be
applied by.
 Rolling.
 Explosive welding.
 Buttering (building up a welded coat on the
surface to be protected).
 Sheathing.
 Aluminium roll-bonded to duralumin is marketed
as Alcad. Some offshore risers are sheathed with
monel (cupronickel) See Figure 9.7.
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to
just below the melting point of the coating metal
in the presence of the coating in powder form and in
an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed to
baste for several hours and the coating diffuses
into the surface of the component.
9.5 Inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte)
Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three
methods for preventing corrosion:
 Making the electrode more positive.
 Making the electrode more negative.
 Changing the electrolyte pH.
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte.
Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion:
 The anodic reaction.
 The cathodic reaction.
 Ionic conduction through the electrolyte.
 Electron conduction through the metal.
Only the first three are affected by the electrolyte, electron conduction through the
metal is not considered here. The properties of the electrolyte that can be affected by
using inhibitors are:
 Conductivity of the electrolyte.
 pH of the electrolyte.
 Interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, attacking or strengthening
passive films.
As an example of how this can be achieved consider steel in seawater. If distilled water is
substituted for the seawater the conductivity and pH of the electrolyte is reduced and a
passive film will form on the surface of the steel.
9.6 Corrosion protection by design
The methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarized thus:
 Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells.
 Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, poor drainage, etc.).
 Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors.
 Choose the material with the best properties for the environment.
9.7 Anodic protection
In this method of corrosion protection a potential is applied to the anode that
maintains it in the passive range of the Pourbaix Diagram. This allows the formation of
a passive film that is robust enough to provide a barrier to the normal corrosion process.
However, this film is unreliable for steel in aqueous solutions and therefore is not used
on offshore structures.
100

Aluminium does form such a film naturally and some types of Aluminium can benefit
from this because the passive layer is sufficiently robust to be relied upon.
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 Section 10
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
101
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 10 Corrosion Protection Monitoring
Visual inspection and CP survey, ultrasonic thickness surveys, ROV inspection and
intelligence pigging are widely used subsea.
Chemical analyses and solid particle detection of samples collected from the pipeline at
the topsides will provide corrosion information to assess both topsides and subsea
pipelines.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current system
required for protection varies:
 From metal to metal.
 With the geometry of the structure.
 With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value, etc).
 With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit.
Since the amount of current required for the protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of checking
for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density around the
structure at various places.
10.1 Inspection requirements
Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are therefore as
follows:
 Visual inspections of both sacrificial and impressed current anodes for depletion.
 Visual inspection of the electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see that it is
intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there are no breaks in the
insulation of the supply cables or anode connections.
Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the cathode by
confirming the readings obtained are within protection parameters. (-800mV to -1100mV
generally).
Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current system is
providing adequate protection.
 Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting and loss of wall
thickness.
The potential measurements usually referred to as cathode potential (CP) readings
are obtained by:
 Taking contact readings with a CP meter:

- By hand employing a diver with a hand-held instrument.

- By mounting a contact probe on an ROV.
Taking proximity readings with a proximity probe mounted on an ROV.
Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted permanent sensors with readout in
a surface control room.
Current density measurements and monitoring are obtained by:
 Taking current density readings normally with an ROV mounted sensor and usually for
a specific requirement. This method is not used for regular inspections.
 Monitoring potential and current through remotely mounted electrodes incorporated
into the impressed current system.
10.2 Cathode potential measurement
The cathode potential is measured by using a reference electrode incorporated into an
instrument that has a readout calibrated in mV. As stated in the previous chapters these
102

electrodes are commonly:

 High purity zinc.
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 Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl).
  Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE) (this is more favoured for concrete structures).
10.3 High purity zinc electrodes (ZRE)
High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remotely mounted monitoring
systems as shown in section 9, figure 9.6. The site for mounting the electrode is selected
because it is either a representative site, it is an area of marginal protection or it is an
area of high stress and it is installed as part of the impressed current system. The
electrode is connected to a meter in the surface control room.

10.4 CP readings utilising silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes

The most common reference electrode used in offshore corrosion monitoring is
silver/silver chloride. This electrode is used extensively for both contact and proximity
applications, whether diver or ROV deployed.
Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as half-cells (because they form a
complete cell when the meter is connected to the cathode) are utilised in several contact
CP probes, including the Bathy corrometer and the Morgan Berkeley Rustreader, the
former being by far the most common world-wide.
They are deployed as either hand held or ROV probes. ROVs are more commonly used for
proximity measurements. The probe contact tip is placed on the cathode and the meter
gives the readout in mV of the electrical potential between it and the half-cell. Figure
10.2 refers to a hand-held meter. Figure 10.3 illustrates an ROV contact probe and figure
10.4 shows the proximity method.
When taking proximity CP readings it is vital that a good electrical connection is made
between the structure and the positive terminal of the surface control room installed
meter, a maximum of 100mm is maintained between the probe and the structure, as
indicated in Figure 10.4.

10.5

Current density measurements

Current density may be measured using a specialised probe mounted on an ROV. This
type of inspection would be undertaken for a specific purpose such as investigating a
particular area of the structure that was suspected of being under-protected or following
103

up a visual inspection that had identified more corrosion than was anticipated. Specific
procedures will be provided for this type of survey.
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 A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is
isolated electrically from the structure and is
connected via an insulated cable to the
surface control room. Thus the current can be
constantly monitored.

10.6 Calibration procedures for hand-

held CP meters
It is necessary to check the calibration of CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained
are accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method of
checking calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose. This
procedure is detailed here.
10.7 Necessary equipment
Three K-series electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screw-on K-series
cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the Bathycorrometer and can be
provided with screw in electrical connectors, which should be specified). The electric
connector is provided so that the cells can be proven as described below.
 High impedance (10 Ω voltmeter.
 Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector.
 Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which could contain
inhibitors).
 Log sheets.

10.8 Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the K-series cells are chemically saturated and
sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells.
10.8.1 Proving the K-series cells
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for use with
a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the K-series cell.
The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell; however, it is not
possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with solution. They are sealed and
to confirm they are saturated, it is necessary to unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to
the solution reservoir.
Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of solution. The
solution is potassium chloride (KCl) and if the solution is saturated or supersaturated
solid crystals may be seen in the phial.
(Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic).
 Label the electrodes and their wires 1, 2 and 3.
 Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse each one only
as far as the filling hole in the phial.
 While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the negative terminal of
the voltmeter and electrode, 2 to the positive terminal and record the reading.
 Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes.
1 and 3 & 2 and 3
Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 ± 2MV.
104
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  If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used.
 If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one to use.
 If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used.
 If all of the readings are out of range either replace all the K-series cells or flush out
the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a new saturated solution of potassium
chloride, refill the phials and re-test.
On completion of the entire procedure rinse the electrodes in fresh water.
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
10.9 Calibration of the meter
The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the same whether
it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
10.9.1 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer
The calibration checking procedure is slightly different if the meter being calibrated is a
Bathycorrometer with the specifically designed screw-on cells. In this case the following
procedure applies.
As the electronic components in the Bathycorrometer can affect calibration it is
necessary to use a BCM Checker (supplied separately by the manufacturer) to check
there are no electrical faults in the unit before continuing with this procedure.
Separate instructions are supplied with this equipment so will not be detailed here.
Once satisfied that the electrical components are functioning correctly:
 Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater (not drawn from the fire
main).
 Remove the contact probe tip and white Delrin probe cone from the meter.
 Screw the K-series reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer in place of the Delrin
probe and probe cone tip.
 Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge the semipermeable
membrane. Gently shake the unit to remove any air bubbles lodged in the holes. (The
meter display may be left out of the water to assist taking readings).
 Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes).
 The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the meter’s own Ag/AgCl
cell is read off the meter display directly.
 Record the reading on the log.
Acceptable readings are +42mV +/-5mV. It should be noted that values will vary
dependent upon salinity and temperature of the seawater, see Figure 10.7
The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is by comparison.
105
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 Note. If the reference electrodes used are Calomel cells (as opposed to Kseries) then
the expected reading will be 0 to - 10mV.
10.10 Operating procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained,
CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows.
 Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a battery charging log.
(Usual requirements for charging batteries for battery operated equipment are 15 hours
from fully discharged. This will give 60 hours of continuous use).
 Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are usually supplied
with spare tips).
 Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use. (This allows time
for ion penetration through the semi-permeable membranes.)
 Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate calibration
procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet.
 Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the appropriate log
sheet.
 Take a reference reading on zinc at the inspection site prior to starting the survey.
 For each contact readings ensure there is correct metal-to-metal contact between the
probe tip and the cathode surface.
 With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid electrical connection to the
structure connected to the positive terminal of the surface instrument.
 For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between the probe and the cathode is
correct, no more than 100mm away.
 During the course of the survey ensure that each reading is correctly recorded on the
appropriate log.
 On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc.
 Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any battery-
operated equipment as necessary and complete the battery charging log.
Notes:
106

 Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver chloride, on trickle

charge continuously if required.
 If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take check readings
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periodically during the survey.

 10.11 Normal cathode potential readings against Ag/AgCl
The following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure.
Table 10.1 Expected CP readings.
107
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 Section 11
Welding and Welding Defects
108
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 11 Welding and Welding Defects
11.1 Joining metal components
There are four ways in which they can be formed into shape: machining - when the
material is cut away; casting - where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
forging - where the material is worked into shape and fabricating - where the
component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components inspected underwater are almost all formed by fabrication.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting or
riveting ‫ مسامير برشام‬components together; by welding, where parts are joined together
by metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from the
pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a bond (a stronger
version of soldering) or by adhesive bonding, where parts are glued together. The most
important technique for consideration here is welding.
11.2 Fabricating offshore structures
it is extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all faults
and, because of this, welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not about to fail.
The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place is of great assistance
when inspecting welded joints because; all techniques have certain faults that are
common to that technique.
11.3 Welding processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in industry.
These different welding processes can be classified into seven major groups. All
processes within each group have similar characteristics and therefore, similar effects on
the parent metals.
The seven groups are:
1 Solid phase welding.
2 Thermo-chemical welding.
3 Electric-resistance welding.
4 Unshielded arc welding.
5 Radiant energy welding.
6 Flux-shielded arc welding.
7 Gas-shielded arc welding.
The following welding processes are the most widely used, either in the construction of
the structure itself or in the manufacture of the major components.
11.4 Flux-shielded arc welding (The most widely welding processes)
An arc is formed between a consumable electrode and the workpiece; the heat thus
formed melts and fuses the joint together. The
electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is
used to prevent contamination.
For example:
Manual metal arc (MMA) welding
The most widely used technique.
Heat to melt the work piece is supplied by an
electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux
and melts down forming small drops, which are
transferred to the weld pool; the flux forms molten
slag that protects the weld together with
protective gases formed at the same time.
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Gases used for MIG/MAG welding will vary,

typically they are:
  100% CO2.
 Argon/CO2 mixes.

Common faults associated with MIG/MAG are:

 Porosity - Excessive spatter - Lack of fusion.
 Incomplete penetration - Excessive penetration.
 Cracking - Arc strike - Undercut.

11.6 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding

Developed in the United States during WW2 and
using a non-consumable tungsten electrode,
mounted inside a gas shroud in a similar way to
the MIG/MAG gun, in this method the electrode
forms no part of the weld itself, but is there to
provide the arc. A filler rod of a suitable metal is
used and there are both manual and automatic
versions of this equipment.
It produces particularly high quality welds, not
only in steel, but is used for joining aluminium and
other alloys. It is a slow process and requires a
high standard of operator skill. Root welds in
high quality, high pressure pipe-work are often
carried out using this system.

Like MIG/MAG, TIG can also be used with different shielding gases:
Argon
For stainless steel, high carbon steel, aluminium and magnesium.
Helium/Argon mixes
For carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium, copper and magnesium.
Variations
Include adding nitrogen to helium/argon mixes for welding copper and adding
hydrogen to helium/argon mixes for welding austenitic stainless steels.
Common faults associated with TIG welding are:
 Excessive penetration - Arc strikes - Burn through - Incomplete penetration.
 Tungsten inclusion – Porosity – Undercut - Oxide inclusions.

11.7 Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Probably the second most common welding type seen offshore but used in the
manufacture of steel components used in the fabrication of offshore platforms rather
than the welded joints, ie nodal welds themselves.
Developed in the Soviet Union during WW2, this is a fully automatic welding system. It
110

is particularly useful for welding thick steel sections and used extensively where long
continuous weld runs are to be made. The following photographs and drawings best
illustrate the equipment and process.
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 The flux is in the form of powder or
granules continually fed over the work
area and the electric arc is formed
underneath so is totally submerged,
giving the process its name. Because of
this, personnel do not need eye protection
as the arc is not visible.
The process uses amperages in the range
of 100-2000amps, giving very high
current density to the electrode wire,
which produces the deep penetration and
weld dilution needed for thick section
steel.
11.8 Types of welded joint
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; the majority of which are
not seen in the construction of offshore structures. So it is necessary to have knowledge
of only five types of joint.
11.8.1 The butt joint - (not to be confused with a butt weld!)
The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at an angle
of between 135-180°. This joint is used to join pipe sections end to end, welding plates
together and numerous other applications (Figure 11.11).
11.8.2 T Joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5-90°. This configuration is found
on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other areas (Figure 11.12).
11.8.3 Lap joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them is 0-5°
(Figure 11.13).
11.8.4 Corner joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle between 30-
135° (Figure 11.14).
11.8.5 Cruciform joint
Joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same axis, on
opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross (Figure 11.15).

11.9 Types of weld

The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the butt
weld and the fillet weld.
A butt weld is defined as:
A tension resisting weld in which the
bulk of the weld metal is contained
within the planes or thickness of the
joined parent metals.
A fillet weld is defined as:
The bulk of a fillet weld is contained
outside the parent metal planes or
thickness.
The fillet weld has less strength than the
butt weld (Figure 11.16).
111

As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses, the
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butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All nodes,
 including any safety critical nodes on the structure, will be constructed using butt
welds.
11.10 Welding metallurgy ‫علم المعادن‬
The mechanism by which welding takes place must be understood to achieve a weld
remains for design life of the structure.
The prime factor in welding is temperature. The various welding processes, types of
weld and types of joint are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding
process can be dissipated ‫تبدد‬uniformly as the molten metal cools after the weld metal is
deposited. Figure 11.17 shows how this occurs.

At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting point
of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder determine this
temperature.
The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be along the parent plate.
Between points 1 and 2, the temperature must raise above the parent metal melting
temperature so that fusion (ie melting the parent plate and mixing with the weld pool
metal), occurs.
This region (between points 1 and 2), is known as the fusion zone and can be readily
seen if a sample of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched.
The temperature then reduces from point 2-3, which is a region of the parent metal that
has sufficient heat input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat
affected zone (HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is to heat it up
and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is copper pipes for domestic water
systems that are softened in this way in order to bend them to required shapes.
To achieve this softening effect a material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation
temperature (Trecry). Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and
grow.
In Figure 11.17 this temperature is reached at point 3, so that the material between point
2 and 3 that has been raised above the re-crystallisation temperature will be liable to a
change of properties. This region can also be seen on a polished and etched sample of
the weld.
The temperature continues to fall between points 3 and 4, which is ambient temperature.
Figure 11.17 only shows what is happening along the line AA; but this happens
throughout the section. This leads to the different regions of the weld, as shown in Figure
11.18 and is a graphic indication of the way temperature gradients have to be managed
112

in any weld.
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 This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat energy input
into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat flow during the actual
welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as quenching), make the
material harder. In steel, this comes about by the formation of a structure known as
Martensite. Martensitic steel has a grain structure arranged in a regular lattice, which
makes the steel hard and less tough (ie less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note: If the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed to quench,
it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
11.11 Further considerations for weld control
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to the
finished quality of a weld, there are several other factors that must also be considered.
Defects, such as porosity, often arise in welds due to gas penetrating the weld pool
protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the weld are hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. These are derived from the atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the
form of grease and oil) and other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a
lack of care in preparation, ‫ بسبب نقص االعداد‬not ensuring that the weld area is clean and
dry.
These products get into the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the
liquid metal of the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in metal
reduces and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal;
or sometimes, the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the HAZ
will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which may lead to cracking.
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential
expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in the HAZ,
the material is put under a permanent stress, unless a stress relieving procedure is
specified. This state of stress is referred to as residual stress.
Normal working stress is imposed on top of and in addition to this residual stress, giving
an in-service stress that is higher than the normal design working stress. The effect of
residual stresses will be, at the very least, a reduction in the fatigue life of the joint. At
the moment, there is no way that these residual stresses can be measured during the
course of a routine inspection. (Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) may be
developed for this purpose).
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11.12 Welding terms

These terms and symbols are defined in several international standards.
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  BS EN 24063: 1992, ISO 4063: 1990: Welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding
of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers for symbolic
representation on drawings.
 BS EN 22553: 1995: Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic representation on
drawings.
 BS EN ISO 5817: 2003: Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and
their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for imperfections.
 BS EN 13622: 2002: Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms used for gas
welding equipment.
 BS 499-1: 1991: Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding, brazing and
thermal cutting (This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS
EN 13622: 2002).
A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is compiled
below.
11.13 Plate preparation terms
Double V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form two opposing V’s in section, welded
from both sides.
Included angle of a butt weld
The angle between the prepared faces.
Included angle of a fillet weld
The angle between the parent plates.
Parent plate
The metals that are to be joined by the weld.
Prepared angle, weld prep
The angle of bevel between the prepared face and the perpendicular.
Prepared face
The bevelled portion of the parent plate prior to welding.
Root gap
Separation between the parent plates to be joined.
Root face
The un-bevelled portion of the parent plate adjacent to the root gap.
Single bevel butt weld
A butt weld that has only one prepared face, welded from one side only.
Single V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form a V in section, welded from one side
only (Figure 11.20).
114

11.14 Terms defining weld features

Cap, face of the weld
Visible face of the completed weld.
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Excess weld metal

 Weld metal lying outside the line joining the weld toes.
Toe of the weld
Junction between the cap and the parent plate.
Root
Point where the back of the weld intersects the back face of the parent plate.
Weld zone
Area containing the weld and both HAZs.
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
Part of the parent plate that has been affected by heat from the welding process but
which has not melted.
Throat thickness
Total thickness of the weld metal.
Effective throat thickness (design throat thickness)
Weld thickness for design purposes, usually a line between both toes and the root.
Weld width
Shortest distance between the toes of the weld.
Toe blend
Transition between the weld material and the parent plate.
Leg (of a fillet weld)
Distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld.
115

11.15 Welding process terminology

Filler rod
Filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440mm long used in MMA welding.
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Filler bead
 When the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler rod the successive
passes are called filler beads.
Run or pass
Weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod.
Weldment
An alternative term to describe the weld zone.
Fusion zone
The edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and the root face along
which the weld metal fuses with the parent plate.
Root bead
Weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back wall of the parent plate.
Run out length
The specified maximum lengths of weld run for a particular rod type.

Welded nodes and nozzles

Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost exclusively
on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will be nodes or nozzles.
Node
A ‘T’ or cruciform joint between two pipes that only has preparation on the minor
member, forming a single bevel weld. The minor tubular is called the brace and it is this
member that has the preparation. The major tubular is known as the chord. In joints
where both members are the same size the through tubular is the chord.
Nozzle
In this configuration the chord is the member that is prepared, it has a hole cut in it,
which is then bevelled and the brace fits through the hole, again forming a single bevel
weld.

11.16 Weld defect terminology

116

In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO 5817:
2007 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this standard, weld defect
terminology is also defined.
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The different types of defect are listed in six categories.

 1 Cracks.
2 Cavities.
3 Solid inclusions.
4 Lack of fusion and penetration.
5 Imperfect shape.
6 Miscellaneous.
(Mnemonic - CCSLIM).
Internal weld defects are broadly sub-divided into:
Planar defects
These have a large surface area but small volume, such as cracks and laminations and
are essentially 2-dimensional. Planar defects may be caused by in-service
deterioration.

Volumetric defects
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws, that have a large volume compared to
surface area, are in this category. They are 3-dimensional and will also include undercut
and lack of penetration. This category of defect is caused during fabrication, not in-
service.
Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be found on
the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector.
11.17 Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be:
 Longitudinal
- Transverse
- Crater
- Centreline
- Toe
- HAZ.

11.18 Cavities
A number of flaws are covered by this category.
Porosity: Linear or cluster
Gas pores that may be located in different locations.
Elongated cavities
A string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis.
Shrinkage cavity
A cavity caused by shrinkage of the weld metal while it is in a plastic state.
Crater
A depression caused by shrinkage at the end of a run if the heat is removed quickly.
117

Crater pipe
A hole in the centre of a crater, caused by shrinkage.
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 11.19 Solid inclusions
Volumetric defects caused by solids trapped in the
weld pool before it solidifies.
11.20 Lack of fusion and penetration
Lack of fusion
The weld metal has not bonded.
Lack of sidewall fusion
No union between the weld metal and the parent
plate.
Lack of root fusion
No bonding at the root of the weld joint.
Incomplete root penetration
No weld metal extending into the root of the weld.
118
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 11.21 Imperfect shapes
Excess weld metal
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes.
Excess penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root.
Root concavity
A shallow groove in the root.
Incompletely filled groove
A groove caused by insufficient weld metal being laid onto the cap.
Undercut
A groove in the toe of the weld where the parent plate is gouged due to the welding
current.
Overlap
Weld metal spilled over from the cap onto the parent plate outside the line of the toe
that has not fused with the parent metal.
Burn through
This is a collapse in the weld pool caused by excessive penetration resulting in a hole in
the weld.
Unequal leg length
Not a standard term but internationally understood,
describing different leg lengths on a fillet weld, usually
a T joint.
Poor restart or poor stop/start
Not standard terms but internationally understood, an
irregular start or pick-up after one bead is ended or
interrupted and the next arc strike is imperfectly
aligned with the previous bead.
Misalignment
(Not a standard term but internationally understood),
poor fit-up resulting in the parent plates being out of
alignment either laterally or angularly.
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11.22 Miscellaneous
Stray flash or arc strike
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 Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod off the line
of the weld; can sometimes be caused by arcing of the weld supply cable if the insulation
is damaged.
Excessive dressing
Grinding away too much weld metal and leaving the weld below the level of the surface
of the parent plate.
Grinding mark
Grooves or marks on the parent
plate caused by poorly controlled
grinding or surfacing tools.
Tool mark
Marks indented into the parent
plate caused by chipping
hammers or similar hand tools.
Hammer mark
Obvious damage caused by a
hammer blow.
Torn surface
Surface irregularity caused by
breaking off temporary
attachments, colloquially known,
though not always accurately, as
dog scars see below.
Surface pitting
Small depressions on the weld or parent plate.
Spatter
Spots of weld metal thrown out from the weld pool and attaching themselves to the
parent plate.
Dog scar - colloquial term, see above
A welding scar left over after removal of a dog, (a temporary metal fixing used to
stabilise the parent plates during the welding process).
11.23 Reporting defects in welds
As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections, volumetric defects will
seldom be identified, as they are usually caused during fabrication.
Planar defects may be observed as these could be caused by stress or fatigue
failure leading to crack-like features becoming evident.
This type of discontinuity will be of most concern in the toe of the weld, which is also
the zone where it is most likely to be found. This is because at this point there is a region
that has been heated and melted causing grain structure changes as outlined earlier.
Also in this area, the geometry of the weld changes, which may create a notch effect;
that is an area where stress is increased above the average for the rest of the
component.
Any defects identified must be reported by recording at least:
1- Type of defect
Describe the defect with correct terminology.
2- Location
State the global location, ie what component is damaged, where on the component the
damage is (state the clock and or tape position relative to a known datum), give the
relative location, ie is it on the HAZ, in the toe, on the weld cap or in the parent plate.
3- Dimensions
State the start position and give length. If the defect is a crack-like feature state whether
it is continuous or branching, the orientation and if it is measurable give width and depth.
4- Description
120

Describe the feature, if it is a crack, is it branching, if so state the orientation of the

branches.
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Page 122
Page 123
 11.23.1 Dimensional checking weld parameters
During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the weld design
specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the required quality to meet
design parameters; ensuring that it is fit for purpose.
Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and for the
visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of measuring gauges,
templates and devices employed. These instruments are available for in-service
inspections and a review of a selection will be of interest for underwater applications.
The Welding Institute measuring gauge
A gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld reinforcement height, leg length,
throat thickness and depth of lack of fill.
124

Welding Institute leg length gauge

Specially designed for measuring ‘T’ joint leg length
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Page 125
 Section 12
Ultrasonic Inspection
126
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 12 Ultrasonic Inspection
12.1 Physics of ultrasound
Sound is made when something vibrates. As the surface of the band or ruler pushes into
the air, the air molecules are forced together and a region of high pressure forms;
compression.
As the surface moves back, the air molecules move apart, forming a low pressure area or
rarefaction. As the surface vibrates, alternate compressions and rarefactions are set up
in the air and travel out from the surface to form a sound wave. The air molecules don’t
move with the wave - they vibrate to and fro in time with the vibrating surface.
If we plot the displacement of the particle against time it will produce a sine wave as
shown below.

The sound wave so produced travels through the air at a speed of about 332m/sec, at
0°C, at sea level. We hear the sound when it hits a membrane in our ear and causes it to
vibrate.
Sound will travel through any medium that has molecules to move, but it travels faster
in more elastic materials because the vibrations are passed on more quickly. Sound
travels faster in water or metal than it does in air, as liquids and solids are more
elastic than air. The speed of sound increases with the stiffness, (elasticity) and
decreases with density, in fact, it’s actually the square root of the stiffness divided by
the density.
12.1.1 Frequency
As sound is a series of vibrations, one way of measuring it is to count the number of
vibrations per second - the frequency. Frequency is measured in Hertz. One vibration in
one second is one Hertz. Two vibrations in one second is two Hertz. Ten vibrations in one
second is 10 Hertz and 1000 vibrations in one second is 1000 Hertz or one kilohertz
(kHz). One million vibrations in one second is one Megahertz (MHz).
The higher the frequency - the higher the note sounds - the higher the pitch.
We can only hear sounds between certain frequencies - more than 16Hz and less than
20,000 Hertz. A dog whistle vibrating at 25,000 Hertz cannot be heard by humans, but
itcan be heard by the sensitive ears of a dog.
127

Other animals can hear sounds at higher frequencies - bats can hear sound at 100,000
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Hertz.
 A sound with frequencies above the upper range of human hearing 20KHZ is called
ultrasound. Sound below about 16 Hertz is called infrasound.
However, there is an advantage for the lower frequencies. The lower the frequency, the
more penetrating a sound wave is - that is why foghorns give out very low notes and
why the low throbbing notes from your neighbour’s stereo come through the wall rather
than the high notes. Elephants and hippos can communicate over distances of up to 30
kilometres using infrasound.
Practical ultrasonic testing, the frequency range used is between 0.5- 6MHz; the lower
frequencies between 0.5 - 1.5MHz are used for materials with large grain structures,
such as concrete or cast iron. Frequencies from 2 - 6MHz are used for testing
materials with fine grain structures including steel.
12.1.2 Velocity
So far, only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have been
considered. However, the wave itself is passing through the material. Like a surface wave
on water, the water at any point goes up and down, but as well as this the wave travels
forward.
Ultrasonic waves travel through a material at the speed of sound for a given type of
wave in a given material. That is, the speed of sound is different for different types of
wave and the speed of travel is different in different materials.
12.1.3 Types of ultrasonic waves
Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing the atoms to
oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two types of wave that
propagate through the solid material and three types that travel along the surface
skin of the material.
The three types of surface wave have no application underwater and will not be
discussed further. The two types of wave that propagate through a solid are discussed
below.
Longitudinal/Compression waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L,
with the addition of a letter V – VL we indicate
the velocity of propagation of
longitudinal/compression waves. With this type
of wave propagation, the direction of oscillation
of the atoms is the same as the wave
propagation see Figure 12.3.

Transverse/Shear waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol T, with
the addition of a letter V – VT we indicate the
velocity of propagation of these waves. With this
type of wave propagation, the direction of
oscillation of the atoms is at 90o to the wave
propagation see Figure 12.4.
128
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 In order that ultrasonic sound waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within any
material, it is a fundamental principle that the velocity of the sound wave remains
constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the case; and
furthermore, the ultrasonic wave obeys the Laws of Light .
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here for a selection of
materials is shown in table 12.2

Note: Blank spaces in the VT column, this is because Shear waves cannot be produced in
liquids, solids or polymers such as Perspex or concrete.
12.2 Wavelength
A wave in the sea is a vibration of energy. As the wave passes a fixed point it produces
a constant rise and fall of energy.
A complete vibration is a change in energy from maximum to minimum and back to
maximum.
A wavelength is the distance a stress wave moves forward during one complete cycle.
It varies with the speed of sound and with the frequency. Wavelength is represented by
the Greek letter Lambda. We can work out wavelength if we know the speed and
frequency of a sound wave. Wavelength is the velocity in metres per second
divided by the frequency.
If we want to know the wavelength of a 2MHz compression wave travelling through
steel, we can again use the formula, as we know the compressional speed of sound in
steel, 5,940m/sec.
 =5,940,000/2,000,000 = 2.97mm
If we want to know the wavelength of a shear wave of 2MHz in steel we can use the
formula again, we use the shear speed of sound in steel which is 3,250m/sec.
An easy way to remember how this formula works is to split it down
within a triangle - with the velocity, wavelength and frequency at the
corners.
If we want to work out wavelength we cover the wavelength symbol –
this leaves the V over ƒ.
The wavelength of an ultrasonic wave is important because the
shorter the wavelength, the smaller the flaws that can be discovered. Defects of a
diameter of less than half a wavelength may not show on the CRT. On the other hand,
the shorter the wavelength the less the ultrasound will penetrate the test material.
12.3 Further effects of ultrasonic properties in materials
As the ultrasonic signal passes through a material, a pressure or stress front will be
initiated in the material, which will present resistance to the passage of the sound wave
energy. The amount of resistance will depend on the properties of the material. This
is a useful parameter of a material and must be determined if the pressure or stress
magnitude of the ultrasonic wave is to be determined.
12.3.1 Acoustic impedance (Z)
129

The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is called acoustic impedance. It is the

reason that ultrasound travels at different speeds in different material.
12.3.2 Acoustic attenuation
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 A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave as it passes
through a material. The strength of the ultrasonic signal will be reduced and eventually
will be so low that it cannot be detected.
12.4 The direction of propagation of an ultrasonic wave
It has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a known speed in a straight
line and that it obeys the Laws of Light. In order to predict the direction that the wave
travels as it passes through an interface into a different material, it is necessary to
determine what happens when a wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties (eg
perspex/steel, water/air).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and the back surface which is
referred to as the back wall. Similarly, the surfaces of a crack or porosity bubble are also
boundaries.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of travel of the
wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the Law of Reflection and the
Law of Refraction.
12.4.1 The Law of Reflection
This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with
the normal angle to the interface from which the wave is
being reflected is the same as the angle that the incident
wave makes with the same normal angle.

When the angle of incidence is 0°, the reflected angle is also 0°, so the wave is reflected
back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same material; therefore,
there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the mode of travel of the wave.
This is the ideal condition for thickness measurements using ultrasonic compression
waves.
12.4.2 Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law)
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave
is reflected and the rest will pass into the
second material. The path in the second
material will still be straight line, but the
direction of this wave will not be continuous
with the direction of the incident wave as it
will have been turned through an angle that
can be determined by Snell’s Law.

12.5 Generating ultrasound

Sound is created when something vibrates. It is a stress wave of mechanical energy. The
Piezo-electric effect changes mechanical energy into electrical energy. It is reversible,
so electrical energy - a voltage - can be changed into mechanical energy or sound, which
is the reverse Piezo-electric effect. The first people to observe the Piezo-electric effect
were the Curie brothers who observed it in quartz crystals.
12.5.1 Piezo-electric crystals
Nowadays polarised ceramics are used instead of quartz crystals.
It was later discovered that by varying the thickness of crystals and subjecting them to a
voltage, they could be made to vibrate at different frequencies. Frequency depends on
the thickness of the Piezo-electric crystal.
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 Figure 12.8 The Piezo-electric effect.
In practice, the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and to enable
electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with silver foil electrodes to apply
the voltage across the crystal if acting as a transmitter, or to take the voltage signal from
it if acting as a receiver. The crystal is attached to the base by the mounting, which acts
not only as a fixing, but also as a backing to the crystal.
A pulse of ultrasound from a Piezo-electric crystal has a length or width of several
vibrations or wavelengths.
A Piezo-electric crystal continues to vibrate after it is hit by an electrical charge.
This affects sensitivity, as the longer the pulse length, the worse the resolution.
In most probes a slug of tungsten loaded Araldite is placed behind the crystal to cut
down the ringing time.
12.6 Types of transducers (probes)
A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form into another.
There are a number of different types of probes, some designed for specific tasks.
However, in our sphere of NDT we need only be familiar with the main types.
 Single crystal.
 Twin crystal.
 Compression or zero degree.
 Angle.

12.6.1 Single crystal probes

These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo-
electric crystal that both transmits and receives the
ultrasonic signal. The crystal must transmit the signal,
stop ringing, ring down to rest, pick up any reflected
signal, ring up to produce electric energy to pass to
the receiver amplifier.

12.6.2 Twin crystal probes

This type of probe has separate transducer
crystals for transmission and reception. The
two crystals are mounted in the same
housing but are carefully isolated from each
other both electrically and acoustically.
The material properties of the crystals are
quite different from those of the single
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crystal probe because the two crystals are

not required to ring down to receive. One is
constantly transmitting while the other is
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constantly receiving.
 The electric isolation is achieved by provision of two co-axial connectors, one for transmit
and one for receive, while the acoustic barrier is generally a thin layer of cork.
A twin crystal probe is designed to minimise the problem of dead zone. A twin crystal
probe has two crystals mounted on perspex shoes angled inwards slightly to focus at
a set distance in the test material. Were the crystals not angled, the pulse would be
reflected straight back into the transmitting crystal.

12.6.3 Advantages/disadvantages in probe selection

Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output characteristics

12.6.4 Compression or zero degree probes

This type of probe transmits longitudinal/compression waves that are introduced into the
test piece at a zero degree angle. Therefore, there is no refraction and the signal passes
directly through the specimen at a zero angle. This type of probe may be single or twin
crystal. It is the type of probe fitted to a digital thickness meter.
12.6.5 Angle probes
These probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at
an angle to the interface and not perpendicular. The angle is determined to
either match the weld angle of preparation or to introduce the beam at an angle
best suited to reflect from internal defects. These types of probe are used for
weld inspection tasks, see Figure 12.11.

12.6.6 Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the probe and the test surface. This is because the
mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists between
the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance between the
shoe of the transducer and the air. For underwater inspection the seawater acts
as a couplant and aids the passage of ultrasound into the material.
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 12.7 The sound beam
The spread of sound waves from a Piezo-electric crystal has been likened to the
beam of a torch, an elongated cone. Just as the intensity of light from a torch
diminishes with distance, so sound pulses get weaker the further they travel
from the crystal.
An acoustic sound wave has also previously been described as being a single
sinusoidal wave propagating through a material. These analogies do not
however present a totally true picture.
The sound produced from an ultrasonic crystal does not originate from a single
point but rather it is derived from many points along the surface of the Piezoelectric
crystal. This results in a sound field with many waves interacting or
interfering with each other.

12.7.1 Near Zone (or Near Field)

A Piezo-electric crystal is made up of millions of molecules. Each of these
vibrates when the crystal is hit by an electric charge and they send out shock
waves. The shock waves jostle each other.
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After a time, the shock waves, or pulses, even out to form a continuous front.
The area between the crystal and the point where the wave front evens out is
 what we call the Near Zone. Inside the Near Zone signals from a reflector bear
no accurate relation to the size of the reflector, as the sound vibrations are
going in all directions. This affects the accuracy of flaw sizing of small reflectors
inside the Near Zone.
The Near Zone of a crystal varies with the material being tested, but it can be
worked out by a formula:
Near Zone NZ= D2
4
12.8 Principles of ultrasonic testing
There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic
beam due to absorption by the flaw.

The second principle is based on the reflection of energy from a flaw or

interface. This is the method used in digital thickness meters and in A-scan
inspections. It is the basis of the majority of ultrasonic test systems. It is
commonly referred to as the Pulse Echo Technique.

Ultrasonic inspections are largely performed by the Pulse Echo Technique in

which a single probe is used to both transmit and receive ultrasound. In
addition to the fact that access is required from one surface only, further
advantages of this technique are that it gives an indication of the type of defect,
its size and its exact location within the item being tested
The major disadvantage is that pulse echo inspection is reliant upon the defects
having the correct orientation relative to the beam in order to generate a
returning signal to the probe and is not, therefore, considered fail safe. If the
sound pulse hits the flaw at an angle other than 90 o, much of the energy will be
reflected away and not return to the probe with the result that the flaw will not
show up on the screen.
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 12.9 Ultrasonic test systems
An ultrasonic test system should be able to measure either the amplitude of the
signal if a through transmission test is used, or the time required for the
ultrasonic signal to travel between specific interfaces if the Pulse Echo
Technique is employed.
A versatile test system in fact measures both the amplitude and the time
simultaneously. For thickness measurement, the main use of ultrasonic testing
is the measurement of the time the signal takes to travel between specific
interfaces, and the instrument is referred to as either a Digital Thickness Meter
or an A-scan flaw detector.
12.9.1 Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thicknesses of material using longitudinal
waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the material
under test at the normal angle and are commonly used underwater for
thickness checks.
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 A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe and, as such, can only give a readout from the major reflector, which is
its main limitation. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is
designed to display multiple reflections simultaneously.
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 12.9.2 Advantages of DTMs
 Quick and easy to use.
 Divers and ROVs can use them.
 Only a small amount of training is necessary to use one.
 Only isolated cleaning is required.
 The Cygnus DTM will take readings through firmly adhered paint.
12.9.3 Procedure for using a Cygnus DTM
 Check the unit for damage.
 Check correct probe fitted, diaphragm in place and undamaged.
 Fully charge battery and complete charging log.
 Switch on and carry out calibration check using appropriate block V1/V2.
 Deploy unit to worksite.
 Diver carries out pre-cal check - results recorded on data sheet.
 Carry out the survey to the client’s requirements.
 At the end of the survey, or in accordance with the client’s instructions
during the inspection, carry out a post-cal check - results to be recorded on
the data sheet.
 Return the unit to the surface and wash in fresh water.
 Inspect the unit for damage, if any found mark unit as appropriate and
remove from service.
 Put the battery on charge (Max. 2hrs to get 20hrs use) and complete the
charging log.
 Store in a secure, dry environment.
12.9.4 The A-scan flaw detector
There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending on
the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (cathode ray tube or
oscilloscope) as this presents all the information available in the echo system.
With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation.
A-scan: Shows real time depth of the defect, or distance along the beam
path.
B-scan: Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views.
C-scan: Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect.
P-scan: Adds all of the above together and gives a 3-D computer
impression.
The most commonly used diver-deployed flaw detector is an A-scan instrument.
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As an example of this type of instrument, figure 12.23 shows the control panel
of a Krautkramer USM2
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 The ultrasonic flaw detector, the UT set, sends a voltage down a coaxial cable
to the probe. The Piezo-electric crystal in the probe is hit by the voltage and
vibrates. The vibration creates an ultrasonic pulse, which enters the test
material. The pulse travels through the material until it strikes a reflector and is
reflected back to the probe.
It re-enters the probe, hits the crystal and vibrates it, causing it to generate a
voltage. The voltage causes a current which travels back to the flaw detector
along the cable. The set displays the time the pulse has taken through the test
material and back and the strength of the pulse as a signal on the CRT screen.
This is basically how a UT set works. It transmits energy into material via a
probe and measures the time in microseconds that the sound pulse takes to
return to the probe. The controls on the UT set are almost entirely concerned
with presenting a display on the CRT screen for the operator to interpret.
The cathode ray tube is a device for measuring very small periods of time. The
CRT displays electrical pulses on a screen in a linear time/distance relationship.
That is, the longer the distance on the screen time base (the X-axis), the longer
the time that has been measured.
On the Y-axis (vertical) the amplitude of the returning signal is indicated, the
higher the amplitude of this signal, the greater the strength of the reflected
signal. Of course, in the case of thickness measurements this will be the back
wall echo.
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 12.9.5 Calibration and reference blocks
A-scan type instruments all require calibration before being used for testing.
Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a
reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the client.
Reference blocks
These are manufactured for the client to agreed specifications and surface finish
and are used solely for a particular job and are not intended for any other
purpose. This is usually because they are intended for use on specialised steels
that would have different velocities.
Calibration blocks
There is several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic testing.
The two most popular are; the IIW V1 and IIW V2 calibration blocks. A
calibration block is manufactured to standard specifications and to international
standards. It is produced from specified material and is machined to close
tolerances and laid down standard of surface finish.
All the dimensions on the block are also specified and it is used to calibrate
ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. V1 blocks are used on the surface to
calibrate A-scan units and V2 blocks are used subsea by divers for calibration
checks.
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 Pre-calibration checks
For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged. Switch on the set and
allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the manufacturer’s recommended time.
This allows the CRT and other circuits to reach operating temperature and
stabilise.
CRT display
Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot will
normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the screen.
Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse (the
first transmitted pulse) on the screen.
Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be between
10mm and 1m depending on the actual instrument). Select and connect the
required probe. (For thickness measurement and lamination testing, this will be
a zero degrees or normal angle compression probe – either single or twin
crystal).
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Time base linearity

Place the probe onto a calibration block and use the course and fine range (time
base) controls to display four back wall echoes on the screen. Adjust the back
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wall echoes (BWE) so that they are equally spaced along the X-axis, then adjust
 the second and fourth so that they are on the fifth and tenth divisions on the
reticule. Provided this is achieved, the time base is linear.
Linearity of amplification
Set the reject or suppression control to off or zero. Place the probe over the
1.5mm diameter hole on a V1 calibration block. Adjust the gain controls to
display the height of the reflected signal to 80% full screen height (FSH).
Note: The gain settings.
 Use the fine (2dB or 1dB) gain control to increase the signal by 2dB.
This represents the difference in height between 80-100% that is a ratio of 4:5,
which will increase the signal on the screen by one quarter of its displayed
height and the signal should be at full screen height.
 Readjust the fine gain control to attenuate the signal back to 80% full
screen height.
 Attenuate the signal by 6dB.
This represents a decrease of a half and the signal therefore should reduce to
40% of full screen height.
 Now attenuate a further 12dB.
This represents a decrease of one quarter of the displayed signal and the height
should then be 10% of the full screen height.
If the gain adjustment does not produce these results the amplifier is not linear
and the instrument must be recalibrated internally, which involves stripping it
down to readjust internal trim settings.
Calibration procedure for 100mm thickness.
Place the probe onto the face of a suitable calibration or reference block that is
25mm thick ensuring there is adequate coupling.
A number of back wall echoes should be displayed on the CRT screen. Adjust
the gain settings as necessary to display the second echo signal amplitude to
75% full screen height.
Adjust the fine range and delay controls to alter the screen display so that four
back wall echoes are shown, all equally spaced across the x-axis.
As the screen on the CRT has a reticule that is divided into 10 equal segments,
the four echoes are adjusted to 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 divisions along the x-axis.

12.9.6 Setting sensitivity

On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to conform
to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest specified flaw. This
may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 in size, although this would be a very
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sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size that may be achieved is of the order
of 1 to 2λ.
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or the
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procedure agreed with the contracting party.

The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected signal
 from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the screen and is
not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for laminations is to
adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo from the parent plate is
displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall echo
from a specified (say 1.5mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into a reference
block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 12.23 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1
calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains a 1.5mm diameter hole.
Setting resolution
The final process in the calibration procedure is setting resolution. This is
adjusting the gain controls so that the CRT display is capable of displaying
several reflected signals from the smallest detectable flaws at the maximum
range of the test. This may be accomplished using an agreed and specified
reference block.
The common method is to display the three signals reflected from the step, cut
out and back wall on the V1 block, Figure 12.28.

12.9.7 The 6dB drop method for plotting laminations

It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural
welding is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test
surface will be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the
reflected signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed
scan based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary
marks with a paint-stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate
to give a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by
a careful scan, employing the 6dB drop method, to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
The 6dB drop method explained
The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is very
strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal displayed
on the screen reduces in amplitude.
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is reduced
to half the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6dB reduction in
signal strength, which gives this method its name. The reason for this reduction
at this point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is being reflected from
the flaw while the remainder of that signal is now not reflected but continues on
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its transmission path through the material.

The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on the
surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire outline
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of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate.

 The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary, Figure 12.31

12.9.8 The use of angle or shear wave probes

Angle probes as their name indicates propagate the ultrasonic signal into the
material at an angle. As mentioned earlier the actual angle will be determined
by the expected orientation of the flaws that are being scanned for.
Most frequently these will lie on the fusion boundary of a weld and therefore the
probe angle will be the same as the angle of preparation. This will ensure that
any signal reflected from a flaw will be returned along the same path as the
transmission signal because the angle of reflection will equal the incident angle.
There are standard probes available for 45o, 60o and 70o as these angles are
common preparation angles in structural welds. Other angles may be calculated
by trigonometry and the application of Snell’s Law, Figure 12.7 refers.

The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
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CRT in the same manner as for a 6dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to one tenth using a 20dB drop. This point can be plotted and the
defect size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
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12.9.9 Lamination plotting

 Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected
from these and not the flaw. To avoid this, the entire area is scanned with a
compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area may be marked out
in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage, see Figure 12.31.

Advantages and disadvantages of A-scan ultrasonics

Advantages:
 Can find and size subsurface defects.
 Results may be recorded on computer, photograph or video the CRT screen.
 Thickness readings can be carried out on thinner material than with DTMs.
 Areas of pitting on the back wall can be assessed.
 Very adaptable, various probes can be fitted ie shear and compression
probes as well as twin and single crystal probes.
 More than one person can view the results either by looking at the same
unit or by setting up repeaters.
 Real-time results, no waiting for films to be developed.
Disadvantages:
 Requires highly trained operators to set up and interpret the results.
 Relies on accurate calibration.
 High level of cleaning required SA2.5 or SA3.
 Special arrangements have to be made for recording the results.
12.9.10 Care and maintenance of equipment
Care of UT equipment is the same as for all equipment deployed underwater.
 Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls.
 Charge all batteries in accordance with manufacture’s recommendations
using the correct type of charger.
 Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve hydrogen gas and
cause an explosive hazard).
 Store equipment in a dry place.
 Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components.
 Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged – get it repaired.
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