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The Java EE 6 Tutorial
Advanced Topics

Fourth Edition
This page intentionally left blank
 The Java EE 6 Tutorial
Advanced Topics

Fourth Edition

Eric Jendrock
Ricardo Cervera-Navarro
Ian Evans
Devika Gollapudi
Kim Haase
William Markito
Chinmayee Srivathsa

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 Contents

Preface ..................................................................................................................................xxi

Part I Introduction . ..........................................................................................................................1

1 Overview .................................................................................................................................3
Java EE 6 Platform Highlights................................................................................................4
Java EE Application Model ....................................................................................................5
Distributed Multitiered Applications ...................................................................................6
Security..............................................................................................................................7
Java EE Components .......................................................................................................8
Java EE Clients ..................................................................................................................8
Web Components .........................................................................................................10
Business Components ...................................................................................................11
Enterprise Information System Tier ...........................................................................12
Java EE Containers ...............................................................................................................13
Container Services ........................................................................................................13
Container Types ............................................................................................................14
Web Services Support ..........................................................................................................15
XML ................................................................................................................................15
SOAP Transport Protocol .............................................................................................16
WSDL Standard Format ...............................................................................................16
Java EE Application Assembly and Deployment ..............................................................17
Packaging Applications .......................................................................................................17
Development Roles ..............................................................................................................19
Java EE Product Provider .............................................................................................19
Tool Provider .................................................................................................................19
Application Component Provider ..............................................................................20

v
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Application Assembler ..................................................................................................20

Application Deployer and Administrator...................................................................21
Java EE 6 APIs........................................................................................................................21
Enterprise JavaBeans Technology ...............................................................................25
Java Servlet Technology.................................................................................................26
JavaServer Faces Technology .......................................................................................26
JavaServer Pages Technology........................................................................................27
JavaServer Pages Standard Tag Library .......................................................................28
Java Persistence API ......................................................................................................28
Java Transaction API ....................................................................................................28
Java API for RESTful Web Services ............................................................................29
Managed Beans .............................................................................................................29
Contexts and Dependency Injection for the Java EE Platform (JSR 299) ..............29
Dependency Injection for Java (JSR 330) ...................................................................29
Bean Validation .............................................................................................................30
Java Message Service API .............................................................................................30
Java EE Connector Architecture .................................................................................30
JavaMail API ..................................................................................................................31
Java Authorization Contract for Containers ..............................................................31
Java Authentication Service Provider Interface for Containers ..............................31
Java EE 6 APIs in the Java Platform, Standard Edition 6 and 7........................................32
Java Database Connectivity API ..................................................................................32
Java Naming and Directory Interface API .................................................................32
JavaBeans Activation Framework ...............................................................................33
Java API for XML Processing ......................................................................................33
Java Architecture for XML Binding ............................................................................33
SOAP with Attachments API for Java .........................................................................34
Java API for XML Web Services ..................................................................................34
Java Authentication and Authorization Service .........................................................34
GlassFish Server Tools..........................................................................................................35

2 Using the Tutorial Examples . .............................................................................................37

Required Software ................................................................................................................37
Java Platform, Standard Edition ..................................................................................37
Java EE 6 Software Development Kit ..........................................................................38

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Java EE 6 Tutorial Component ....................................................................................38

NetBeans IDE ................................................................................................................39
Apache Ant ....................................................................................................................40
Starting and Stopping the GlassFish Server .......................................................................41
▼ To Start the GlassFish Server Using NetBeans IDE ..................................................42
Starting the Administration Console .................................................................................42
▼ To Start the Administration Console Using NetBeans IDE ....................................42
Starting and Stopping the Java DB Server ..........................................................................43
▼ To Start the Database Server Using NetBeans IDE ...................................................43
Building the Examples .........................................................................................................43
Tutorial Example Directory Structure ...............................................................................44
Getting the Latest Updates to the Tutorial ........................................................................45
▼ To Update the Tutorial through the Update Center .................................................45
Debugging Java EE Applications ........................................................................................45
Using the Server Log .....................................................................................................45
Using a Debugger ..........................................................................................................46

Part II The Web Tier . ........................................................................................................................47

3 JavaServer Faces Technology: Advanced Concepts . ......................................................49

The Lifecycle of a JavaServer Faces Application.................................................................50
Overview of the JavaServer Faces Lifecycle ................................................................50
Restore View Phase .......................................................................................................53
Apply Request Values Phase ........................................................................................53
Process Validations Phase ............................................................................................54
Update Model Values Phase ........................................................................................55
Invoke Application Phase ............................................................................................55
Render Response Phase ................................................................................................55
Partial Processing and Partial Rendering ..........................................................................56
The Lifecycle of a Facelets Application ..............................................................................56
User Interface Component Model .....................................................................................57
User Interface Component Classes .............................................................................58
Component Rendering Model ....................................................................................60
Conversion Model ........................................................................................................61
Event and Listener Model ............................................................................................61

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Validation Model ..........................................................................................................63

Navigation Model .........................................................................................................64

4 Using Ajax with JavaServer Faces Technology . ..............................................................69

Overview of Ajax ..................................................................................................................70
Using Ajax Functionality with JavaServer Faces Technology .........................................70
Using Ajax with Facelets ......................................................................................................71
Using the f:ajax Tag....................................................................................................71
Sending an Ajax Request ......................................................................................................73
Using the event Attribute.............................................................................................74
Using the execute Attribute ........................................................................................74
Using the immediate Attribute ....................................................................................75
Using the listener Attribute ......................................................................................75
Monitoring Events on the Client.........................................................................................75
Handling Errors ....................................................................................................................76
Receiving an Ajax Response.................................................................................................77
Ajax Request Lifecycle ..........................................................................................................78
Grouping of Components....................................................................................................78
Loading JavaScript as a Resource ........................................................................................79
Using JavaScript API in a Facelets Application ..........................................................80
Using the @ResourceDependency Annotation in a Bean Class ................................81
The ajaxguessnumber Example Application ....................................................................81
The ajaxguessnumber Source Files ............................................................................81
Running the ajaxguessnumber Example .. ................................................................83
Further Information about Ajax in JavaServer Faces Technology ..................................85

5 Composite Components: Advanced Topics and Example . ............................................87

Attributes of a Composite Component .............................................................................87
Invoking a Managed Bean ...................................................................................................88
Validating Composite Component Values .......................................................................89
The compositecomponentlogin Example Application ...................................................89
The Composite Component File .................................................................................89
The Using Page ..............................................................................................................90
The Managed Bean .......................................................................................................91
Running the compositecomponentlogin Example ..................................................92

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6 Creating Custom UI Components and Other Custom Objects ......................................95

Determining Whether You Need a Custom Component or Renderer ..........................97
When to Use a Custom Component ...........................................................................97
When to Use a Custom Renderer ................................................................................98
Component, Renderer, and Tag Combinations ........................................................99
Understanding the Image Map Example..........................................................................100
Why Use JavaServer Faces Technology to Implement an Image Map? ................100
Understanding the Rendered HTML .......................................................................101
Understanding the Facelets Page ..............................................................................102
Configuring Model Data ............................................................................................103
Summary of the Image Map Application Classes ....................................................104
Steps for Creating a Custom Component ........................................................................105
Creating Custom Component Classes .............................................................................106
Specifying the Component Family ...........................................................................109
Performing Encoding .................................................................................................109
Performing Decoding .................................................................................................111
Enabling Component Properties to Accept Expressions ........................................112
Saving and Restoring State .........................................................................................113
Delegating Rendering to a Renderer.................................................................................114
Creating the Renderer Class ......................................................................................115
Identifying the Renderer Type ...................................................................................117
Implementing an Event Listener .......................................................................................117
Implementing Value-Change Listeners ...................................................................117
Implementing Action Listeners ................................................................................118
Handling Events for Custom Components......................................................................119
Defining the Custom Component Tag in a Tag Library Descriptor ............................120
Using a Custom Component ............................................................................................121
Creating and Using a Custom Converter ........................................................................123
Creating a Custom Converter ...................................................................................123
Using a Custom Converter .........................................................................................126
Creating and Using a Custom Validator ..........................................................................128
Implementing the Validator Interface ......................................................................129
Specifying a Custom Tag ............................................................................................131
Using a Custom Validator ..........................................................................................132
Binding Component Values and Instances to Managed Bean Properties....................133
Binding a Component Value to a Property ..............................................................134

ix
Contents

Binding a Component Value to an Implicit Object ................................................136

Binding a Component Instance to a Bean Property ...............................................137
Binding Converters, Listeners, and Validators to Managed Bean Properties .............138

7 Configuring JavaServer Faces Applications ..................................................................141

Using Annotations to Configure Managed Beans ..........................................................142
Using Managed Bean Scopes......................................................................................143
Application Configuration Resource File ........................................................................144
Ordering of Application Configuration Resource Files ..........................................145
Configuring Managed Beans.............................................................................................146
Using the managed-bean Element .............................................................................147
Initializing Properties Using the managed-property Element .............................150
Initializing Maps and Lists .........................................................................................155
Registering Application Messages.....................................................................................155
Using FacesMessage to Create a Message ...............................................................157
Referencing Error Messages ......................................................................................157
Using Default Validators....................................................................................................159
Registering a Custom Validator ........................................................................................159
Registering a Custom Converter .......................................................................................160
Configuring Navigation Rules...........................................................................................161
▼ To Configure a Navigation Rule .................................................................................163
Implicit Navigation Rules ...........................................................................................164
Registering a Custom Renderer with a Render Kit .........................................................165
Registering a Custom Component ...................................................................................167
Basic Requirements of a JavaServer Faces Application ..................................................168
Configuring an Application with a Web Deployment Descriptor.........................169
Configuring Project Stage...........................................................................................172
Including the Classes, Pages, and Other Resources ................................................173

8 Uploading Files with Java Servlet Technology . ............................................................175

The @MultipartConfig Annotation.................................................................................175
The getParts and getPart Methods ...............................................................................176
The fileupload Example Application ............................................................................177
Architecture of the fileupload Example Application ...........................................177
Running the fileupload Example............................................................................180

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9 Internationalizing and Localizing Web Applications . .................................................183

Java Platform Localization Classes ...................................................................................183
Providing Localized Messages and Labels .......................................................................184
Establishing the Locale ...............................................................................................185
Setting the Resource Bundle.......................................................................................185
Retrieving Localized Messages...................................................................................186
Date and Number Formatting ..........................................................................................187
Character Sets and Encodings ...........................................................................................188
Character Sets ..............................................................................................................188
Character Encoding ....................................................................................................188

Part III Web Services . .....................................................................................................................191

10 JAX-RS: Advanced Topics and Example . .........................................................................193

Annotations for Field and Bean Properties of Resource Classes ..................................193
Extracting Path Parameters ........................................................................................194
Extracting Query Parameters .....................................................................................195
Extracting Form Data ................................................................................................195
Extracting the Java Type of a Request or Response ................................................196
Subresources and Runtime Resource Resolution ...........................................................197
Subresource Methods . ................................................................................................197
Subresource Locators . ................................................................................................197
Integrating JAX-RS with EJB Technology and CDI .......................................................198
Conditional HTTP Requests .............................................................................................199
Runtime Content Negotiation ..........................................................................................200
Using JAX-RS With JAXB .................................................................................................202
Using Java Objects to Model Your Data ...................................................................204
Starting from an Existing XML Schema Definition ................................................206
Using JSON with JAX-RS and JAXB .........................................................................208
The customer Example Application ................................................................................209
Overview of the customer Example Application.....................................................209
The Customer and Address Entity Classes ...............................................................209
The CustomerService Class ......................................................................................212
The CustomerClientXML and CustomerClientJSON Classes ................................214
Modifying the Example to Generate Entity Classes from an Existing Schema ...216

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Contents

Running the customer Example ................................................................................219

Part IV Enterprise Beans . ...............................................................................................................225

11 A Message-Driven Bean Example . ..................................................................................227

Overview of the simplemessage Example .......................................................................227
The simplemessage Application Client ...........................................................................228
The Message-Driven Bean Class ......................................................................................229
The onMessage Method ..............................................................................................230
Running the simplemessage Example ............................................................................231
Administered Objects for the simplemessage Example.........................................231
▼ To Run the simplemessage Application Using NetBeans IDE..............................232
▼ To Run the simplemessage Application Using Ant................................................232
Removing the Administered Objects for the simplemessage Example................233

12 Using the Embedded Enterprise Bean Container .........................................................235

Overview of the Embedded Enterprise Bean Container ................................................235
Developing Embeddable Enterprise Bean Applications ................................................236
Running Embedded Applications .............................................................................236
Creating the Enterprise Bean Container ..................................................................237
Looking Up Session Bean References .......................................................................238
Shutting Down the Enterprise Bean Container .......................................................238
The standalone Example Application.............................................................................239
▼ To Run the standalone Example Application ........................................................240

13 Using Asynchronous Method Invocation in Session Beans . ......................................241

Asynchronous Method Invocation ...................................................................................241
Creating an Asynchronous Business Method ..........................................................242
Calling Asynchronous Methods from Enterprise Bean Clients ............................243
The async Example Application .......................................................................................244
Architecture of the async Example Application......................................................244
Running the async Example ......................................................................................245

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Part V Contexts and Dependency Injection for the Java EE Platform .. .................................249

14 Contexts and Dependency Injection for the Java EE Platform: Advanced Topics ... 251
Using Alternatives in CDI Applications . .........................................................................251
Using Specialization .. ................................................................................................253
Using Producer Methods, Producer Fields, and Disposer Methods in CDI
Applications ........................................................................................................................254
Using Producer Methods ...........................................................................................254
Using Producer Fields to Generate Resources .........................................................255
Using a Disposer Method ...........................................................................................256
Using Predefined Beans in CDI Applications .................................................................256
Using Events in CDI Applications ....................................................................................257
Defining Events . ..........................................................................................................257
Using Observer Methods to Handle Events..............................................................258
Firing Events.................................................................................................................259
Using Interceptors in CDI Applications ..........................................................................260
Using Decorators in CDI Applications ............................................................................262
Using Stereotypes in CDI Applications ...........................................................................263

15 Running the Advanced Contexts and Dependency Injection Examples ..................265

The encoder Example: Using Alternatives .....................................................................265
The Coder Interface and Implementations ..............................................................266
The encoder Facelets Page and Managed Bean .......................................................266
Running the encoder Example .................................................................................268
The producermethods Example: Using a Producer Method To Choose a Bean Imple-
mentation .. ..........................................................................................................................271
Components of the producermethods Example .....................................................271
Running the producermethods Example .................................................................272
The producerfields Example: Using Producer Fields to Generate Resources .........273
The Producer Field for the producerfields Example ...........................................274
The producerfields Entity and Session Bean . ......................................................275
The producerfields Facelets Pages and Managed Bean . .....................................276
Running the producerfields Example . .................................................................278
The billpayment Example: Using Events and Interceptors .........................................280
The PaymentEvent Event Class ................................................................................280

xiii
Contents

The PaymentHandler Event Listener ........................................................................281

The billpayment Facelets Pages and Managed Bean .............................................281
The LoggedInterceptor Interceptor Class .............................................................284
Running the billpayment Example .........................................................................285
The decorators Example: Decorating a Bean ................................................................286
Components of the decorators Example . ..............................................................286
Running the decorators Example . ..........................................................................287

Part VI Persistence ..........................................................................................................................291

16 Creating and Using String-Based Criteria Queries .......................................................293

Overview of String-Based Criteria API Queries .............................................................293
Creating String-Based Queries .........................................................................................294
Executing String-Based Queries .......................................................................................295

17 Controlling Concurrent Access to Entity Data with Locking .......................................297

Overview of Entity Locking and Concurrency ...............................................................297
Using Optimistic Locking...........................................................................................298
Lock Modes..........................................................................................................................299
Setting the Lock Mode.................................................................................................300
Using Pessimistic Locking .........................................................................................301

18 Using a Second-Level Cache with Java Persistence API Applications .......................303

Overview of the Second-Level Cache ...............................................................................303
Controlling Whether Entities May Be Cached . ......................................................304
Specifying the Cache Mode Settings to Improve Performance .....................................305
Setting the Cache Retrieval and Store Modes . ........................................................306
Controlling the Second-Level Cache Programmatically ........................................307

Part VII Security ...............................................................................................................................309

19 Java EE Security: Advanced Topics ... ...............................................................................311

Working with Digital Certificates ....................................................................................311

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Creating a Server Certificate ......................................................................................312

Adding Users to the Certificate Realm .....................................................................314
Using a Different Server Certificate with the GlassFish Server ..............................315
Authentication Mechanisms..............................................................................................316
Client Authentication .................................................................................................316
Mutual Authentication ...............................................................................................317
Using Form-Based Login in JavaServer Faces Web Applications .................................321
Using j_security_check in JavaServer Faces Forms ............................................321
Using a Managed Bean for Authentication in JavaServer Faces Applications ....322
Using the JDBC Realm for User Authentication ............................................................324
▼ To Configure a JDBC Authentication Realm .. .......................................................324
Securing HTTP Resources .................................................................................................328
Securing Application Clients ............................................................................................331
Using Login Modules .................................................................................................331
Using Programmatic Login .......................................................................................332
Securing Enterprise Information Systems Applications ... ............................................332
Container-Managed Sign-On ...................................................................................333
Component-Managed Sign-On ................................................................................333
Configuring Resource Adapter Security ..................................................................334
▼ To Map an Application Principal to EIS Principals .. .............................................335
Configuring Security Using Deployment Descriptors ...................................................336
Specifying Security for Basic Authentication in the Deployment Descriptor ....336
Specifying Non-Default Principal-to-Role Mapping in the Deployment
Descriptor ....................................................................................................................337
Further Information about Security .................................................................................337

Part VIII Java EE Supporting Technologies ... ................................................................................339

20 Java Message Service Concepts .. ....................................................................................341

Overview of the JMS API ...................................................................................................341
What Is Messaging? ....................................................................................................341
What Is the JMS API? .................................................................................................342
When Can You Use the JMS API? ............................................................................343
How Does the JMS API Work with the Java EE Platform? ....................................344
Basic JMS API Concepts ....................................................................................................345

xv
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JMS API Architecture .................................................................................................345

Messaging Domains ....................................................................................................346
Message Consumption ...............................................................................................348
The JMS API Programming Model ..................................................................................348
JMS Administered Objects .........................................................................................349
JMS Connections.........................................................................................................351
JMS Sessions.................................................................................................................352
JMS Message Producers..............................................................................................352
JMS Message Consumers............................................................................................353
JMS Messages ...............................................................................................................355
JMS Queue Browsers...................................................................................................358
JMS Exception Handling ............................................................................................358
Creating Robust JMS Applications .. ................................................................................359
Using Basic Reliability Mechanisms..........................................................................359
Using Advanced Reliability Mechanisms .................................................................364
Using the JMS API in Java EE Applications .....................................................................368
Using @Resource Annotations in Enterprise Bean or Web Components............369
Using Session Beans to Produce and to Synchronously Receive Messages ..........369
Using Message-Driven Beans to Receive Messages Asynchronously ...................370
Managing Distributed Transactions .........................................................................373
Using the JMS API with Application Clients and Web Components ...................375
Further Information about JMS ........................................................................................376

21 Java Message Service Examples .. ...................................................................................377

Writing Simple JMS Applications ....................................................................................378
A Simple Example of Synchronous Message Receives............................................378
A Simple Example of Asynchronous Message Consumption................................388
A Simple Example of Browsing Messages in a Queue .............................................394
Running JMS Clients on Multiple Systems...............................................................398
Undeploying and Cleaning the Simple JMS Examples ...........................................405
Writing Robust JMS Applications.....................................................................................406
A Message Acknowledgment Example.....................................................................406
A Durable Subscription Example ..............................................................................409
A Local Transaction Example ....................................................................................411
An Application That Uses the JMS API with a Session Bean.........................................416

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Writing the Application Components for the clientsessionmdb Example . .....417

Creating Resources for the clientsessionmdb Example . .....................................419
Running the clientsessionmdb Example ...............................................................419
An Application That Uses the JMS API with an Entity ..................................................421
Overview of the clientmdbentity Example Application . ....................................422
Writing the Application Components for the clientmdbentity Example . .......423
Creating Resources for the clientmdbentity Example.........................................426
Running the clientmdbentity Example .................................................................426
An Application Example That Consumes Messages from a Remote Server ...............429
Overview of the consumeremote Example Modules................................................430
Writing the Module Components for the consumeremote Example ....................431
Creating Resources for the consumeremote Example .............................................431
Using Two Application Servers for the consumeremote Example ........................431
Running the consumeremote Example .....................................................................432
An Application Example That Deploys a Message-Driven Bean on Two Servers ......436
Overview of the sendremote Example Modules .....................................................436
Writing the Module Components for the sendremote Example ..........................438
Creating Resources for the sendremote Example ...................................................439
▼ To Enable Deployment on the Remote System . ......................................................440
▼ To Use Two Application Servers for the sendremote Example .............................440
Running the sendremote Example . ..........................................................................441
▼ To Disable Deployment on the Remote System ......................................................446

22 Bean Validation: Advanced Topics .. ................................................................................449

Creating Custom Constraints . ..........................................................................................449
Using the Built-In Constraints to Make a New Constraint.....................................449
Customizing Validator Messages . ....................................................................................450
The ValidationMessages Resource Bundle .. ........................................................450
Grouping Constraints ........................................................................................................451
Customizing Group Validation Order . ....................................................................451

23 Using Java EE Interceptors .. .............................................................................................453

Overview of Interceptors ...................................................................................................453
Interceptor Classes .. ...................................................................................................454
Interceptor Lifecycle....................................................................................................454

xvii
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Interceptors and CDI ..................................................................................................455

Using Interceptors ..............................................................................................................455
Intercepting Method Invocations .............................................................................456
Intercepting Lifecycle Callback Events .....................................................................457
Intercepting Timeout Events .....................................................................................458
The interceptor Example Application...........................................................................460
Running the interceptor Example .........................................................................460

24 The Resource Adapter Example . .....................................................................................463

The Resource Adapter ........................................................................................................463
The Message-Driven Bean ................................................................................................464
The Web Application .........................................................................................................464
Running the mailconnector Example ............................................................................465
▼ Before You Deploy the mailconnector Example ...................................................465
▼ To Build, Package, and Deploy the mailconnector Example Using NetBeans
IDE ................................................................................................................................465
▼ To Build, Package, and Deploy the mailconnector Example Using Ant ............466
▼ To Run the mailconnector Example .......................................................................466

Part IX Case Studies . ......................................................................................................................469

25 Duke’s Bookstore Case Study Example . .........................................................................471

Design and Architecture of Duke’s Bookstore ................................................................471
The Duke’s Bookstore Interface ........................................................................................472
The Book Java Persistence API Entity .......................................................................472
Enterprise Beans Used in Duke’s Bookstore ............................................................473
Facelets Pages and Managed Beans Used in Duke’s Bookstore .............................473
Custom Components and Other Custom Objects Used in Duke’s Bookstore ...475
Properties Files Used in Duke’s Bookstore ...............................................................476
Deployment Descriptors Used in Duke’s Bookstore ..............................................477
Running the Duke’s Bookstore Case Study Application ................................................477
▼ To Build and Deploy Duke’s Bookstore Using NetBeans IDE ...............................477
▼ To Build and Deploy Duke’s Bookstore Using Ant .................................................478
▼ To Run Duke’s Bookstore ...........................................................................................478

xviii The Java EE 6 Tutorial

 Contents

26 Duke’s Tutoring Case Study Example . ............................................................................479

Design and Architecture of Duke’s Tutoring...................................................................479
Main Interface .....................................................................................................................481
Java Persistence API Entities Used in the Main Interface ......................................481
Enterprise Beans Used in the Main Interface .. ........................................................482
Facelets Files Used in the Main Interface...................................................................483
Helper Classes Used in the Main Interface................................................................484
Properties Files .............................................................................................................484
Deployment Descriptors Used in Duke’s Tutoring..................................................485
Administration Interface....................................................................................................486
Enterprise Beans Used in the Administration Interface..........................................486

Facelets Files Used in the Administration Interface.................................................486

Running the Duke’s Tutoring Case Study Application...................................................487
Setting Up GlassFish Server ........................................................................................487
Running Duke’s Tutoring............................................................................................488

27 Duke’s Forest Case Study Example . ................................................................................491

Design and Architecture of Duke’s Forest........................................................................492
The events Project ......................................................................................................494
The entities Project ..................................................................................................495
The dukes-payment Project........................................................................................497
The dukes-resources Project....................................................................................498
The Duke’s Store Project..............................................................................................498
The Duke’s Shipment Project......................................................................................503
Building and Deploying the Duke’s Forest Case Study Application .............................506
Prerequisite Task..........................................................................................................506
▼ To Build and Deploy the Duke’s Forest Application Using NetBeans IDE ...........507
▼ To Build and Deploy the Duke’s Forest Application Using Ant .............................508
Running the Duke’s Forest Application ...........................................................................509
▼ To Register as a Duke’s Store Customer.....................................................................509
▼ To Purchase Products ..................................................................................................509
▼ To Approve Shipment of a Product............................................................................510
▼ To Create a New Product.............................................................................................510

Index ....................................................................................................................................513

xix
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

This tutorial is the second volume of a guide to developing enterprise applications for
the Java Platform, Enterprise Edition 6 (Java EE 6) using GlassFish Server Open Source
Edition.

Oracle GlassFish Server, a Java EE compatible application server, is based on GlassFish

Server Open Source Edition, the leading open-source and open-community platform
for building and deploying next-generation applications and services. GlassFish Server
Open Source Edition, developed by the GlassFish project open-source community at
http://glassfish.java.net/, is the first compatible implementation of the Java EE
6 platform specification. This lightweight, flexible, and open-source application server
enables organizations not only to leverage the new capabilities introduced within the
Java EE 6 specification, but also to add to their existing capabilities through a faster and
more streamlined development and deployment cycle. Oracle GlassFish Server, the
product version, and GlassFish Server Open Source Edition, the open-source version,
are hereafter referred to as GlassFish Server.

Before You Read This Book

Before proceeding with this book, you should be familiar with Volume One of this
tutorial, The Java EE 6 Tutorial: Basic Concepts. Both volumes assume that you have a
good knowledge of the Java programming language. A good way to get to that point is
to read the Java Tutorials, available at http://docs.oracle.com/javase/.

Related Documentation
The GlassFish Server documentation set describes deployment planning and system
installation. To obtain documentation for GlassFish Server Open Source Edition, go to
http://glassfish.java.net/docs/. The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for the
Oracle GlassFish Server product documentation is http://docs.oracle.com/cd/
E26576_01/index.htm.

xxi
Preface

Javadoc tool reference documentation for packages that are provided with GlassFish
Server is available as follows.
■ The API specification for version 6 of Java EE is located at http://
docs.oracle.com/javaee/6/api/.
■ The API specification for GlassFish Server, including Java EE 6 platform packages
and nonplatform packages that are specific to the GlassFish Server product, is
located at http://glassfish.java.net/nonav/docs/v3/api/.

Additionally, the Java EE Specifications at http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/

java/javaee/tech/index.html might be useful.

For information about creating enterprise applications in the NetBeans Integrated

Development Environment (IDE), see http://www.netbeans.org/kb/.

For information about the Java DB database for use with the GlassFish Server, see
http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javadb/overview/index.html.

The GlassFish Samples project is a collection of sample applications that demonstrate

a broad range of Java EE technologies. The GlassFish Samples are bundled with the
Java EE Software Development Kit (SDK) and are also available from the GlassFish
Samples project page at http://glassfish-samples.java.net/.

Typographic Conventions
Table P–1 describes the typographic changes that are used in this book.

TABLE P–1 Typographic Conventions

Typeface Meaning Example

AaBbCc123 The names of commands, files, and Edit your .login file.
directories, and onscreen computer
Use ls -a to list all files.
output
machine_name% you have mail.

AaBbCc123 What you type, contrasted with machine_name% su

onscreen computer output
Password:

AaBbCc123 A placeholder to be replaced with a The command to remove a file is rm

real name or value filename.

AaBbCc123 Book titles, new terms, and terms to Read Chapter 6 in the User’s Guide.
be emphasized (note that some
A cache is a copy that is stored locally.
emphasized items appear bold online)
Do not save the file.

xxii The Java EE 6 Tutorial

 Preface

Default Paths and File Names

Table P–2 describes the default paths and file names that are used in this book.

TABLE P–2 Default Paths and File Names

Placeholder Description Default Value

as-install Represents the base Installations on the Solaris operating system,

installation directory for the Linux operating system, and Mac operating
GlassFish Server or the SDK system:
of which the GlassFish Server
user’s-home-directory/glassfish3/glassfish
is a part.
Windows, all installations:
SystemDrive:\glassfish3\glassfish

as-install-parent Represents the parent of the Installations on the Solaris operating system,
base installation directory for Linux operating system, and Mac operating
GlassFish Server. system:
user’s-home-directory/glassfish3
Windows, all installations:
SystemDrive:\glassfish3

tut-install Represents the base as-install/docs/javaee-tutorial

installation directory for the
Java EE Tutorial after you
install the GlassFish Server or
the SDK and run the Update
Tool.

domain-root-dir Represents the directory in as-install/domains/

which a domain is created by
default.

domain-dir Represents the directory in domain-root-dir/domain-name

which a domain’s
configuration is stored.

Third-Party Web Site References

Third-party URLs are referenced in this document and provide additional, related
information.

xxiii
Preface

Note – Oracle is not responsible for the availability of third-party web sites mentioned
in this document. Oracle does not endorse and is not responsible or liable for any
content, advertising, products, or other materials that are available on or through such
sites or resources. Oracle will not be responsible or liable for any actual or alleged
damage or loss caused or alleged to be caused by or in connection with use of or
reliance on any such content, goods, or services that are available on or through such
sites or resources.

Acknowledgments
The Java EE tutorial team would like to thank the Java EE specification leads: Roberto
Chinnici, Bill Shannon, Kenneth Saks, Linda DeMichiel, Ed Burns, Roger Kitain, Ron
Monzillo, Binod PG, Sivakumar Thyagarajan, Kin-Man Chung, Jitendra Kotamraju,
Marc Hadley, Paul Sandoz, Gavin King, Emmanuel Bernard, Rod Johnson, Bob Lee,
and Rajiv Mordani.

Thanks also to Alejandro Murillo for the original version of the connector example.

We would also like to thank the Java EE 6 SDK team, especially Carla Carlson,
Snjezana Sevo-Zenzerovic, Adam Leftik, and John Clingan.

The JavaServer Faces technology chapters benefited greatly from suggestions by

Manfred Riem as well as by the spec leads.

The EJB technology, Java Persistence API, and Criteria API chapters were written with
extensive input from the EJB and Persistence teams, including Marina Vatkina and
Mitesh Meswani.

We'd like to thank Sivakumar Thyagarajan for his reviews of the CDI chapters and
Tim Quinn for assistance with the application client container. Thanks also to the
NetBeans engineering and documentation teams, particularly Petr Jiricka, John
Jullion-Ceccarelli, and Troy Giunipero, for their help in enabling NetBeans IDE
support for the code examples.

Chang Feng, Alejandro Murillo, and Scott Fordin helped internationalize the Duke's
Tutoring case study.

We would like to thank our manager, Alan Sommerer, for his support and steadying
influence.

We also thank Jordan Douglas and Dawn Tyler for developing and updating the
illustrations. Sheila Cepero helped smooth our path in many ways. Steve Cogorno
provided invaluable help with our tools.

xxiv The Java EE 6 Tutorial

 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 Pūkāre Post at Kambla Buffalo Races.

Fines inflicted by the Bant caste council are, I am informed, spent in the celebration of a
temple festival. In former days, those found guilty by the council were beaten with
tamarind switches, made to stand exposed to the sun, or big red ants were thrown over
their bodies. Sometimes, to establish the innocence of an accused person, he had to take
a piece of red-hot iron (axe, etc.) in his hand, and give it to his accuser.

At a puberty ceremony among some Bants the girl sits in the courtyard of her house on
five unhusked cocoanuts covered with the bamboo cylinder which is used for storing
paddy. Women place four pots filled with water, and containing betel leaves and nuts,
round the girl, and empty the contents over her head. She is then secluded in an
outhouse. The women are entertained with a feast, which must include fowl and fish
curry. The cocoanuts are given to a washerwoman. On the fourth day, the girl is bathed,
and received back at the house. Beaten rice, and rice flour mixed with jaggery (crude
sugar) are served out to those assembled. The girl is kept gōsha (secluded) for a time,
and fed up with generous diet.

Under the aliya santāna system of inheritance, the High Court has ruled that there is no
marriage within the meaning of the Penal Code. But, though divorce and remarriage are
permitted to women, there are formal rules and ceremonies observed in connection with
them, and amongst the well-to-do classes divorce is not looked upon as respectable, and
is not frequent. The fictitious marriage prevailing amongst the Nāyars is unknown
among the Bants, and a wife also usually leaves the family house, and resides at her
husband’s, unless she occupies so senior a position in her own family as to make it
desirable that she should live on the family estate.

The Bants are divided into a number of balis (exogamous septs), which are traced in the
female line, i.e., a boy belongs to his mother’s, not to his father’s bali. Children
belonging to the same bali cannot marry, and the prohibition extends to certain allied
(koodu) balis. Moreover, a man cannot marry his father’s brother’s daughter, though she
belongs to a different bali. In a memorandum by Mr. M. Mundappa Bangera,36 it is
stated that “bali in aliya santāna families corresponds to gōtra of the Brāhmins governed
by Hindu law, but differs in that it is derived from the mother’s side, whereas gōtra is
always derived from the father’s side. A marriage between a boy and girl belonging to
the same bali is considered incestuous, as falling within the prohibited degrees of
consanguinity. It is not at all difficult to find out the bali to which a man or woman
belongs, as one can scarcely be found who does not know one’s own bali by rote. And
the heads of caste, who preside at every wedding party, and who are also consulted by
the elders of the boy or girl before an alliance is formed, are such experts in these
matters that they decide at once without reference to any books or rules whether
intermarriages between persons brought before them can be lawfully performed or not.”
As examples of balis among the Bants, the following may be cited:—

Bellathannaya, jaggery.
Bhūthiannaya, ashes.
Chāliannaya, weaver.
Edinnaya, hornet’s nest.
Karkadabennai, scorpion.
Kayerthannaya (Strychnos Nux-vomica).
Kochattabannayya, or Kajjarannayya, jack tree (Artocarpus integrifolia).
Koriannaya, fowl.
Pathanchithannaya, green peas.
Perugadannaya, bandicoot rat.
 Poyilethannaya, one who removes the evil eye.
Puliattannaya, tiger.
Rāgithannaya, rāgi (Eleusine Coracana).

Infant marriage is not prohibited, but is not common, and both men and girls are usually
married after they have reached maturity. There are two forms of marriage, one called
kai dhāre for marriages between virgins and bachelors, the other called budu dhāre for
the marriage of widows. After a match has been arranged, the formal betrothal, called
ponnapāthera or nischaya tambula, takes place. The bridegroom’s relatives and friends
proceed in a body on the appointed day to the bride’s house, and are there entertained at
a grand dinner, to which the bride’s relatives and friends are also bidden. Subsequently
the karnavans (heads) of the two families formally engage to perform the marriage, and
plates of betel leaves and areca nuts are exchanged, and the betel and nuts partaken of by
the two parties. The actual marriage ceremony is performed at the house of the bride or
bridegroom, as may be most convenient. The proceedings commence with the
bridegroom seating himself in the marriage pandal, a booth or canopy specially erected
for the occasion. He is there shaved by the village barber, and then retires and bathes.
This done, both he and the bride are conducted to the pandal by their relations, or
sometimes by the village headman. They walk thrice round the seat, and then sit down
side by side. The essential and binding part of the ceremony, called dhāre, then takes
place. The right hand of the bride being placed over the right hand of the bridegroom, a
silver vessel (dhāre gindi) filled with water, with a cocoanut over the mouth and the
flower of the areca palm on the cocoanut, is placed on the joined hands. The parents, the
managers of the two families, and the village headmen all touch the vessel, which, with
the hands of the bridal pair, is moved up and down three times. In certain families the
water is poured from the vessel into the united hands of the couple, and this betokens the
gift of the bride. This form of gift by pouring water was formerly common, and was not
confined to the gift of a bride. It still survives in the marriage ceremonies of various
castes, and the name of the Bant ceremony shows that it must once have been universal
among them. The bride and bridegroom then receive the congratulations of the guests,
who express a hope that the happy couple may become the parents of twelve sons and
twelve daughters. An empty plate, and another containing rice, are next placed before the
pair, and their friends sprinkle them with rice from the one, and place a small gift,
generally four annas, in the other. The bridegroom then makes a gift to the bride. This is
called sirdachi, and varies in amount according to the position of the parties. This must
be returned to the husband, if his wife leaves him, or if she is divorced for misconduct.
The bride is then taken back in procession to her home. A few days later she is again
taken to the bridegroom’s house, and must serve her husband with food. He makes
another money present to her, and after that the marriage is consummated.

According to another account of the marriage ceremony among some Bants, the barber
shaves the bridegroom’s face, using cow’s milk instead of water, and touches the bride’s
forehead with razor. The bride and bridegroom bathe, and dress up in new clothes. A
plank covered with a newly-washed cloth supplied by a washerman, a tray containing
raw rice, a lighted lamp, betel leaves and areca nuts, etc., are placed in the pandal. A girl
carries a tray on which are placed a lighted lamp, a measure full of raw rice, and betel.
She is followed by the bridegroom conducted by her brother, and the bride, led by the
bridegroom’s sister. They enter the pandal and, after going round the articles contained
therein five times, sit down on the plank. An elderly woman, belonging to the family of
the caste headman, brings a tray containing rice, and places it in front of the couple, over
whom she sprinkles a little of the rice. The assembled men and women then place
presents of money on the tray, and sprinkle rice over the couple. The right hand of the
bride is held by the headman, and her uncle, and laid in that of the bridegroom. A
cocoanut is placed over the mouth of a vessel, which is decorated with mango leaves and
flowers of the areca palm. The headman and male relations of the bride place this vessel
thrice in the hands of the bridal couple. The vessel is subsequently emptied at the foot of
a cocoanut tree.

The foregoing account shows that the Bant marriage is a good deal more than
concubinage. It is indeed as formal a marriage as is to be found among any people in the
world, and the freedom of divorce which is allowed cannot deprive it of its essential
character. Widows are married with much less formality. The ceremony consists simply
of joining the hands of the couple, but, strange to say, a screen is placed between them.
All widows are allowed to marry again, but it is, as a rule, only the young women who
actually do so. If a widow becomes pregnant, she must marry or suffer loss of caste.

The Bants all burn their dead, except in the case of children under seven, and those who
have died of leprosy or of epidemic disease such as cholera or small-pox. The funeral
pile must consist at least partly of mango wood. On the ninth, eleventh or thirteenth day,
people are fed in large numbers, but the Jains now substitute for this a distribution of
cocoanuts on the third, fifth, seventh, or ninth day. Once a year—generally in October—
a ceremony called agelū is performed for the propitiation of ancestors.

From a detailed account of the Bant death ceremonies, I gather that the news of a death
is conveyed to the caste people by a Holeya. A carpenter, accompanied by musicians,
proceeds to cut down a mango tree for the funeral pyre. The body is bathed, and laid out
on a plank. Clad in new clothes, it is conveyed with music to the burning-ground. A
barber carries thither a pot containing fire. The corpse is set down near the pyre and
divested of the new clothes, which are distributed between a barber, washerman,
carpenter, a Billava and Holeya. The pyre is kindled by a Billava, and the mat on which
the corpse has been lying is thrown thereon by a son or nephew of the deceased. On the
third day the relations go to the burning-ground, and a barber and washerman sprinkle
water over the ashes. Some days later, the caste people are invited to attend, and a
barber, washerman, and carpenter build up on the spot where the corpse was burnt a
lofty structure, made of bamboo and areca palm, in an odd number of tiers, and
supported on an odd number of posts. It is decorated with cloths, fruits, tender
cocoanuts, sugarcane, flowers, mango leaves, areca palm flowers, etc., and a fence is set
up round it. The sons and other relations of the deceased carry to the burning-ground
three balls of cooked rice (pinda) dyed with turmeric and tied up in a cloth, some raw
rice dyed with turmeric, pieces of green plantain fruit, and pumpkin and a cocoanut.
They go thrice round the structure, carrying the various articles in trays on their heads,
and deposit them therein. The relations then throw a little of the coloured rice into the
structure, and one of the caste men sprinkles water contained in a mango leaf over their
hands. After bathing, they return home. The clothes, jewels, etc., of the deceased are laid
on a cloth spread inside the house. A piece of turmeric is suspended from the ceiling by a
string, and a tray containing water coloured yellow placed beneath it. Round this the
females seat themselves. A cocoanut is broken, and a barber sprinkles the water thereof
contained in a mango leaf over those assembled. On the following day, various kinds of
food are prepared, and placed on leaves, with a piece of new cloth, within a room of the
house. The cloth remains there for a year, when it is renewed. The renewal continues
until another death occurs in the family.

In the following table, the cephalic index of the Bants is compared with that of the
Billavas and Shivalli Brāhmans:—

Average. Maximum. Minimum.

Brahman 80.4 96.4 72
Billava 80.1 91.5 71
Bant 78 91.2 70.8

The headman among the Bants is generally called Guttinayya, meaning person of the
guttu or site. Every village, or group of villages, possesses a guttu, and the Bant who
occupies, or holds in possession the house or site set apart as the guttu is the Guttinayya.
When this passes to another by sale or inheritance, the office of headman passes with it.
It is said that, in some instances, the headmanship has in this way passed to classes other
than Bants, e.g., Brāhmans and Jains. In some villages, the headman is, as among some
other castes, called Gurikāra, whose appointment is hereditary.

A few supplementary notes may be added on the Parivara, Nād, and Māsādika Bants.
The Parivaras are confined to the southern taluks of the South Canara district. They may
interdine, but may not intermarry with the other section. The rule of inheritance is
makkalakattu (in the male line). Brāhman priests are engaged for the various
ceremonials, so the Parivaras are more Brāhmanised than the Nād or Māsādika Bants.
The Parivaras may resort to the wells used by Brāhmans, and they consequently claim
superiority over the other sections. Among the Nād Bants, no marriage badge is tied on
the neck of the bride. At a Parivara marriage, after the dhāre ceremony, the bridegroom
ties a gold bead, called dhāre mani, on the neck of the bride. The remarriage of widows
is not in vogue. In connection with the death ceremonies, a car is not, as among the Nād
and Māsādika sections, set up over the mound (dhūpe). On the eleventh day, the
spreading of a cloth on the mound for offerings of food must be done by Nekkāras, who
wash clothes for Billavas.

The Nād or Nādava and Māsādika Bants follow the aliya santāna law of succession, and
intermarriage is permitted between the two sections. The names of the balis, which have
already been given, are common among the Māsādikas, and do not apply to the Nāds,
among whom different sept names occur, e.g., Honne, Shetti, Koudichi, etc. Elaborate
death ceremonies are only performed if the deceased was old, or a respected member of
the community. The corpse is generally cremated in one of the rice-fields belonging to
the family. After the funeral, the male members of the family return home, and place a
vessel containing water and light in a room. One or two women must remain in this
room, and the light must be kept burning until the bojja, or final death ceremonies, are
over. The water in the vessel must be renewed twice daily. At the final ceremonies, a
feast is given to the castemen, and in some places, the headman insists on the people of
the house of mourning giving him a jewel as a pledge that the bojja will be performed on
the ninth, eleventh, or thirteenth day. The headman visits the house on the previous day,
and, after examination of the provisions, helps in cutting up vegetables, etc. On the bojja
day, copper and silver coins, and small pieces of gold, are buried or sown in the field in
which the ceremony is performed. This is called hanabiththodu. The lofty structure,
called gurigi or upparige, is set up over the dhūpe or ashes heaped up into a mound, or in
the field in which the body was cremated, only in the event of the deceased being a
person of importance. In some places, two kinds of structure are used, one called gurigi,
composed of several tiers, for males, and the other called dēlagūdu, consisting of a single
tier, for females. Devil-dancers are engaged, and the commonest kōla performed by them
is the eru kōla, or man and hobby-horse. In the room containing the vessel of water, four
sticks are planted in the ground, and tied together. Over the sticks a cloth is placed, and
the vessel of water placed beneath it. A bit of string is tied to the ceiling, and a piece of
turmeric or a gold ring is attached to the end of it, and suspended so as to touch the water
in the vessel. This is called nīr neralu (shadow in water), and seems to be a custom
among various Tulu castes. After the bojja ceremony, all those who are under death
pollution stand in two rows. A Madavali (washerman) touches them with a cloth, and a
Kēlasi (barber) sprinkles water over them. In this manner, they are freed from pollution.

The most common title among the Bants is Chetti or Setti, but many others occur, e.g.,
Heggade, Nāyaka, Bangēra, Rai, Ballālaru, etc.

Bārang Jhodia.—A sub-division of Poroja.

Bardēshkar (people of twelve countries).—Some families among Konkani Brāhmans
go by this name.

Bāriki.—Bāriki is the name for village watchmen in Southern Ganjam, whose duty it
further is to guide the traveller on the march from place to place. In the Bellary Manual,
Bārika is given as the name for Canarese Kabbēras, who are village servants, who keep
the village chāvadi (caste meeting-house) clean, look after the wants of officials halting
in the village, and perform various other duties. In the Census Report, 1901, the Bārikas
are said to be usually Bōyas. The Bārika of Mysore is defined by Mr. L. Rice as37 “a
menial among the village servants; a deputy talāri, who is employed to watch the crops
from the growing crop to the granary.”

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Bellary district, that “in the middle of the threshold
of nearly all the gateways of the ruined fortifications round the Bellary villages will be
noticed a roughly cylindrical or conical stone, something like a lingam. This is the
boddu-rāyi, literally the navel stone, and so the middle stone. It was planted there when
the fort was built, and is affectionately regarded as being the boundary of the village site.
Once a year, in May, just before the sowing season begins, a ceremony takes place in
connection with it. Reverence is first made to the bullocks of the village, and in the
evening they are driven through the gateway past the boddu-rāyi with tom-toms, flutes,
and all kinds of music. The Bārike next does pūja (worship) to the stone, and then a
string of mango leaves is tied across the gateway above it. The villagers now form sides,
one party trying to drive the bullocks through the gate, and the other trying to keep them
out. The greatest uproar and confusion naturally follow, and, in the midst of the turmoil,
some bullock or other eventually breaks through the guardians of the gate, and gains the
village. If that first bullock is a red one, the red grains on the red soils will flourish in the
coming season. If he is white, white crops like cotton and white cholam will prosper. If
he is red-and-white, both kinds will do well. When the rains fail, and, in any case, on the
first full moon in September, rude human figures drawn on the ground with powdered
charcoal may be seen at cross-roads and along big thoroughfares. They represent
Jōkumāra the rain-god, and are made by the Bārikes—a class of village servants, who
are usually of the Gaurimakkalu sub-division of the Kabbēras. The villagers give the
artists some small remuneration, and believe that luck comes to those who pass over the
figures.”

Bārike.—A title of Gaudos and other Oriya castes.

Barrellu (buffaloes).—An exogamous sept of Kāpu.

Bāsala.—Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu beggars and

soothsayers in Vizagapatam. The word is apparently a corruption of Bāsa-vālu, a sage.
The Bāsa-vālu pretend to be messengers of Indra, the chief of the Dēvatas, and
prognosticate coming events.

Basari (fig tree).—A gōtra of Kurni.

Bāsava Golla.—A name for certain Koyis of the Godāvari district, whose grandfathers
had a quarrel with some of their neighbours, and separated from them. The name Bāsava
is said to be derived from bhāsha, a language, as these Koyis speak a different language
from the true Gollas.38 In like manner, Bāsa Kondhs are those who speak their proper
language, in contradistinction to those who speak Oriya, or Oriya mixed with Kui.

Basavi.—See Dēva-dāsi.

Basiya Korono.—A sub-division of Korono.

Basruvōgaru (basru, belly).—An exogamous sept of Gauda.

Baththāla (rice).—An exogamous sept of Kamma.

Batlu (cup).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Bauri.—There are found in the Madras Presidency nomad gangs of Bauris or

Bāwariyas, who are described39 as “one of the worst criminal tribes of India. The sphere
of their operations extends throughout the length and breadth of the country. They not
only commit robberies, burglaries and thefts, but also practice the art of manufacturing
and passing counterfeit coin. They keep with them a small quantity of wheat and sandal
seeds in a small tin or brass case, which they call Dēvakadana or God’s grain, and a tuft
of peacock’s feathers, all in a bundle. They are very superstitious, and do not embark on
any enterprise without first ascertaining by omens whether it will be attended with
success or not. This they do by taking at random a small quantity of grains out of their
Dēvakadana and counting the number of grains, the omen being considered good or bad
according as the number of seeds is odd or even. For a detailed record of the history of
this criminal class, and the methods employed in the performance of criminal acts, I
would refer the reader to the accounts given by Mr. Paupa Rao40 and Mr. W. Crooke.41

Bāvāji.—The Bāvājis are Bairāgi or Gosāyi beggars, who travel about the country. They
are known by various names, e.g., Bairāgi, Sādu, etc.

Bāvuri.—The Bāvuris, or Bauris, are a low class of Oriya basket-makers, living in

Ganjam, and are more familiarly known as Khodālo. They are a polluting class, living in
separate quarters, and occupy a position lower than the Sāmantiyas, but higher than the
Kondras, Dandāsis, and Haddis. They claim that palanquin (dhooly or dūli) bearing is
their traditional occupation, and consequently call themselves Bōyi. “According to one
story,” Risley writes,42 “they were degraded for attempting to steal food from the
banquet of the gods; another professes to trace them back to a mythical ancestor named
Bāhak Rishi (the bearer of burdens), and tells how, while returning from a marriage
procession, they sold the palanquin they had been hired to carry, got drunk on the
proceeds, and assaulted their guru (religious preceptor), who cursed them for the
sacrilege, and condemned them to rank thenceforward among the lowest castes of the
community.” The Bāvuris are apparently divided into two endogamous sections, viz.,
Dulia and Khandi. The former regard themselves as superior to the latter, and prefer to
be called Khodālo. Some of these have given up eating beef, call themselves Dāsa
Khodālos, and claim descent from one Balliga Doss, a famous Bāvuri devotee, who is
said to have worked wonders, analogous to those of Nandan of the Paraiyan community.
To this section the caste priests belong. At Russelkonda, a woman, when asked if she
was a Bāvuri, replied that the caste is so called by others, but that its real name is
Khodālo. Others, in reply to a question whether they belonged to the Khandi section,
became angry, and said that the Khandis are inferior, because they eat frogs.

The Bāvuris gave the name of two gōtras, saptha bhavunia and nāga, which are said to
be exogamous. The former offer food to the gods on seven leaves of the white gourd
melon, Benincasa cerifera (kokkara), and the latter on jak (Artocarpus integrifolia:
panasa) leaves. All over the Oriya country there is a general belief that house-names or
bamsams are foreign to the Oriya castes, and only possessed by the Telugus. But some
genuine Oriya castes, e.g., Haddis, Dandāsis and Bhondāris, have exogamous bamsams.

For every group of villages (muttah), the Bāvuris apparently have a headman called
Bēhara, who is assisted by Naikos or Dolo Bēharas, or, in some places, Dondias or
Porichas, who hold sway over a smaller number of villages. Each village has its own
headman, called Bhollobhaya (good brother), to whose notice all irregularities are
brought. These are either settled by himself, or referred to the Bēhara and Naiko. In
some villages, in addition to the Bhollobhaya, there is a caste servant called Dangua or
Dogara. For serious offences, a council-meeting is convened by the Bēhara, and attended
by the Bhollobhayas, Naikos, and a few leading members of the community. The
meeting is held in an open plain outside the village. Once in two or three years, a
council-meeting, called mondolo, is held, at which various matters are discussed, and
decided. The expenses of meetings are defrayed by the inhabitants of the villages in
which they take place. Among the most important matters to be decided by tribunals are
adultery, eating with lower castes, the re-admission of convicts into the caste, etc.
Punishment takes the form of a fine, and trial by ordeal is apparently not resorted to. A
man, who is convicted of committing adultery, or eating with a member of a lower caste,
is received back into the caste on payment of the fine. A woman, who has been proved
guilty of such offences, is not so taken back. It is said that, when a member of a higher
caste commits adultery with a Bāvuri woman, he is sometimes received into the Bāvuri
caste. The Bēhara receives a small fee annually from each village or family, and also a
small present of money for each marriage.

Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man may marry his maternal uncle’s,
but not his paternal aunt’s daughter. At an adult marriage, the festivities last for four
days, whereas, at an infant marriage, they are extended over seven days. When a young
man’s parents have selected a girl for him, they consult a Brāhman, and, if he decides
that the marriage will be auspicious, they proceed to the girl’s home, and ask that a day
be fixed for the betrothal. On the appointed day the amount of money, which is to be
paid by the bridegroom-elect for jewels, etc., is fixed. One or two new cloths must be
given to the girl’s grandmother, and the man’s party must announce the number of feasts
they intend to give to the castemen. If the family is poor, the feasts are mentioned, but do
not actually take place. The marriage ceremony is always celebrated at night. On the
evening of the day prior thereto, the bride and bridegroom’s people proceed to the
temple of the village goddess (Tākurāni), and, on their way home, go to seven houses of
members of their own or some higher caste, and ask them to give them water, which is
poured into a small vessel. This vessel is taken home, and hung over the bedi (marriage
dais). The water is used by the bride and bridegroom on the following morning for
bathing. On the marriage day, the bridegroom proceeds to the bride’s village, and is met
on the way by her party, and escorted by his brother-in-law to the dais. The Bhollobhaya
enquires whether the bride’s party have received everything as arranged, and, when he
has been assured on this point, the bride is brought to the dais by her maternal uncle. She
carries with her in her hands a little salt and rice; and, after throwing these over the
bridegroom, she sits by his side. The grandfathers of the contracting couple, or a priest
called Dhiyāni, officiate. Their palms are placed together, and the hands united by a
string dyed with turmeric. The union of the hands is called hasthagonti, and is the
binding portion of the ceremony. Turmeric water is poured over the hands seven times
from a chank or sankha shell. Seven married women then throw over the heads of the
couple a mixture of Zizyphus Jujuba (borkolipathro) leaves, rice smeared with turmeric,
and Cynodon Dactylon (dhūba) culms. This rite is called bhondaivaro, and is performed
at all auspicious ceremonies. The fingers of the bride and bridegroom are then linked
together, and they are led by the wife of the bride’s brother seven times round the bedi.
The priest then proclaims that the soot can soon be wiped off the cooking-pot, but the
connection brought about by the marriage is enduring, and relationship is secured for
seven generations. The pair are taken indoors, and fed. The remaining days of the
marriage ceremonies are given up to feasting. The remarriage of widows is permitted. A
widow is expected to marry the younger brother of her deceased husband, or, with his
permission, may marry whom she likes.

When a girl attains maturity, she is seated on a new mat, and Zizyphus Jujuba leaves are
thrown over her. This ceremony is sometimes repeated daily for six days, during which
sweets, etc., are given to the girl, and women who bring presents are fed. On the seventh
day, the girl is taken to a tank (pond), and bathed.

The dead are either buried or burnt. The corpse is, at the funeral, borne in the hands, or
on a bier, by four men. Soon after the village boundary has been crossed, the widow of
the deceased throws rice over the eyes of the corpse, and also a little fire, after taking it
three times round. She usually carries with her a pot and ladle, which she throws away. If
an elderly woman dies, these rites are performed by her daughter-in-law. At the burial-
ground, the corpse is taken seven times round the grave, and, as it is lowered into it,
those present say “Oh! trees, Oh! sky, Oh! earth, we are laying him in. It is not our
fault.” When the grave has been filled in, the figures of a man and woman are drawn on
it, and all throw earth over it, saying “You were living with us; now you have left us. Do
not trouble the people.” On their return home, the mourners sprinkle cowdung water
about the house and over their feet, and toddy is partaken of. On the following day, all
the old pots are thrown away, and the agnates eat rice cooked with margosa (Melia
Azadirachta) leaves. Food is offered to the dead person, either at the burial-ground or in
the backyard of the house. On the tenth day, the Dhiyani, as the priest is called, is sent
for, and arrives with his drum (dhiyani). A small hut is erected on a tank bund
(embankment), and food cooked seven times, and offered seven times on seven
fragments of pots. A new cloth is spread, and on it food, fruits, a chank shell, etc., are
placed, and offered to the deceased. The various articles are put into a new pot, and the
son, going into the water up to his neck, throws the pot into the air, and breaks it. The
celebrants of the rite then return to the house, and stand in a row in front thereof. They
are there purified by means of milk smeared over their hands by the Dhiyani. On the
twelfth day, food is offered on twelve leaves.

The Bāvuris do not worship Jagannāthāswāmi, or other of the higher deities, but
reverence their ancestors and the village goddesses or Tākurānis. Like other Oriya
classes, the Bāvuris name their children on the twenty-first day. Opprobrious names are
common among them, e.g., Ogādu (dirty fellow), Kangāli (wretched fellow), Haddia
(Haddi, or sweeper caste).

Bēdar or Bōya.—“Throughout the hills,” Buchanan writes,43 “northward from

Capaladurga, are many cultivated spots, in which, during Tippoo’s government, were
settled many Baydaru or hunters, who received twelve pagodas (£4 5s.) a year, and
served as irregular troops whenever required. Being accustomed to pursue tigers and
deer in the woods, they were excellent marksmen with their match-locks, and
indefatigable in following their prey; which, in the time of war, was the life and property
of every helpless creature that came in their way. During the wars of Hyder and his son,
these men were chief instruments in the terrible depredations committed in the lower
Carnatic. They were also frequently employed with success against the Poligars (feudal
chiefs), whose followers were of a similar description.” In the Gazetteer of the
Anantapur district it is noted that “the Bōyas are the old fighting caste of this part of the
country, whose exploits are so often recounted in the history books. The Poligars’ forces,
and Haidar Ali’s famous troops were largely recruited from these people, and they still
retain a keen interest in sport and manly exercises.”

In his notes on the Bōyas, which Mr. N. E. Q. Mainwaring has kindly placed at my
disposal, he writes as follows. “Although, until quite recently, many a Bōya served in the
ranks of our Native army, being entered in the records thereof either under his caste title
of Naidu, or under the heading of Gentu,44 which was largely used in old day military
records, yet this congenial method of earning a livelihood has now been swept away by a
Government order, which directs that in future no Telegas shall be enlisted into the
Indian army. That the Bōyas were much prized as fighting men in the stirring times of
the eighteenth century is spoken to in the contemporaneous history of Colonel Wilks.45
He speaks of the brave armies of the Poligars of Chitteldroog, who belonged to the
Beder or Bōya race in the year 1755. Earlier, in 1750, Hyder Ali, who was then only a
Naik in the service of the Mysore Rāja, used with great effect his select corps of Beder
peons at the battle of Ginjee. Five years after this battle, when Hyder was rising to great
eminence, he augmented his Beder peons, and used them as scouts for the purpose of
ascertaining the whereabouts of his enemies, and for poisoning with the juice of the
milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli) all wells in use by them, or in their line of march. The
historian characterises them as being ‘brave and faithful thieves.’ In 1751, the most
select army of Morari Row of Gooty consisted chiefly of Beder peons, and the accounts
of their deeds in the field, as well as their defence of Gooty fort, which only fell after the
meanness of device had been resorted to, prove their bravery in times gone by beyond
doubt. There are still a number of old weapons to be found amongst the Bōyas,
consisting of swords, daggers, spears, and matchlocks. None appear to be purely Bōya
weapons, but they seem to have assumed the weapons of either Muhammadans or
Hindus, according to which race held sway at the time. In some districts, there are still
Bōya Poligars, but, as a rule, they are poor, and unable to maintain any position.
Generally, the Bōyas live at peace with their neighbours, occasionally only committing a
grave dacoity (robbery).46

“In the Kurnool district, they have a bad name, and many are on the police records as
habitual thieves and housebreakers. They seldom stoop to lesser offences. Some are
carpenters, others blacksmiths who manufacture all sorts of agricultural implements.
Some, again, are engaged as watchmen, and others make excellent snares for fish out of
bamboo. But the majority of them are agriculturists, and most of them work on their own
putta lands. They are now a hard-working, industrious people, who have become thrifty
by dint of their industry, and whose former predatory habits are being forgotten. Each
village, or group of villages, submits to the authority of a headman, who is generally
termed the Naidu, less commonly Dora as chieftain. In some parts of Kurnool, the
headmen are called Simhasana Bōyas. The headman presides at all functions, and settles,
with the assistance of the elders, any disputes that may arise in the community regarding
division of property, adultery, and other matters. The headman has the power to inflict
fines, the amount of which is regulated by the status and wealth of the defaulter. But it is
always arranged that the penalty shall be sufficient to cover the expense of feeding the
panchayatdars (members of council), and leave a little over to be divided between the
injured party and the headman. In this way, the headman gets paid for his services, and
practically fixes his own remuneration.”

It is stated in the Manual of the Bellary district that “of the various Hindu castes in
Bellary, the Bōyas (called in Canarese Bēdars, Byēdas, or Byādās) are far the strongest
numerically. Many of the Poligars whom Sir Thomas Munro found in virtual possession
of the country when it was added to the Company belonged to this caste, and their
irregular levies, and also a large proportion of Haidar’s formidable force, were of the
same breed. Harpanahalli was the seat of one of the most powerful Poligars in the
district in the eighteenth century. The founder of the family was a Bōya taliāri, who, on
the subversion of the Vijayanagar dynasty, seized on two small districts near
Harpanahalli. The Bōyas are perhaps the only people in the district who still retain any
aptitude for manly sports. They are now for the most part cultivators and herdsmen or
are engaged under Government as constables, peons, village watchmen (taliāris), and so
forth. Their community provides an instructive example of the growth of caste sub-
divisions. Both the Telugu-speaking Bōyas and the Canarese-speaking Bēdars are split
into the two main divisions of Ūru or village men, and Myāsa or grass-land men, and
each of these divisions is again sub-divided into a number of exogamous Bedagas. Four
of the best known of these sub-divisions are Yemmalavaru or buffalo-men; Mandalavaru
or men of the herd; Pūlavaru or flower-men, and Mīnalavaru or fish-men. They are in no
way totemistic. Curiously enough, each Bedagu has its own particular god, to which its
members pay special reverence. But these Bedagas bear the same names among both the
Bōyas and the Bēdars, and also among both the Ūru and Myāsa divisions of both Bōyas
and Bēdars. It thus seems clear that, at some distant period, all the Bōyas and all the
Bēdars must have belonged to one homogeneous caste. At present, though Ūru Bōyas
will marry with Ūru Bēdars and Myāsa Bōyas with Myāsa Bēdars, there is no
intermarriage between Ūrus and Myāsas, whether they be Bōyas or Bēdars. Even if Ūrus
and Myāsas dine together, they sit in different rows, each division by themselves. Again,
the Ūrus (whether Bōyas or Bēdars) will eat chicken and drink alcohol, but the Myāsas
will not touch a fowl or any form of strong drink, and are so strict in this last matter that
they will not even sit on mats made of the leaf of the date-palm, the tree which in Bellary
provides all the toddy. The Ūrus, moreover, celebrate their marriages with the ordinary
ceremonial of the hālu-kamba or milk-post, and the surge, or bathing of the happy pair;
the bride sits on a flour-grinding stone, and the bridegroom stands on a basket full of
cholam (millet), and they call in Brāhmans to officiate. But the Myāsas have a simpler
ritual, which omits most of these points, and dispenses with the Brāhman. Other
differences are that the Ūru women wear ravikkais or tight-fitting bodices, while the
Myāsas tuck them under their waist-string. Both divisions eat beef, and both have a
hereditary headman called the ejamān, and hereditary Dāsaris who act as their priests.”

Bedar.

In the Madras Census Report, 1901, it is stated that the two main divisions of Bōyas are
called also Pedda (big) and Chinna (small) respectively, and, according to another
account, the caste has four endogamous sections, Pedda, Chinna, Sadaru, and Myāsa.
Sadaru is the name of a sub-division of Lingāyats, found mainly in the Bellary and
Anantapur districts, where they are largely engaged in cultivation. Some Bēdars who
live amidst those Lingāyats call themselves Sadaru. According to the Manual of the
North Arcot district, the Bōyas are a “Telugu hunting caste, chiefly found above the
ghāts. Many of the Poligars of that part of the country used to belong to the caste, and
proved themselves so lawless that they were dispossessed. Now they are usually
cultivators. They have several divisions, the chief of which are the Mulki Bōyas and the
Pāla Bōyas, who cannot intermarry.” According to the Mysore Census Reports, 1891 and
1901, “the Bēdas have two distinct divisions, the Kannada and Telugu, and own some
twenty sub-divisions, of which the following are the chief:—Hālu, Māchi or Myāsa,
Nāyaka, Pallegar, Bārika, Kannaiyyanajāti, and Kirātaka. The Māchi or Myāsa Bēdas
comprise a distinct sub-division, also called the Chunchus. They live mostly in hills, and
outside inhabited places in temporary huts. Portions of their community had, it is
alleged, been coerced into living in villages, with whose descendants the others have
kept up social intercourse. They do not, however, eat fowl or pork, but partake of beef;
and the Myāsa Bēdas are the only Hindu class among whom the rite of circumcision is
performed,47 on boys of ten or twelve years of age. These customs, so characteristic of
the Mussalmans, seem to have been imbibed when the members of this sub-caste were
included in the hordes of Haidar Ali. Simultaneously with the circumcision, other rites,
such as the pānchagavyam, the burning of the tongue with a nīm (Melia Azadirachta)
stick, etc. (customs pre-eminently Brahmanical), are likewise practised prior to the youth
being received into communion. Among their other peculiar customs, the exclusion from
their ordinary dwellings of women in child-bed and in periodical sickness, may be noted.
The Myāsa Bēdas are said to scrupulously avoid liquor of every kind, and eat the flesh
of only two kinds of birds, viz., gauja (grey partridge), and lavga (rock-bush quail).” Of
circumcision among the Myāsa Bēdars it is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Bellary district,
that they practise this rite round about Rayadrūg and Gudekōta. “These Myāsas seem
quite proud of the custom, and scout with scorn the idea of marrying into any family in
which it is not the rule. The rite is performed when a boy is seven or eight. A very small
piece of the skin is cut off by a man of the caste, and the boy is then kept for eleven days
in a separate hut, and touched by no one. His food is given him on a piece of stone. On
the twelfth day he is bathed, given a new cloth, and brought back to the house, and his
old cloth, and the stone on which his food was served, are thrown away. His relations in
a body then take him to a tangēdu (Cassia auriculata) bush, to which are offered
cocoanuts, flowers, and so forth, and which is worshipped by them and him. Girls on
first attaining puberty are similarly kept for eleven days in a separate hut, and afterwards
made to do worship to a tangēdu bush. This tree also receives reverence at funerals.”

The titles of the Bōyas are said to be Naidu or Nayudu, Naik, Dora, Dorabidda (children
of chieftains), and Valmiki. They claim direct lineal descent from Valmiki, the author of
the Rāmayana. At times of census in Mysore, some Bēdars have set themselves up as
Valmiki Brāhmans. The origin of the Myāsa Bēdas is accounted for in the following
story. A certain Bēdar woman had two sons, of whom the elder, after taking his food,
went to work in the fields. The younger son, coming home, asked his mother to give him
food, and she gave him only cholam (millet) and vegetables. While he was partaking
thereof, he recognised the smell of meat, and was angry because his mother had given
him none, and beat her to death. He then searched the house, and, on opening a pot from
which the smell of meat emanated, found that it only contained the rotting fibre-yielding
bark of some plant. Then, cursing his luck, he fled to the forest, where he remained, and
became the forefather of the Myāsa Bēdars.

For the following note on the legendary origin of the Bēdars, I am indebted to Mr.
Mainwaring. “Many stories are told of how they came into existence, each story bringing
out the name which the particular group may be known by. Some call themselves
Nishadulu, and claim to be the legitimate descendants of Nishadu. When the great
Venudu, who was directly descended from Brahma, ruled over the universe, he was
unable to procure a son and heir to the throne. When he died, his death was regarded as
an irreparable misfortune. In grief and doubt as to what was to be done, his body was
preserved. The seven ruling planets, then sat in solemn conclave, and consulted together
as to what they should do. Finally they agreed to create a being from the right thigh of
the deceased Venudu, and they accordingly fashioned and gave life to Nishudu. But their
work was not successful, for Nishudu turned out to be not only deformed in body, but
repulsively ugly. It was accordingly agreed, at another meeting of the planets, that he
was not a fit person to be placed on the throne. So they set to work again, and created a
being from the right shoulder of Venudu. Their second effort was crowned with success.
They called their second creation Chakravati, and, as he gave general satisfaction, he
was placed on the throne. This supersession naturally caused Nishudu, the first born, to
be discontented, and he sought a lonely place. There he communed with the gods,
begging of them the reason why they had created him, if he was not to rule. The gods
explained to him that he could not now be put on the throne, since Chakravati had
already been installed, but that he should be a ruler over the forests. In this capacity,
Nishudu begot the Koravas, Chenchus, Yānādis, and Bōyas. The Bōyas were his
legitimate children, while the others were all illegitimate. According to the legend
narrated in the Valmiki Rāmayana, when king Vishwamitra quarrelled with the Rishi
Vashista, the cow Kamadenu belonging to the latter, grew angry, and shook herself.
From her body an army, which included Nishadulu, Turka (Muhammadans), and
Yevannudu (Yerukalas) at once appeared.

“A myth related by the Bōyas in explanation of their name Valmikudu runs as follows. In
former days, a Brāhman, who lived as a highwayman, murdering and robbing all the
travellers he came across, kept a Bōya female, and begot children by her. One day, when
he went out to carry on his usual avocation, he met the seven Rishis, who were the
incarnations of the seven planets. He ordered them to deliver their property, or risk their
lives. The Rishis consented to give him all their property, which was little enough, but
warned him that one day he would be called to account for his sinful deeds. The
Brāhman, however, haughtily replied that he had a large family to maintain, and, as they
lived on his plunder, they would have to share the punishment that was inflicted upon
himself. The Rishis doubted this, and advised him to go and find out from his family if
they were willing to suffer an equal punishment with him for his sins. The Brāhman
went to his house, and confessed his misdeeds to his wife, explaining that it was through
them that he had been able to keep the family in luxury. He then told her of his meeting
with the Rishis, and asked her if she would share his responsibility. His wife and
children emphatically refused to be in any way responsible for his sins, which they
declared were entirely his business. Being at his wit’s end, he returned to the Rishis, told
them how unfortunate he was in his family affairs, and begged advice of them as to what
he should do to be absolved from his sins. They told him that he should call upon the
god Rāma for forgiveness. But, owing to his bad bringing up and his misspent youth, he
was unable to utter the god’s name. So the Rishis taught him to say it backwards by
syllables, thus:—ma ra, ma ra, ma ra, which, by rapid repetition a number of times,
gradually grew into Rāma. When he was able to call on his god without difficulty, the
Brāhman sat at the scene of his graver sins, and did penance. White-ants came out of the
ground, and gradually enveloped him in a heap. After he had been thus buried alive, he
became himself a Rishi, and was known as Valmiki Rishi, valmiki meaning an ant-hill.
As he had left children by the Bōya woman who lived with him during his prodigal days,
the Bōyas claim to be descended from these children and call themselves Valmikudu.”

The Bēdars, whom I examined at Hospet in the Bellary district, used to go out on
hunting expeditions, equipped with guns, deer or hog spears, nets like lawn-tennis nets
used in drives for young deer or hares. Several men had cicatrices, as the result of
encounters with wild boars during hunting expeditions, or when working in the sugar
plantations. It is noted in the Bellary Gazetteer that “the only caste which goes in for
manly sports seems to be the Bōyas, or Bēdars, as they are called in Canarese. They
organise drives for pig, hunt bears in some parts in a fearless manner, and are regular
attendants at the village gymnasium (garidi mane), a building without any ventilation
often constructed partly underground, in which the ideal exercise consists in using
dumbbells and clubs until a profuse perspiration follows. They get up wrestling matches,
tie a band of straw round one leg, and challenge all and sundry to remove it, or back
themselves to perform feats of strength, such as running up the steep Joladarāsi hill near
Hospet with a bag of grain on their back.” At Hospet wrestling matches are held at a
quiet spot outside the town, to witness which a crowd of many hundreds collect. The
wrestlers, who performed before me, had the hair shaved clean behind so that the
adversary could not seize them by the back hair, and the moustache was trimmed short
for the same reason. Two young wrestlers, whose measurements I place on record, were
splendid specimens of youthful muscularity.

cm. cm.
Height 163.2 163
Shoulders 41.8 42.8
Chest 84 82
 cm. cm.
Upper arm, flexed 28 29
Thigh 47 51

In the Gazetteer of Anantapur it is stated that the Telugu New Year’s day is the great
occasion for driving pig, and the Bōyas are the chief organisers of the beats. All except
children, the aged and infirm, join in them, and, since to have good sport is held to be the
best of auguries for the coming year, the excitement aroused is almost ludicrous in its
intensity. It runs so high that the parties from rival villages have been known to use their
weapons upon one another, instead of upon the beasts of the chase. In an article entitled
“Bōyas and bears”48 a European sportsman gives the following graphic description of a
bear hunt. “We used to sleep out on the top of one of the hills on a moonlight night. On
the top of every hill round, a Bōya was watching for the bears to come home at dawn,
and frantic signals showed when one had been spotted. We hurried off to the place, to try
and cut the bear off from his residence among the boulders, but the country was terribly
rough, and the hills were covered with a peculiarly persistent wait-a-bit-thorn. This,
however, did not baulk the Bōyas. Telling me to wait outside the jumble of rocks, each
man took off his turban, wound it round his left forearm, to act as a shield against attacks
from the bear, lit a rude torch, grasped his long iron-headed spear, and coolly walked
into the inky blackness of the enemy’s stronghold, to turn him out for me to shoot at. I
used to feel ashamed of the minor part assigned to me in the entertainment, and asked to
be allowed to go inside with them. But this suggestion was always respectfully, but very
firmly put aside. One could not see to shoot in such darkness, they explained, and, if one
fired, smoke hung so long in the still air of the caves that the bear obtained an unpleasant
advantage, and, finally, bullets fired at close quarters into naked rock were apt to splash
or re-bound in an uncanny manner. So I had to wait outside until the bear appeared with
a crowd of cheering and yelling Bōyas after him.” Of a certain cunning bear the same
writer records that, unable to shake the Bōyas off, “he had at last taken refuge at the
bottom of a sort of dark pit, ‘four men deep’ as the Bōyas put it, under a ledge of rock,
where neither spears nor torches could reach him. Not to be beaten, three of the Bōyas at
length clambered down after him, and unable otherwise to get him to budge from under
the mass of rock beneath which he had squeezed himself, fired a cheap little nickel-
plated revolver one of them had brought twice into his face. The bear then concluded
that his refuge was after all an unhealthy spot, rushed out, knocking one of the three men
against the rocks as he did so, with a force which badly barked one shoulder, clambered
out of the pit, and was thereafter kept straight by the Bōyas until he got to the entrance of
his residence, where I was waiting for him.”

Mr. Mainwaring writes that “the Bōyas are adepts at shikar (hunting). They use a bullock
to stalk antelope, which they shoot with matchlocks. Some keep a tame buck, which they
let loose in the vicinity of a herd of antelope, having previously fastened a net over his
horns. As soon as the tame animal approaches the herd, the leading buck will come
forward to investigate the intruder. The tame buck does not run away, as he probably
would if he had been brought up from infancy to respect the authority of the buck of the
herd. A fight naturally ensues, and the exchange of a few butts finds them fastened
together by the net. It is then only necessary for the shikāris to rush up, and finish the
strife with a knife.”

Among other occupations, the Bōyas and Bēdars collect honey-combs, which, in some
places, have to be gathered from crevices in overhanging rocks, which have to be
skilfully manipulated from above or below.

The Bēdar men, whom I saw during the rainy season, wore a black woollen kambli
(blanket) as a body-cloth, and it was also held over the head as a protection against the
driving showers of the south-west monsoon. The same cloth further does duty as a
basket for bringing back to the town heavy loads of grass. Some of the men wore a
garment with the waist high up in the chest, something like an English rustic’s smock
frock. Those who worked in the fields carried steel tweezers on a string round the loins,
with which to remove bābūl (Acacia arabica) thorns, twigs of which tree are used as a
protective hedge for fields under cultivation. As examples of charms worn by men the
following may be cited:—

String tied round right upper arm with metal talisman box attached to it, to drive away devils.
String round ankle for the same purpose.

Quarter-anna rolled up in cotton cloth, and worn on upper arm in performance of a vow.

A man, who had dislocated his shoulder when a lad, had been tattooed with a figure of
Hanumān (the monkey god) over the deltoid muscle to remove the pain.

Necklet of coral and ivory beads worn as a vow to the Goddess Huligamma, whose shrine is in
Hyderabad.

Necklets of ivory beads and a gold disc with the Vishnupād (feet of Vishnu) engraved on it.
Purchased from a religious mendicant to bring good luck.

Myāsa Bēdar women are said49 to be debarred from wearing toe-rings. Both Ūru and
Myāsa women are tattooed on the face, and on the upper extremities with elaborate
designs of cars, scorpions, centipedes, Sīta’s jade (plaited hair), Hanumān, parrots, etc.
Men are branded by the priest of a Hanumān shrine on the shoulders with the emblem of
the chank shell (Turbinella rapa) and chakram (wheel of the law) in the belief that it
enables them to go to Swarga (heaven). When a Myāsa man is branded, he has to
purchase a cylindrical basket called gopāla made by a special Mēdara woman, a bamboo
stick, fan, and winnow. Female Bēdars who are branded become Basavis (dedicated
prostitutes), and are dedicated to a male deity, and called Gandu Basaviōru (male
Basavis). They are thus dedicated when there happens to be no male child in a family;
or, if a girl falls ill, a vow is made to the effect that, if she recovers, she shall become a
Basavi. If a son is born to such a woman, he is affiliated with her father’s family. Some
Bēdar women, whose house deities are goddesses instead of gods, are not branded, but a
string with white bone beads strung on it, and a gold disc with two feet (Vishnupād)
impressed on it, is tied round their neck by a Kuruba woman called Pattantha Ellamma
(priestess to Uligamma). Bēdar girls, whose house deities are females, when they are
dedicated as Basavis, have in like manner a necklace, but with black beads, tied round
the neck, and are called Hennu Basavis (female Basavis). For the ceremony of
dedication to a female deity, the presence of the Mādiga goddess Mātangi is necessary.
The Mādigas bring a bent iron rod with a cup at one end, and twigs of Vitex Negundo to
represent the goddess, to whom goats are sacrificed. The iron rod is set up in front of the
doorway, a wick and oil are placed in the cup, and the impromptu lamp is lighted.
Various cooked articles of food are offered, and partaken of by the assembled Bēdars.
Bēdar women sometimes live in concubinage with Muhammadans. And some Bēdars, at
the time of the Mohurram festival, wear a thread across the chest like Muhammadans,
and may not enter their houses till they have washed themselves.

According to the Mysore Census Report, 1901, the chief deity of the Bēdars is “Tirupati
Venkatarāmanaswāmi worshipped locally under the name of Tirumaladēvaru, but
offerings and sacrifices are also made to Māriamma. Their guru is known as
Tirumalatatachārya, who is also a head of the Srīvaishnava Brāhmans. The Ūru Bōyas
employ Brāhmans and Jangams as priests.” In addition to the deities mentioned, the
Bēdars worship a variety of minor gods, such as Kanimiraya, Kanakarayan, Uligamma,
Palaya, Poleramma, and others, to whom offerings of fruits and vegetables, and
sacrifices of sheep and goats are made. The Dewān of Sandūr informs me that, in recent
times, some Myāsa Bēdars have changed their faith, and are now Saivas, showing
special reverence to Mahadēva. They were apparently converted by Jangams, but not to
the fullest extent. The guru is the head of the Ujjani Lingayat matt (religious institution)
in the Kudligi tāluk of Bellary. They do not wear the lingam. In the Madras Census
Report, 1901, the patron deity of the Bōyas is said to be Kanyā Dēvudu.

Concerning the religion of the Bōyas, Mr. Mainwaring writes as follows. “They worship
both Siva and Vishnu, and also different gods in different localities. In the North Arcot
district, they worship Tirupatiswāmi. In Kurnool, it is Kanyā Dēvudu. In Cuddapah and
Anantapūr, it is Chendrugadu, and many, in Anantapūr, worship Akkamma, who is
believed to be the spirit of the seven virgins. At Uravakonda, in the Anantapūr district,
on the summit of an enormous rock, is a temple dedicated to Akkamma, in which the
seven virgins are represented by seven small golden pots or vessels. Cocoanuts, rice, and
dal (Cajanus indicus) form the offerings of the Bōyas. The women, on the occasion of
the Nāgalasauthi or snake festival, worship the Nāgala swāmi by fasting, and pouring
milk into the holes of ‘white-ant’ hills. By this, a double object is fulfilled. The ‘ant’
heap is a favourite dwelling of the nāga or cobra, and it was the burial-place of Vālmīki,
so homage is paid to the two at the same time. Once a year, a festival is celebrated in
honour of the deceased ancestors. This generally takes place about the end of November.
The Bōyas make no use of Brāhmans for religious purposes. They are only consulted as
regards the auspicious hour at which to tie the tāli at a wedding. Though the Bōya finds
little use for the Brāhman, there are times when the latter needs the services of the Bōya.
The Bōya cannot be dispensed with, if a Brāhman wishes to perform Vontigadu, a
ceremony by which he hopes to induce favourable auspices under which to celebrate a
marriage. The story has it that Vontigadu was a destitute Bōya, who died from starvation.
It is possible that Brāhmans and Sūdras hope in some way to ameliorate the sufferings of
the race to which Vontigadu belonged, by feeding sumptuously his modern
representative on the occasion of performing the Vontigadu ceremony. On the morning
of the day on which the ceremony, for which favourable auspices are required, is
performed, a Bōya is invited to the house. He is given a present of gingelly (Sesamum)
oil, wherewith to anoint himself. This done, he returns, carrying in his hand a dagger, on
the point of which a lime has been stuck. He is directed to the cowshed, and there given
a good meal. After finishing the meal, he steals from the shed, and dashes out of the
house, uttering a piercing yell, and waving his dagger. He on no account looks behind
him. The inmates of the house follow for some distance, throwing water wherever he has
trodden. By this means, all possible evil omens for the coming ceremony are done away
with.”

I gather50 that some Bōyas in the Bellary district “enjoy inām (rent free) lands for
propitiating the village goddesses by a certain rite called bhūta bali. This takes place on
the last day of the feast of the village goddess, and is intended to secure the prosperity of
the village. The Bōya priest gets himself shaved at about midnight, sacrifices a sheep or
a buffalo, mixes its blood with rice, and distributes the rice thus prepared in small balls
throughout the limits of the village. When he starts out on this business, the whole
village bolts its doors, as it is not considered auspicious to see him then. He returns early
in the morning to the temple of the goddess from which he started, bathes, and receives
new cloths from the villagers.”

At Hospet the Bēdars have two buildings called chāvadis, built by subscription among
members of their community, which they use as a meeting place, and whereat caste
councils are held. At Sandūr the Ūru Bēdars submit their disputes to their guru, a
Srīvaishnava Brāhman, for settlement. If a case ends in a verdict of guilty against an
accused person, he is fined, and purified by the guru with thīrtham (holy water). In the
absence of the guru, a caste headman, called Kattaintivadu, sends a Dāsari, who may or
may not be a Bēdar, who holds office under the guru, to invite the castemen and the
Samaya, who represents the guru in his absence, to attend a caste meeting. The Samayas
are the pūjāris at Hanumān and other shrines, and perform the branding ceremony, called
chakrānkitam. The Myāsa Bēdars have no guru, but, instead of him, pūjāris belonging to
their own caste, who are in charge of the affairs of certain groups of families. Their caste
messenger is called Dalavai.

The following are examples of exogamous septs among the Bōyas, recorded by Mr.
Mainwaring:—

Mukkara, nose or ear ornament. Kōdi-kandla, fowl’s eyes.

Majjiga, butter-milk. Gādidhe-kandla, donkey’s eyes.
Kukkala, dog. Jōti, light.
Pūla, flowers. Nāmāla, the Vaishnavite nāmam.
Pandhi, pig. Nāgellu, plough.
Chilakala, paroquet. Ulligadda, onions.
Hastham, hand. Jinkala, gazelle.
Yelkamēti, good rat. Dandu, army.
Mīsāla, whiskers. Kattelu, sticks or faggots.
Nemili, peacock. Mēkala, goat.
Pēgula, intestines. Nakka, jackal.
Mījam, seed. Chevvula, ear.
Uttarēni, Achyranthes aspera. Kōtala, fort.
Puchakayala, Citrullus Colocynthis. Chāpa, mat.
Gandhapodi, sandal powder. Guntala, pond.
Pasula, cattle. Thappata, drum.
Chinthakāyala, Tamarindus indica. Bellapu, jaggery.
Āvula, cow. Chīmala, ants.
Udumala, lizard (Varanus). Gennēru, Nerium odorum.
Pulagam, cooked rice and dhal. Pichiga, sparrows.
Boggula, charcoal. Uluvala, Dolichos biflorus.
Midathala, locust. Geddam, beard.
Potta, abdomen. Eddula, bulls.
Ūtla, swing for holding pots. Cheruku, sugar-cane.
Rottala, bread. Pasupu, turmeric.
Chimpiri, rags. Aggi, fire.
Panchalingāla, five lingams. Mirapakāya, Capsicum frutescens.
Gudisa, hut. Janjapu, sacred thread.
Tōta, garden. Sankati, rāgi or millet pudding.
Lanka, island. Jerripōthu, centipede.
Bilpathri, Ægle Marmelos. Guvvala, pigeon.

Many of these septs are common to the Bōyas and other classes, as shown by the
following list:—
 Āvula, cow—Korava. Lanka, island—Kamma.
Boggula, charcoal—Dēvānga. Mēkala, goat—Chenchu, Golla,
Cheruku, sugar-cane—Jōgi, Oddē. Kamma, Kāpu, Togata, Yānādi.
Chevvula, ear—Golla. Midathala, locust—Mādiga.
Chilakala, paroquet—Kāpu, Yānādi. Nakkala, jackal—Dudala, Golla,
Chīmala, ants—Tsākala. Mutrācha.
Chinthakāyala, tamarind fruit— Nemili, peacock—Balija.
Dēvānga. Pichiga, sparrow—Dēvānga.
Dandu, army—Kāpu. Pandhi, pig—Asili, Gamalla.
Eddula, bulls—Kāpu. Pasula, cattle—Mādiga, Māla.
Gandhapodi, sandal powder—a sub- Puchakāya, colocynth—Kōmati,
division of Balija. Vīramushti.
Geddam, beard—Padma Sālē. Pūla, flowers—Padma Sālē, Yerukala.
Gudisa, hut—Kāpu. Tōta, garden—Chenchu, Mīla,
Guvvala, pigeon—Mutrācha. Mutrācha, Bonthuk Savara.
Jinkala, gazelle—Padma Sālē. Udumala, lizard—Kāpu, Tōttiyan,
Kukkala, dog—Orugunta Kāpu. Yānādi.
Ulligadda, onions—Korava.
Uluvala, horse-gram—Jōgi.
Utla, swing for holding pots—Padma
Sālē.

At Hospet, the preliminaries of a marriage among the Myāsa Bēdars are arranged by the
parents of the parties concerned and the chief men of the kēri (street). On the wedding
day, the bride and bridegroom sit on a raised platform, and five married men place rice
stained with turmeric on the feet, knees, shoulders, and head of the bridegroom. This is
done three times, and five married women then perform a similar ceremony on the bride.
The bridegroom takes up the tāli, and, with the sanction of the assembled Bēdars, ties it
on the bride’s neck. In some places it is handed to a Brāhman priest, who ties it instead
of the bridegroom. The unanimous consent of those present is necessary before the tāli-
tying is proceeded with. The marriage ceremony among the Ūru Bēdars is generally
performed at the bride’s house, whither the bridegroom and his party proceed on the eve
of the wedding. A feast, called thuppathūta or ghī (clarified butter) feast, is held, towards
which the bridegroom’s parents contribute rice, cocoanuts, betel leaves and nuts, and
make a present of five bodices (rāvike). At the conclusion of the feast, all assemble
beneath the marriage pandal (booth), and betel is distributed in a recognised order of
precedence, commencing with the guru and the god. On the following morning four big
pots, smeared with turmeric and chunam (lime) are placed in four corners, so as to have
a square space (irāni square) between them. Nine turns of cotton thread are wound round
the pots. Within the square the bridegroom and two young girls seat themselves. Rice is
thrown over them, and they are anointed. They and the bride are then washed by five
women called bhūmathōru. The bridegroom and one of the girls are carried in procession
to the temple, followed by the five women, one of whom carries a brass vessel with five
betel leaves and a ball of sacred ashes (vibūthi) over its mouth, and another a woman’s
cloth on a metal dish, while the remaining three women and the bridegroom’s parents
throw rice. Cocoanuts and betel are offered to Hanumān, and lines are drawn on the face
of the bridegroom with the sacred ashes. The party then return to the house. The lower
half of a grinding mill is placed beneath the pandal, and a Brāhman priest invites the
contracting couple to stand thereon. He then takes the tāli, and ties it on the bride’s neck,
after it has been touched by the bridegroom. Towards evening the newly married couple
sit inside the house, and close to them is placed a big brass vessel containing a mixture
of cooked rice, jaggery (crude sugar) and curds, which is brought by the women already
referred to. They give a small quantity thereof to the couple, and go away. Five Bēdar
men come near the vessel after removing their head-dress, surround the vessel, and place
their left hands thereon. With their right hands they shovel the food into their mouths,
and bolt it with all possible despatch. This ceremony is called bhūma idothu, or special
eating, and is in some places performed by both men and women. All those present
watch them eating, and, if any one chokes while devouring the food, or falls ill within a
few months, it is believed to indicate that the bride has been guilty of irregular
behaviour. On the following day the contracting couple go through the streets,
accompanied by Bēdars, the brass vessel and female cloth, and red powder is scattered
broadcast. On the morning of the third and two following days, the newly married
couple sit on a pestle, and are anointed after rice has been showered over them. The
bride’s father presents his son-in-law with a turban, a silver ring, and a cloth. It is said
that a man may marry two sisters, provided that he marries the elder before the younger.

The following variant of the marriage ceremonies among the Bōyas is given by Mr.
Mainwaring. “When a Bōya has a son who should be settled in life, he nominally goes in
search of a bride for him, though it has probably been known for a long time who the
boy is to marry. However, the formality is gone through. The father of the boy, on arrival
at the home of the future bride, explains to her father the object of his visit. They discuss
each other’s families, and, if satisfied that a union would be beneficial to both families,
the father of the girl asks his visitor to call again, on a day that is agreed to, with some of
the village elders. On the appointed day, the father of the lad collects the elders of his
village, and proceeds with them to the house of the bride-elect. He carries with him four
moottus (sixteen seers) of rice, one seer of dhal (Cajanus indicus), two seers of ghī
(clarified butter), some betel leaves and areca nuts, a seer of fried gram, two lumps of
jaggery (molasses), five garlic bulbs, five dried dates, five pieces of turmeric, and a
female jacket. In the evening, the elders of both sides discuss the marriage, and, when it
is agreed to, the purchase money has to be at once paid. The cost of a bride is always 101
madas, or Rs. 202. Towards this sum, sixteen rupees are counted out, and the total is
arrived at by counting areca nuts. The remaining nuts, and articles which were brought
by the party of the bridegroom, are then placed on a brass tray, and presented to the
bride-elect, who is requested to take three handfuls of nuts and the same quantity of betel
leaves. On some occasions, the betel leaves are omitted. Betel is then distributed to the
assembled persons. The provisions which were brought are next handed over to the
parents of the girl, in addition to two rupees. These are to enable her father to provide
himself with a sheet, as well as to give a feast to all those who are present at the
betrothal. This is done on the following morning, when both parties breakfast together,
and separate. The wedding is usually fixed for a day a fortnight or a month after the
betrothal ceremony. The ceremony differs but slightly from that performed by various
other castes. A purōhit is consulted as to the auspicious hour at which the tāli or bottu
should be tied. This having been settled, the bridegroom goes, on the day fixed, to the
bride’s village, or sometimes the bride goes to the village of the bridegroom. Supposing
the bridegroom to be the visitor, the bride’s party carries in procession the provisions
which are to form the meal for the bridegroom’s party, and this will be served on the first
night. As the auspicious hour approaches, the bride’s party leave her in the house, and go
and fetch the bridegroom, who is brought in procession to the house of the bride. On
arrival, he is made to stand under the pandal which has been erected. A curtain is tied
therein from north to south. The bridegroom then stands on the east of the curtain, and
faces west. The bride is brought from the house, and placed on the west of the curtain,
facing her future husband. The bridegroom then takes up the bottu, which is generally a
black thread with a small gold bead upon it. He shows it to the assembled people, and
asks permission to fasten it on the bride’s neck. The permission is accorded with
acclamations. He then fastens the bottu on the bride’s neck, and she, in return, ties a
thread from a black cumbly (blanket), on which a piece of turmeric has been threaded,
round the right wrist of the bridegroom. After this, the bridegroom takes some seed, and
places it in the bride’s hand. He then puts some pepper-corns with the seed, and forms
his hands into a cup over those of the bride. Her father then pours milk into his hand, and
the bridegroom, holding it, swears to be faithful to his wife until death. After he has
taken the oath, he allows the milk to trickle through into the hands of the bride. She
receives it, and lets it drop into a vessel placed on the ground between them. This is done
three times, and the oath is repeated with each performance. Then the bride goes through
the same ceremony, swearing on each occasion to be true to her husband until death.
This done, both wipe their hands on some rice, which is placed close at hand on brass
trays. In each of these trays there must be five seers of rice, five pieces of turmeric, five
bulbs of garlic, a lump of jaggery, five areca nuts, and five dried dates. When their hands
are dry, the bridegroom takes as much of the rice as he can in his hands, and pours it
over the bride’s head. He does this three times, before submitting to a similar operation
at the hands of the bride. Then each takes a tray, and upsets the contents over the other.
At this stage, the curtain is removed, and, the pair standing side by side, their cloths are
knotted together. The knot is called the knot of Brahma, and signifies that it is Brahma
who has tied them together. They now walk out of the pandal, and make obeisance to the
sun by bowing, and placing their hands together before their breasts in the reverential
position of prayer. Returning to the pandal, they go to one corner of it, where five new
and gaudily painted earthenware pots filled with water have been previously arranged.
Into one of these pots, one of the females present drops a gold nose ornament, or a man
drops a ring. The bride and bridegroom put their right hands into the pot, and search for
the article. Whichever first finds it takes it out, and, showing it, declares that he or she
has found it. This farce is repeated three times, and the couple then take their seats on a
cumbly in the centre of the pandal, and await the preparation of the great feast which
closes the ceremony. For this, two sheep are killed, and the friends and relations who
have attended are given as much curry and rice as they can eat. Next morning, the couple
go to the bridegroom’s village, or, if the wedding took place at his village, to that of the
bride, and stay there three days before returning to the marriage pandal. Near the five
water-pots already mentioned, some white-ant earth has been spread at the time of the
wedding, and on this some paddy (unhusked rice) and dhal seeds have been scattered on
the evening of the day on which the wedding commenced. By the time the couple return,
these seeds have sprouted. A procession is formed, and the seedlings, being gathered up
by the newly married couple, are carried to the village well, into which they are thrown.
This ends the marriage ceremony. At their weddings, the Bōyas indulge in much music.
Their dresses are gaudy, and suitable to the occasion. The bridegroom, if he belongs to
either of the superior gōtras, carries a dagger or sword placed in his cummerbund (loin-
band). A song which is frequently sung at weddings is known as the song of the seven
virgins. The presence of a Basavi at a wedding is looked on as a good omen for the
bride, since a Basavi can never become a widow.”

In some places, a branch of Ficus religiosa or Ficus bengalensis is planted in front of the
house as the marriage milk-post. If it withers, it is thrown away, but, if it takes root, it is
reared. By some Bēdars a vessel is filled with milk, and into it a headman throws the
nose ornament of a married woman, which is searched for by the bride and bridegroom
three times. The milk is then poured into a pit, which is closed up. In the North Arcot
Manual it is stated that the Bōya bride, “besides having a golden tāli tied to her neck, has
an iron ring fastened to her wrist with black string, and the bridegroom has the same.
Widows may not remarry or wear black bangles, but they wear silver ones.”

“Divorce,” Mr. Mainwaring writes, “is permitted. Grounds for divorce would be adultery
and ill-treatment. The case would be decided by a panchāyat (council). A divorced
woman is treated as a widow. The remarriage of widows is not permitted, but there is
nothing to prevent a widow keeping house for a man, and begetting children by him. The
couple would announce their intention of living together by giving a feast to the caste. If
this formality was omitted, they would be regarded as outcastes till it was complied with.
The offspring of such unions are considered illegitimate, and they are not taken or given
in marriage to legitimate children. Here we come to further social distinctions. Owing to
promiscuous unions, the following classes spring into existence:—
1. Swajathee Pure Bōyas, the offspring of parents who have been properly
Sumpradayam. married in the proper divisions and sub-divisions.
2. Koodakonna The offspring of a Bōya female, who is separated or divorced
Sumpradayam. from her husband who is still alive, and who cohabits with
another Bōya.
3. Vithunthu The offspring of a Bōya widow by a Bōya.
Sumpradayam.
4. Arsumpradayam. The offspring of a Bōya man or woman, resulting from
cohabitation with a member of some other caste.

The Swajathee Sumpradayam should only marry among themselves. Koodakonna

Sumpradayam and Vithunthu Sumpradayam may marry among themselves, or with each
other. Both being considered illegitimate, they cannot marry Swajathee Sumpradayam,
and would not marry Arsumpradayam, as these are not true Bōyas, and are nominally
outcastes, who must marry among themselves.”

On the occasion of a death among the Ūru Bēdars of Hospet, the corpse is carried on a
bier by Ūru Bēdars to the burial-ground, with a new cloth thrown over, and flowers
strewn thereon. The sons of the deceased each place a quarter-anna in the mouth of the
corpse, and pour water near the grave. After it has been laid therein, all the agnates throw
earth into it, and it is filled in and covered over with a mound, on to the head end of
which five quarter-anna pieces are thrown. The eldest son, or a near relation, takes up a
pot filled with water, and stands at the head of the grave, facing west. A hole is made in
the pot, and, after going thrice round the grave, he throws away the pot behind him, and
goes home without looking back. This ceremony is called thelagolu, and, if a person dies
without any heir, the individual who performs it succeeds to such property as there may
be. On the third day the mound is smoothed down, and three stones are placed over the
head, abdomen, and legs of the corpse, and whitewashed. A woman brings some luxuries
in the way of food, which are mixed up in a winnowing tray divided into three portions,
and placed in the front of the stones for crows to partake of. Kites and other animals are
driven away, if they attempt to steal the food. On the ninth day, the divasa (the day)
ceremony is performed. At the spot where the deceased died is placed a decorated brass
vessel representing the soul of the departed, with five betel leaves and a ball of sacred
ashes over its mouth. Close to it a lamp is placed, and a sheep is killed. Two or three
days afterwards, rice and vegetables are cooked. Those who have been branded carry
their gods, represented by the cylindrical bamboo basket and stick already referred to, to
a stream, wash them therein, and do worship. On their return home, the food is offered to
their gods, and served first to the Dāsari, and then to the others, who must not eat till
they have received permission from the Dāsari. When a Myāsa Bēdar, who has been
branded, dies his basket and stick are thrown into the grave with the corpse.
In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, the Mysore Bēdars are said to cremate the dead, and
on the following day to scatter the ashes on five tangēdu (Cassia auriculata) trees.

It is noted by Buchanan51 that the spirits of Baydaru men who die without having
married become Vīrika (heroes), and to their memory have small temples and images
erected, where offerings of cloth, rice, and the like, are made to their names. If this be
neglected, they appear in dreams, and threaten those who are forgetful of their duty.
These temples consist of a heap or cairn of stones, in which the roof of a small cavity is
supported by two or three flags; and the image is a rude shapeless stone, which is
occasionally oiled, as in this country all other images are.”

Bēdar.—See Vēdan.

Bēgara.—Bēgara or Byāgara is said to be a synonym applied by Canarese Lingāyats to

Holeyas.

Bēhara.—Recorded, at times of census, as a title of various Oriya castes, e.g., Alia,

Aruva, Dhōbi, Gaudo, Jaggali, Kevuto, Kurumo, Ronguni, and Sondi. In some cases,
e.g., among the Rongunis, the title is practically an exogamous sept. The headman of
many Oriya castes is called Bēhara.

Bejjo.—A sub-division of Bhondāri, and title of Kevuto.

Bēlata (Feronia elephantum: wood-apple).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Bellapu (jaggery: palm-sugar).—An exogamous sept of Boya.

Bellara.—“The Bellaras, or Belleras,” Mr. H. A. Stuart writes,52 “are a somewhat higher

caste of basket and mat-makers than the Parava umbrella-makers and devil-dancers.
They speak a dialect of Canarese (see South Canara Manual, Vol. II). They follow the
aliya santāna law (inheritance in the female line), but divorce is not so easy as amongst
most adherents of that rule of inheritance, and divorced women, it is said, may not marry
again. Widows, however, may remarry. The dead are either burned or buried, and a feast
called Yede Besala is given annually in the name of deceased ancestors. The use of
alcohol and flesh, except beef, is permitted. They make both grass and bamboo mats.”

Bellathannaya (jaggery: crude sugar).—An exogamous sept of Bant.

Bellē (white).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The equivalent bilē occurs as a gōtra of
Kurni.

Belli.—Belli or Velli, meaning silver, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of

Badaga, Korava, Kuruba, Mādiga, Okkiliyan, Toreya, and Vakkaliga. The Belli Toreyas
may not wear silver toe-rings.

Vellikkai, or silver-handed, has been returned as a sub-division of the Konga Vellalas.

Bēlu (Feronia elephantum).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Benayito.—A sub-division of Odiya.

Bendē (Hibiscus esculentus).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The mucilaginous fruit

(bendēkai or bandicoy) of this plant is a favourite vegetable of both Natives and
Europeans. The nickname Bendēkai is sometimes given, in reference to the sticky nature
of the fruit, to those who try to smooth matters over between contending parties.

Bengri (frog).—A sept of Dōmb.

Benia.—A small caste of Oriya cultivators and palanquin-bearers in Ganjam. It is on

record53 that in Ganjam honey and wax are collected by the Konds and Benias, who are
expert climbers of precipitous rocks and lofty trees. The name is said to be derived from
bena, grass, as the occupation of the caste was formerly to remove grass, and clear land
for cultivation.

Benise (flint stone).—An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Benne (butter).—A gōtra of Kurni.

Bēpāri.—Bēpāri is, in the Madras Census Report, described as “a caste allied to the
Lambādis. Its members worship a female deity called Banjāra, speak the Bēpāri or
Lambādi language, and claim to be Kshatriyas.” Bhonjo, the title of the Rājāh of
Gumsūr, was returned as a sub-caste. The Rev. G. Gloyer54 correctly makes the name
Boipari synonymous with Brinjāri, and his illustration of a Boipari family represents
typical Lambādis or Brinjāris. Bēpāri and Boipari are forms of Vyapāri or Vēpāri,
meaning a trader. The Bēpāris are traders and carriers between the hills and plains in the
Vizagapatam Agency tracts. Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao informs me that “they regard
themselves as immune from the attacks of tigers, if they take certain precautions. Most
of them have to pass through places infested with these beasts, and their favourite
method of keeping them off is as follows. As soon as they encamp at a place, they level a
square bit of ground, and light fires in the middle of it, round which they pass the night.
It is their firm belief that the tiger will not enter the square, from fear lest it should
become blind, and eventually be shot. I was once travelling towards Malkangiri from
Jeypore, when I fell in with a party of these people encamped in the manner described.
At that time, several villages about Malkangiri were being ravaged by a notorious man-
eater (tiger).”
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