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Building a
Future-Proof Cloud
Infrastructure
A Unified Architecture for Network,
Security, and Storage Services
Silvano Gai
With Contributions by
Roger Andersson,
Diego Crupnicoff, and Vipin Jain
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are Editor-in-Chief
claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was Mark Taub
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The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no James Manly
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warranty of any kind. Microsoft and/or its respective suppliers hereby disclaim all warranties
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2019956931
Copyright © 2020 Silvano Gai
Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be
obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval
system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
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please visit www.pearson.com/permissions/.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-662409-7
ISBN-10: 0-13-662409-X
ScoutAutomatedPrintCode
To the women in my family: Antonella, Eleonora,
Evelina, and Carola;
and to Jacopo
This page intentionally left blank
Contents at a Glance
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Distributed Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Network Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 3 Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 4 Network Virtualization Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chapter 5 Security Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 6 Distributed Storage and RDMA Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Chapter 7 CPUs and Domain-Specific Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter 8 NIC Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chapter 9 Implementing a DS Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Chapter 10 DSN Hardware Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Chapter 11 The P4 Domain-Specific Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Chapter 12 Management Architectures for DS Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
v
Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................... xix
Chapter 1: Introduction to Distributed Platforms 2
1.1 The Need for a Distributed Services Platform .......................................................3
1.2 The Precious CPU Cycles......................................................................................4
1.3 The Case for Domain-Specific Hardware ..............................................................4
1.4 Using Appliances ...................................................................................................5
1.5 Attempts at Defining a Distributed Services Platform ...........................................6
1.6 Requirements for a Distributed Services Platform ................................................7
1.7 Summary................................................................................................................9
Chapter 2: Network Design 10
2.1 Bridging and Routing ...........................................................................................11
2.1.1 L2 Forwarding ...............................................................................12
2.1.2 L3 Forwarding ...............................................................................12
2.1.3 LPM Forwarding in Hardware........................................................13
2.1.4 VRF ................................................................................................14
2.2 Clos Topology ......................................................................................................14
2.3 Overlays ...............................................................................................................16
2.3.1 IP in IP ...........................................................................................18
2.3.2 GRE ...............................................................................................18
2.3.3 Modern Encapsulations ................................................................19
2.3.4 VXLAN ...........................................................................................19
2.3.5 MTU Considerations .....................................................................22
2.4 Secure Tunnels ....................................................................................................22
2.5 Where to Terminate the Encapsulation ................................................................23
2.6 Segment Routing .................................................................................................23
vi Table of Contents
2.7 Using Discrete Appliance for Services ................................................................25
2.7.1 Tromboning with VXLAN ...............................................................25
2.7.2 Tromboning with VRF ....................................................................26
2.7.3 Hybrid Tromboning ........................................................................27
2.8 Cache-Based Forwarding ....................................................................................27
2.9 Generic Forwarding Table ....................................................................................29
2.10 Summary............................................................................................................30
2.11 Bibliography .......................................................................................................30
Chapter 3: Virtualization 34
3.1 Virtualization and Clouds .....................................................................................35
3.2 Virtual Machines and Hypervisors .......................................................................37
3.2.1 VMware ESXi .................................................................................40
3.2.2 Hyper-V .........................................................................................41
3.2.3 QEMU ............................................................................................43
3.2.4 KVM ...............................................................................................43
3.2.5 XEN................................................................................................46
3.3 Containers ...........................................................................................................47
3.3.1 Docker and Friends .......................................................................48
3.3.2 Kata Containers .............................................................................49
3.3.3 Container Network Interface .........................................................49
3.3.4 Kubernetes ....................................................................................50
3.4 The Microservice Architecture .............................................................................52
3.4.1 REST API .......................................................................................54
3.4.2 gRPC .............................................................................................54
3.5 OpenStack ...........................................................................................................55
3.6 NFV ......................................................................................................................57
3.7 Summary..............................................................................................................58
3.8 Bibliography .........................................................................................................58
Table of Contents ix
6.2.7 Storage Efficiency .......................................................................125
6.2.8 Storage Reliability .......................................................................126
6.2.9 Offloading and Distributing Storage Services .............................126
6.2.10 Persistent Memory as a New Storage Tier ................................127
6.3 Summary............................................................................................................128
6.4 Bibliography .......................................................................................................128
Chapter 7: CPUs and Domain-Specific Hardware 130
7.1 42 Years of Microprocessor Trend Data ............................................................131
7.2 Moore’s Law ......................................................................................................132
7.3 Dennard Scaling ................................................................................................134
7.4 Amdahl’s Law ....................................................................................................135
7.5 Other Technical Factors .....................................................................................136
7.6 Putting It All Together ........................................................................................137
7.7 Is Moore’s Law Dead or Not? ............................................................................138
7.8 Domain-specific Hardware ................................................................................139
7.9 Economics of the Server....................................................................................139
7.10 Summary..........................................................................................................140
7.11 Bibliography .....................................................................................................140
Chapter 8: NIC Evolution 142
8.1 Understanding Server Buses .............................................................................143
8.2 Comparing NIC Form Factors ...........................................................................144
8.2.1 PCI Plugin Cards .........................................................................144
8.2.2 Proprietary Mezzanine Cards ......................................................146
8.2.3 OCP Mezzanine Cards ................................................................147
8.2.4 Lan On Motherboard ...................................................................148
8.3 Looking at the NIC Evolution .............................................................................149
8.4 Using Single Root Input/Output Virtualization ...................................................152
8.5 Using Virtual I/O .................................................................................................153
x Table of Contents
8.6 Defining “SmartNIC” ..........................................................................................154
8.7 Summary............................................................................................................155
8.8 Bibliography .......................................................................................................155
Chapter 9: Implementing a DS Platform 156
9.1 Analyzing the Goals for a Distributed Services Platform ...................................157
9.1.1 Services Everywhere ...................................................................157
9.1.2 Scaling .........................................................................................157
9.1.3 Speed ..........................................................................................158
9.1.4 Low Latency ................................................................................158
9.1.5 Low Jitter .....................................................................................158
9.1.6 Minimal CPU Load ......................................................................159
9.1.7 Observability and Troubleshooting Capability .............................159
9.1.8 Manageability ..............................................................................160
9.1.9 Host Mode versus Network Mode ..............................................160
9.1.10 PCIe Firewall..............................................................................161
9.2 Understanding Constraints ................................................................................161
9.2.1 Virtualized versus Bare-metal Servers ........................................161
9.2.2 Greenfield versus Brownfield Deployment ..................................162
9.2.3 The Drivers ..................................................................................162
9.2.4 PCIe-only Services ......................................................................162
9.2.5 Power Budget..............................................................................163
9.3 Determining the Target User ..............................................................................163
9.3.1 Enterprise Data Centers ..............................................................163
9.3.2 Cloud Providers and Service Providers.......................................164
9.4 Understanding DSN Implementations ...............................................................164
9.4.1 DSN in Software ..........................................................................164
9.4.2 DSN Adapter ...............................................................................166
9.4.3 DSN Bump-in-the-Wire ...............................................................168
Table of Contents xi
9.4.4 DSN in Switch .............................................................................169
9.4.5 DSNs in an Appliance..................................................................171
9.5 Summary............................................................................................................172
9.6 Bibliography .......................................................................................................173
Chapter 10: DSN Hardware Architectures 174
10.1 The Main Building Blocks of a DSN.................................................................174
10.2 Identifying the Silicon Sweet Spot ...................................................................176
10.2.1 The 16 nm Process ...................................................................177
10.2.2 The 7 nm Process .....................................................................178
10.3 Choosing an Architecture ................................................................................178
10.4 Having a Sea of CPU Cores ............................................................................179
10.5 Understanding Field-Programmable Gate Arrays ...........................................181
10.6 Using Application-Specific Integrated Circuits ...............................................183
10.7 Determining DSN Power Consumption ...........................................................184
10.8 Determining Memory Needs ............................................................................185
10.8.1 Host Memory .............................................................................185
10.8.2 External DRAM ..........................................................................186
10.8.3 On-chip DRAM ..........................................................................186
10.8.4 Memory Bandwidth Requirements ............................................186
10.9 Summary..........................................................................................................187
10.10 Bibliography ...................................................................................................187
Chapter 11: The P4 Domain-Specific Language 190
11.1 P4 Version 16 ...................................................................................................192
11.2 Using the P4 Language ...................................................................................193
11.3 Getting to Know the Portable Switch Architecture .........................................194
11.4 Looking at a P4 Example .................................................................................195
11.5 Implementing the P4Runtime API ....................................................................199
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 A Distributed Services Platform 3
Figure 1-2 Services 6
Figure 1-3 North-South vs. East-West 8
Figure 2-1 LPM Forwarding 13
Figure 2-2 A Clos Network 15
Figure 2-3 Customers and Infrastructure IP Addresses 16
Figure 2-4 Generic Encapsulation 17
Figure 2-5 IPv4 in IPv4 Encapsulation 18
Figure 2-6 GRE Encapsulation 19
Figure 2-7 VXLAN Encapsulation 20
Figure 2-8 VXLAN Encapsulation Details 21
Figure 2-9 VTEPs 21
Figure 2-10 Segment Routing Example 24
Figure 2-11 Example of Trombone at Layer 2 25
Figure 2-12 Example of Trombone at Layer 3 26
Figure 2-13 Cache-based Forwarding in HW 28
Figure 3-1 A Hybrid Cloud 36
Figure 3-2 Different Types of Hypervisors 38
Figure 3-3 A Virtual Switch 39
Figure 3-4 VMware ESXi 40
Figure 3-5 The Hyper-V Architecture 42
Figure 3-6 The KVM Architecture 43
Figure 3-7 Virtio 44
Figure 3-8 KVM, QEMU, Virtio 45
Figure 3-9 vSwitch with SR-IOV 46
Figure 3-10 The XEN Architecture 47
Figure 3-11 Classical Virtualization versus Container Virtualization 48
Figure 3-12 Kata Containers 49
Figure 3-13 Kubernetes Cluster Components 51
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