An ocean is a large area of water between continents.

Oceans are very big and they join

smaller seas together. Oceans (or marine biomes) cover 71% of Earth. There are three main
oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean. Earth’s oceans are all
connected.

The ocean covers 70 percent of Earth's surface. It contains about 1.35 billion cubic kilometers
(324 million cubic miles) of water, which is about 97 percent of all the water on Earth. The
ocean makes all life on Earth possible, and makes the planet appear blue when viewed from
space. Earth is the only planet in our solar system that is definitely known to
contain liquid water.

Ocean characteristics:

 The ocean's surface is uneven due to various factors such as currents, waves,
atmospheric pressure differences, and variations in gravity.
 Currents can be divided into wind-driven and thermohaline circulation, with wind-
driven circulation being the fastest and transporting surplus heat from the tropics to
cooler high latitudes.
 Thermohaline circulation, on the other hand, is slow and slow, creating high density
masses that sink and spread beneath surface waters.
 Surface currents do not flow straight across the Earth's surface, deflecting due to the
Coriolis force and forming circulation systems known as gyres.
 Trade winds push water near the equator in a westward direction, creating strong
currents called western boundary currents.
 An equatorial counter current flows eastward through the Pacific, Atlantic, and
Indian oceans, with examples like the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio in the northern
hemisphere.
 Upwelling and downwelling currents occur off the Pacific coasts of North and South
America and Africa, respectively, with significant mixing currents along the ocean
floor carrying heat energy and salinity.
 According to WOCE, it is said that oceans are approximately just as responsible for
the flow of heat from the tropics to higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere as the
atmosphere.
 Oceans are divided into zones based on physical characteristics, including sunlight,
temperature, salinity, and density.
 The surface zone is an area of shallow seawater that receives the most sunlight.
 Organisms that perform photosynthesis are located here because it’s the only open
ocean part that gets enough sunlight to support growth.
 Most marine animals, such as whales, sharks, and jellyfish, are in the surface zone.
 The middle zone receives very little sunlight and only the blue-green wavelengths.
 The deep zone contains no light and becomes darker and colder as you descend.
 Plants that photosynthesize are not found here because there is no light.
 Many organisms produce light using chemicals in a process called bioluminescence.
 Animals in this zone must be good hunters to survive because there are limited
resources.
 Bottom topography of ocean:

One cannot think of ocean basins without considering continents. In fact, continents and
ocean basins are inseparable major reliefs of the globe. The ocean basins are huge
depressions of great depth, usually more than 2000 m, having basaltic floors with varying
topographic features.
The topography of the ocean floor is called bathymetry. Bathymetry shows the depth of water
in oceans, rivers, and lakes.
The world's greatest mountain ranges, deepest trenches, and widest plains are found on the
rough ocean bottoms. Similar to the continents, these features are the result of depositional,
volcanic, and tectonic activities. These features are:
(1) continental shelf, (2) continental slope, (3) continental rise, (4) abyssal plains, (5) abyssal
hill, (6) mid-ocean ridges, (7) seamounts and guyot’s, (8) deep ocean trenches, and (9)
volcanic islands.

Continental shelves:

 The term “continental shelf” is used by geologists generally to mean that part of the
continental margin which is between the shoreline and the shelf break
 A continental shelf is the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean
 Continental Shelf is the gently sloping seaward extension of continental plate.
 These extended margins of each continent are occupied by relatively shallow seas and
gulfs.
 Continental Shelf of all oceans together covers 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
 Gradient of continental is of 1° or even less.
 The average width of continental shelves is between 70 – 80 km.
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
 The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought
down by rivers, glaciers etc.
 Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves,
become the source of fossil fuels [Petroleum]. Examples: Continental Shelf of South-
East Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia
and New Guinea.
 The shelf is formed mainly due to:
1. Submergence of a part of a continent
2. Relative rise in sea level
 3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers
 There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
1. glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),
2. coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia),
3. shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta),
4. shelf with dendritic valleys (At the Mouth of Hudson River)
5. shelf along young mountain ranges (Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).
 The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the margins like the
coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc.
 It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern coast of USA.
 On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world,
stretches to 1,500 km in width.
 The depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while
in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
 Importance of continental shelf Marine food comes almost entirely from continental
shelves. They provide the richest fishing grounds.

Figure: Continental Selves

Continental slopes:

 It is the seaward border of the continental shelf

 They are potential sites for economic minerals. 20% of the world production of
petroleum and gas comes from shelves.
  Polymetallic nodules (manganese nodules; concentric layers of iron and manganese
hydroxides) etc. are good sources of various minerals
 The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins,
 It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep
slope.
 The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
 The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
 The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives rise to
continental rise. The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.

Figure: Continental Slope

Deep Sea Plain/Abyssal Plain:

 Deep Sea Plain is the flat and rolling submarine plain lying two or three miles below
sea level, and covering two-thirds of the ocean floor, generally termed as Abyssal
Plains.
 ocean basins cover 75% of the total area of the ocean to the other.
 Abyssal plains are the largest habitat on earth
 These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world. (abyssal plain is not being
level and it has extensive submarine plateau ridges, trenches, guyots basins and
oceanic islands)
 The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
 These plains are covered with fine grained sediments like clay and silt.
 The submarine ridges with steep side-slopes reach the sea level and even project
above the water surface and appear as islands. E.g. Mid Atlantic ridge.
Continental Rise:
 The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.
 When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the
continental rise. 19 With increasing depth the rise becomes virtually flat and merges
with the abyssal plain.

Oceanic Deeps and Trenches:

 Ocean deeps represent depressions and trenches (reaches depth of 5,000 fathoms) on
the ocean floors, are the deepest parts of the ocean basins.
 Ocean deeps are grouped into Deeps: very deep but less extensive depressions.

 Trenches: long and narrow linear

depressions. (E.g. Mariana Trench
located to the west of Philippines in the
North Pacific Ocean is the deepest
trench (11,000 meters).
 Oceanic trenches are a feature of the
Earth's distinctive plate tectonics. They
mark the locations of convergent plate
boundaries, along which lithospheric
 plates move towards each other at rates that vary from a few millimeters to over ten
centimeters per year.
 These are generally located parallel to the coasts facing mountains and along the
islands. They are more often found close to the continents, particularly in the Pacific
Ocean.
 The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper
than the surrounding ocean floor.
 They occur at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated
with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes. That is why they are very significant in
the study of plate movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean;
19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.

Figure: Peru-Chili Trench

Mid-oceanic Ridges:
 a seafloor mountain system formed by plate tectonics.
 This feature is where seafloor spreading takes place along a divergent plate boundary.
 The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above
the ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the mid Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
 Undersea mountain ranges are mountain ranges that are mostly or entirely underwater,
and specifically under the surface of an ocean.
 If originated from current tectonic forces, they are often referred to as a mid-ocean
ridge.
 The largest and best-known undersea mountain range is a mid-ocean ridge, the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge.
 It is estimated that along Earth's mid-ocean ridges every year 2.7 km2 (1.0 sq mi) of
new seafloor is formed by this process.
 With a crustal thickness of 7 km (4.3 mi), this amounts to about 19 km3 (4.6 cu mi) of
new ocean crust formed every year.
Seamounts:
 Seamounts are actually undersea mountains that don’t reach the water surface (the
peaks of mountains that reach above the ocean surface become islands!).
 Often seamounts are extinct volcanoes.
 There are approximately 100,000 seamounts across the globe, reaching heights as
much as 4,000 m (13,000 ft) measured from their base to their peaks.
 36 Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are
usually found rising from the seafloor to 1,000–4,000 m (3,300–13,100 ft) in height.

Submarine Canyons:
  These are long, narrow and very deep valleys located on the continental shelves and
slopes with vertical walls resembling the continental canyons are called submarine
canyons.
 They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and slopes, often
extending from the mouths of large rivers.
 Submarine canyons are classified on the morphogenesis as-
 Glacially eroded canyons
 Non-glacial canyons
 The Hudson Canyon is the best-known canyon in the world.

Guyots:
 It is a flat-topped seamount. They show evidences of gradual subsidence through
stages to become flat topped submerged mountains.
 It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean
alone In marine geology, a guyot also known as a table mount, is an isolated
underwater volcanic mountain (seamount) with a flat top more than 200 m (660 ft)
below the surface of the sea.
 The diameters can exceed 10 km (6.2 mi). Guyots are most commonly found in the
Pacific Ocean, but they have been identified in all the oceans except the Arctic Ocean.

Relief of Pacific Ocean:

 Largest and deepest ocean. Covers about one-third of the earth’s surface.
 Average depth is generally around 7,300 meters.
  Its shape is roughly triangular with its apex in the north at the Bering Strait.
 There are a large number of deeps, trenches, seamounts, guyots, and islands.

Relief of the Atlantic:

The Atlantic Ocean is the second -largest of the world's oceans Area: about 106,460,000 km2
It covers 20 % of Earth's surface about 29 % of water surface area.
 Continental Shelf
 Continental Slopes
 Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 Seamounts and guyots
 Trenches
Indian ocean relief:
The bottom reliefs of the Indian Ocean encompass a diverse array of geological features on
its seabed. These include underwater mountain ranges like the mid-oceanic ridges, oceanic
trenches, seamounts, abyssal plains, and continental shelves.

Coral Reef:
Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of colonial marine
invertebrates called coral. The coral species that build reefs are known as hermatypic, or
"hard," corals because they extract calcium carbonate from seawater to create a hard, durable
exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac-like bodies. Other species of corals that are not
involved in reef building are known as “soft” corals. Corals are sessile animals that "take
root" on the ocean floor.
Importance of coral reef:

Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth. Coral reefs
support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including about 4,000
species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other species. Scientists estimate
that there may be millions of undiscovered species of organisms living in and around
reefs. This biodiversity is considered key to finding new medicines for the 21st century.
Many drugs are now being developed from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for
cancer, arthritis, human bacterial infections, viruses, and other diseases.

Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well as jobs and
businesses through tourism and recreation. Approximately half of all federally managed
fisheries depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The
National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S. fisheries from
coral reefs is over $100 million. Local economies receive billions of dollars from visitors to
reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses
based near reef ecosystems.

Coral reef structures also buffer shorelines against 97 percent of the energy from waves,
storms, and floods, helping to prevent loss of life, property damage, and erosion. When reefs
are damaged or destroyed, the absence of this natural barrier can increase the damage to
coastal communities from normal wave action and violent storms. Several million people live
in U.S. coastal areas adjacent to or near coral reefs. Some coastal development is required to
provide necessary infrastructure for coastal residents and the growing coastal tourism
industry.

Despite their great economic and recreational value, coral reefs are severely threatened by
pollution, disease, and habitat destruction. Once coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to
support the many creatures that inhabit them and the communities near them. When a coral
reef supports fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses value as a tourist destination.

Coral reef importance:

A quarter of all marine species live on coral reefs: Known as “rainforests of the sea,”
coral reefs cover less than 1% of the ocean but are home to almost 25% of all known marine
species. Over 4,000 different species of fish rely on coral reefs.
Corals are animals, not plants: There are hard and soft varieties of coral which live
together in large groups called colonies.
Half a billion people rely on coral reefs for food: Coral reefs provide food for a variety of
fish which, in turn, provide food for humans. It’s estimated that around 500 million people in
the world consume the fish found on coral reefs.
Coral reefs need sunlight to grow: Clear and shallow water is where coral reefs thrive: they
generally grow best at depths shallower than 70 meters where sunlight can easily reach.
 Too much heat can be harmful: Corals and algae have a symbiotic relationship but if the
ocean gets too warm, corals expel their algae which causes them to turn white - a process
known as bleaching. In a desperate attempt to survive increasing ocean temperatures, some
corals have been shown to emit vibrant colors.
They act as a barrier during storms: Coral reefs play an important role in protecting
coastal communities from storms and water surges. They act as a buffer and are able to slow
down water flow as well as prevent coastal erosion.
Coral reefs clean the water they’re in: You won’t find coral reefs living in murky water!
Many corals and sponges feed on particles found in the ocean which, in turn, leaves the water
incredibly clear.
They are a huge driver of tourism: In a pre-COVID-19 world, around 71 million people
each year visited coral reefs on holiday. This tourism is hugely important to local economies;
particularly in lesser-known destinations which rely on international tourism.
Coral reefs date back around 240 million years: It’s been recorded that coral reef began
forming as far back as 240 million years ago! Established coral reefs today are between 5,000
- 10,000 years old, although some individual corals may only live a couple of years.

Coral Reefs Formation:

 reefs typically are restricted to relatively shallow, warm tropical waters between 30°
north and south latitudes.
 Clean, clear water with the right amount of nutrients is essential to their health.

Coral Reefs In Peril:

 Coral reefs are sensitive indicators of the health of marine environments. Yet coral reefs are
in decline in many parts of the world. It is estimated that 30% will be destroyed or seriously
degraded in the next ten years.
They are being stressed and killed by a variety of local human activities such as grounding of
ships, improperly placed anchorages, destructive fishing practices, such as dynamiting or
cyanide poisoning, and simply overfishing, which disrupts the balance of these fragile
ecosystems.
Pollution and sediment runoff from land are major causes of stress, and even human activities
conducted at great distance through warming and pollution can affect coral sustainability.
As coral reefs become stressed, they also are more susceptible to viral and bacterial
infections, such as black, white, and yellow band diseases.
Types of Coral Reefs Coral reefs take four principal forms:
1. Fringing reefs
2. Barrier reefs
3. Coral Atolls
4. Platform, or patch, reefs

Fringing Reefs:
A fringing reef, also called a shore reef, is directly attached to a shore, or borders it with an
intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon.
Barrier Reefs:
Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon.
Coral Atolls:
Atolls or atoll reefs are a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef that extends all the
way around a lagoon without a central island.
Platform Reef:
Platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can form on the continental shelf, as well
as in the open ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close enough to the surface of
the ocean to enable the growth of zooxanthemic, reef - forming corals.
Distribution of coral reefs around the world:

Reef-building corals are found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world.

Reef corals are found throughout tropical and subtropical oceans in the Indo-Pacific and
Atlantic, normally between the Tropic of Capricorn and Tropic of Cancer (30ºS, 30ºN
latitude). However, they also occur outside this range where warm water currents travel
outside this band, as is the case where the Gulf Stream Current brings warm tropical water
from the Caribbean north to the islands of Bermuda.