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MATH20201 Algebraic Structures 1

Algebraic Structures 1 (University of Manchester)

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Algebraic Structures I Lecturer: Prof. Peter Rowley

Notes typed by Sara Summerton Last Revision: January 9, 2018

Table of Contents

Groups 1-3
Multiplication Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
Examples of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Groups of Numbers (Additive Groups) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Multiplicative Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Symmetric Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
“Standard Notation” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
Cyclic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
Powers in a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

Subgroups 2-10
Cyclic Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Order of an element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Orders of elements in symmetric groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Some Subgroups of GLn (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Centralizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Centre of a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19

Cyclic Groups 3-20

Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem 4-23

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms 5-26

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Group Theoretic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28

Conjugacy 6-31
Conjugate of a Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-33

Normal Subgroups 7-37

Factor Groups and First Isomorphism Theorem 8-41

Factor Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41
The First Isomorphism Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-43
Using the First Isomorphism Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-44

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DISCLAIMER: Theses notes are unofficial and merely scribed by myself in my own time. I strongly
encourage you to develop and revise off of your own set of notes from lectures. If you revise solely
using these notes, you’re a moron, and I take no responsibility for inconsistencies/mistakes.

Groups

Define a binary operation ∗ on a set S as a function mapping S × S into S. It assigns, for an ordered
pair of two elements (a, b) existing in S, a unique element of S denoted a ∗ b.

Definition 1.1 A group is (G, ∗) where G is a non empty set, closed under a binary operation ∗,
such that the following are satisfied:

(G1) ∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G
(∗ is an arbitrary operation on G)
(G2) ∀ a, b, c ∈ G, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
(∗ is an associative binary operation)
(G3) ∃ e ∈ G such that ∀a ∈ G, a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a
(e is the identity element)
(G4) ∀a ∈ G, ∃ a0 ∈ G such that a ∗ a0 = e = a0 ∗ a
(a0 is the inverse of a)

Standard to say G is a group rather than (G, ∗); but ∗ is very important.
Similarly, we write ab for a ∗ b. Say ab is “multiply a by b,” or “ab is the product of a and b.”
(NOTE: ∗ may be nothing like multiplication!)

Lemma 1.2 Suppose G is a group.

i. The identity element, e, is UNIQUE.

ii. For any a ∈ G, its inverse is UNIQUE.

Proof:

i. Let e0 be an identity element. Since e ∈ G,

ee0 = e0 e = e

Also e0 ∈ G, as e satisfies (G3),

ee0 = e0 e = e0
Thus e = e0 .

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ii. Suppose b ∈ G is an inverse for a. So

G3 G4 G2 G3
b = eb = (a0 a)b = a0 (ab) = a0 e.
Thus b = a0 .


Remarks

(i) Some books use 1 for e.

(ii) (NOTATION) For a ∈ G, where G is a group, write a−1 for the inverse of a. (G4) now looks
like
∀a ∈ G, ∃a−1 ∈ G such that aa−1 = a−1 a = e.
(iii) e−1 = e (because ee = e).
(iv) ∀g ∈ G, (g −1 )−1 = g (because gg −1 = g −1 g = e, g is the inverse of g −1 ).

Lemma 1.3 (Cancellation lemma) Suppose G is a group and a, b, c ∈ G.

i. If ab = ac, then b = c.
ii. If ba = ca, then b = c.

Proof:

i. So ab = ac. By (G4),
G2
a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac) = (a−1 a)b = (a−1 a)c
eb = ec (G4)
Thus b = c (G3).
ii. is similar.

Multiplication Tables

Suppose G is a group and G = {g1 , g2 , ..., gn }.

g1 g1 2 g3 ... gn
g1 g1 g1 g1 g2 g1 g3 ... g1 gn
g2
g3
... ...
gn ... gn gn

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In any row of this table, each element of G appears exactly once; similarly for columns.

Definition 1.4 Suppose G is a group. The order of G is the number of elements in G, denoted
by |G|.
If |G| is finite, say G is a finite group. If |G| is infinite, say G is an infinite group.

Definition 1.5 If (G, ∗) is a group and ∗ is a commutative binary operation, then we say G is
abelian. i.e. a group is abelian iff
∀ a, b ∈ G, ab = ba.

Examples of Groups

Groups of Numbers (Additive Groups)

Take as an example the group of integers: (Z, +), e = 0, x−1 = −x, x ∈ Z.

Further examples:
(Q, +)
(R, +)
(C, +)
G = {2n n ∈ Z} the set of even integers, (2Z, +)

Multiplicative Groups

Example: (C∗ , complex multiplication) Note: C∗ = C \ {0}

1 |z|
e = 1, z ∈ C, z −1 = = 2
z |z |
Also applies for Q∗ , R∗ using multiplication:

R+ = {x ∈ R x > 0}, (R+ , mult.) where e = 1

Note that these examples so far have been infinite groups.

Finite: let n ∈ N (and keep n fixed). Zn = {0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1}, ⊕ addition modulo n.
(Zn , ⊕) is a group: given x, y ∈ Z,

x ⊕ y = d ⇔ x + y = kn + d where k ∈ Z, d ∈ Zn .

The order of |Zn | = n; the identity element e = 0; and if x ∈ Zn , x 6= 0, the inverse x−1 = n − x.

n = 2 : Z2 = {0, 1}
n = 3 : Z2 = {0, 1, 2}

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Now try ⊗, multiplication mod n. Given x, y ∈ Z,

x ⊗ y = d ⇔ xy = kn + d where k ∈ Z, d ∈ Zn .

(G1), (G2), (G3) are satisfied (identity element 1); however (G4) is not necessarily true. So (Zn , ⊗)
is not always a group.
Example: n = 6, Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
x = 3 : 3 ⊗ y = 1? (i.e. does 3 have an inverse?)
By definition, y ∈ Z6 ⇔ 3y = 6k + 1. If such a y ∈ Z6 exists, then 3 1. So 3 does not
have an inverse in (Z6 , ⊗). Thus (Z6 , ⊗) is not a group.
We can see that (Z∗n , ⊗) is a group precisely when n is a prime.
Note that so far all our examples have been abelian groups.

Symmetric Groups

Let n ∈ N (fix). Let Ω be a set with n elements. We shall suppose Ω = {1, 2, 3, ..., n} where Sn =
set of all permutations of Ω.

Sn = {f f : Ω → Ω, f is a bijection}

Note ∗ = ◦, composition of maps.

Let f, g ∈ Sn , α ∈ Ω.
α(f ◦ g) = (αf )g
Note that α is on the left of the permutations; in this course, the notation we are used to is reversed,
and we are writing our permutations on the right.

Notation

Some different ways we can describe elements of Sn :

“Standard Notation”

For f ∈ Sn  
1 2 3 4 ... n
1f 2f 3f 4f ... nf

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Example: n = 12

f: 1 7−→ 1 7 7−→ 2
2 7−→ 7 8 7−→ 9
3 7−→ 12 9 7−→ 10
4 7−→ 5 10 7−→ 8
5 7−→ 11 11 7−→ 3
6 7−→ 6 12 7−→ 4

 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
f=
1 7 12 5 11 6 2 9 10 8 3 4

Standard notation is cumbersome, but it doesn’t tell us much.

Cyclic Notation

Given α1 , α2 , α3 , ..., αa ∈ Ω (all different, no duplicates), (α1 , α2 , α3 , ..., αa ) stands for:

α1 7→ α2

α2 7→ α3
α3 7→ α4
...
αa 7→ α1
Note this does not necessarily include every element in Ω! ∀α ∈ Ω \ {α1 , α2 , ..., αa }:

α 7→ α

What matters here is the cyclic order, i.e. (1 2 7 8) = (7 8 1 2).

We say that (α1 α2 α3 ...αa ) and (β1 β2 β3 ...βb ) are (pairwise) disjoint cycles iff:

{α1 , α2 , α3 , ..., αa } ∩ {β1 , β2 , β3 , ..., βb } = ∅

Lemma 1.6 Any permutation σ ∈ Sn (n ∈ N) can be written as a product of pairwise disjoint

cycles.

A useful property of pairwise disjoint cycles is:

(α1 , α2 , ..., αa )(β1 , β2 , ..., βb ) = (β1 , β2 , ..., βb )(α1 , α2 , ..., αa )

Reminder: Course convention says read and multiply left to right!

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Example: General Linear Group

Given the set of all invertible matrices with entries from R, ∗ is matrix multiplication,
(G1), (G2), (G3), (G4) are all satisfied.
This is known as a General Linear group of degree n over R and denoted (GLn (R), ×)
or simply GLn (R).
GLn (Q), GLn (C), are also examples of groups.
Example:
Take p to be a prime, so Zp = {0, 1, 2, ..., p−1}, (Zp , ⊕). (Also applicable for (Zp \{0}, ⊗))
GLn (Zp ) (a FINITE GROUP) also gives us a group.
Remarks

(i) When n ≥ 3, Sn is NOT abelian. e.g. (12), (23) ∈ Sn ,

(12)(23) = (132)

is not equal to
(23)(12) = (123).

(ii) When n ≥ 2, GLn (R) (or GLn (Q), GLn (C)) is not abelian.

Powers in a Group

Suppose G is a group. Let g ∈ G, n ∈ N.

g n = gggg...g
| {z }
n times

Lemma 1.7 Suppose G is a group and g ∈ G, n, m ∈ N. Then:

i. g n g m = g n+m
ii. (g n )m = g nm

Proof:

i. g n g m = gg...g gg...g = g n+m

| {z } | {z }
n m

ii. (g n )m = g n g n ...g n = gg...g gg...g ... gg...g = g nm

| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
m n n n
| {z }
m

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Extend the following notation: G group, g ∈ G, n ∈ Z.

 gn , n>0
n
g = e n=0
 −1 |n|
(g ) n<0

Lemma 1.7 still applies.

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Subgroups

Suppose G is a group and ∅ =

6 H ⊆ G (binary operation ∗). Let x, y, ∈ H such that G is a group,
with the element xy ∈ G.
If ∀ x, y ∈ H, xy ∈ H, then we say ∗ is closed in H. In this case, we have a binary operation on H.
Example: G = (Z, +), H = {2k | k ∈ Z}. + is closed in H.

Definition 2.1 If (G, ∗) is a group and ∅ = 6 H ⊆ G, and H is closed under ∗, then H is a subgroup
of G, if using ∗ (restricted to H) is a group.
Write H ≤ G.

Example:
Look at G = (Z, +). H = {2k | k ∈ Z}. Then H 6 G because:

(G1) X
(G2) Associativity X
(G3) 0 ∈ H X
(G4) 2k ∈ H, −2k ∈ H. X

In general: Suppose (G, ∗) is a group and H 6 G. The following hold:

(G1) ∀ x, y ∈ H, x ∗ y ∈ H.
(G2) ∀ x, y, z ∈ H, (x ∗ y) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z).
This holds as (G2) holds for (G, ∗), i.e. G being a group means (G2) is true.
(G3) Let e0 be the identity element for H. Since e0 ∈ G and e is the identity element for G, e0 ∗e = e0 .
Also e0 ∗ e0 = e0 , as e0 is the identity element for H.
Therefore e0 ∗ e = e0 ∗ e0 and cancellation in G gives e = e0 .
∴ e is the identity element for H. 
(G4) Let h ∈ H. We must have an inverse h0 ∈ H such that hh0 = h0 h = e0 = e. Since inverses are
unique, h0 = h−1 (where h−1 is the inverse of h in G).

Theorem 2.2 (The Subgroup Criterion) Suppose G is a group and H is a subset of (G, ∗)
(i.e. H ⊆ G). Then H ≤ G (a subgroup of G) iff: (Note double implication!)

i. H 6= ∅
ii. ∀ x, y ∈ H, x ∗ y ∈ H
iii. ∀x ∈ H, x−1 ∈ H

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Proof: ⇒ Suppose H ≤ G, then (i), (ii), (iii) hold (see above).

⇐ Suppose (i), (ii), and (iii). Show H ≤ G.

(G1) Assumption (ii) ⇒ G1. (i.e., restricting ∗ to H gives a binary operation on H.)
(G2) ∀ x, y, z ∈ H, (x ∗ y) ∗ z = x(y ∗ z) holds as it is true for G.
(G3) Since H 6= ∅, we may choose x ∈ H. By (iii) x−1 ∈ H. So e = x ∗ x−1 ∈ H by (ii). (For any
two elements x, y in H, x ∗ y still in H.) Thus e ∈ H, so e is the identity element for H.
(G4) For x ∈ H, by (iii) x−1 ∈ H, so x ∗ x−1 = x−1 ∗ x = e.


Example: Subgroup Criterion
G = (GL2 (R), matrix multiplication).
  
1 n n∈Z
H=
0 1
 
1 n
(i) det = 1 6= 0 ⇒ ∅ =
6 H ⊆ G.
0 1
   
1 n 1 m
(ii) Let , ∈ H (so n, m ∈ Z.)
0 1 0 1
    
1 n 1 m 1 n+m
= ∈ H (as n + m ∈ Z)
0 1 0 1 0 1
 
1 n
(iii) Let ∈ H (so n ∈ Z.)
0 1
 −1  
1 n 1 −n
= ∈ H (as − n ∈ Z)
0 1 0 1

So H is a subgroup of G (H ≤ G).
Note: if H ≤ G, then e ∈ H. (Identity element.)

Theorem 2.3 Suppose G is a group and H ∈ G, K ∈ G. Then H ∩ K ∈ G.

Proof:

(i) Clearly H ∩ K ⊆ G. Also e ∈ H and e ∈ K, so e ∈ H ∩ K. Thus ∅ =

6 H ∩ K ⊆ G.
(ii) Let x, y ∈ H ∩ K. Then x, y ∈ H, and as H ≤ G, xy ∈ H. Also x, y ∈ K, and as K ≤ G,
xy ∈ K. Thus xy ∈ H ∩ K.

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(iii) Let x ∈ H ∩ K. Then x ∈ H and as H ≤ G (see theorem 2.2) x−1 ∈ H. Also x ∈ K, and as
K ≤ G (see theorem 2.2) x−1 ∈ K. Thus x−1 ∈ H ∩ K.

(i), (ii), (iii) of the subgroup criterion are satisfied, thus H ∩ K ≤ G. 

Note H ∪ K does NOT give a subgroup!
Example:
G = (Z, +)
H = {2k | k ∈ Z} ≤ G
K = {3k | k ∈ Z} ≤ G
2 ∈ H, 3 ∈ K, 3 + 2 = 5 6= H ∪ K.
Exercise: If H ∈ G, K ∈ G and H ∪ K ∈ G, then either H ≤ K or K ≤ H.

Cyclic Subgroups

Suppose G is a group, g ∈ G. Note: Notation

hgi = {g i | i ∈ Z} g i = gg...g i>0

| {z }
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
= {..., g ,g ,g , g , g , g , g , ...} i
=e i=0
|{z} |{z}
=e =g
−1 −1 −1
=g g ...g i<0
| {z }
|i|

Example: R∗, mult.

1 1 1
g=2 h2i = {2i | i ∈ Z} = {..., , , , 1, 2, 4, ...}
8 4 2
g = −1 h−1i = {(−1)i | i ∈ Z} = {..., 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1, ...} = {1, −1}
Example: (Z, ⊕)
Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ⊕ addition mod 6
g=2 h2i = {..., 0, 2, |{z}
4 , |{z} 2 , 4, 0, 2, ...} = {0, 2, 4}
0 , |{z}
=2−1 =e =2

Lemma 2.4 Suppose G is a group, g ∈ G. Then hgi ≤ G.

Proof: We use the subgroup criterion (2.2).

(i) By definition and the fact that (G1) holds for G, we know hgi ⊆ G. Since g ∈ hgi,
∅=
6 hgi ⊆ G.

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(ii) Let x, y ∈ hgi. So x = g n , y = g m where n, m ∈ Z. Then

via lemma 1.7
xy = g n g m = g n+m ∈ hgi as n, m ∈ Z

(iii) Look at x−1 = (g n )−1 = g −n ∈ hgi as −n ∈ Z.

Thus hgi ∈ G by the subgroup criterion. 

hgi is called the cyclic subgroup generated by g.

Order of an element

Definition 2.5 Suppose G is a group and g ∈ G. The smallest natural number n such that g n = e
is called the order of g. if there is no such natural number, we say g has infinite order.

Example: (R∗, mult.)

g = 2: 2 has infinite order.
g = −1 : (−1)2 = 1, −1 has order 2.
Example: (Z6 , ⊕)
g = 2 : 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 0 → g has order 3
g = 0 : 0 has order 1
g: 0 1 2 3 4 5
order: 1 6 3 2 3 6

In any group, the identity element has order 1. It is the only element with order 1.

Lemma 2.6 Suppose G is a group and g ∈ G, with g having infinite order. Then for n, m ∈ Z
with n 6= m, g n 6= g m .

Proof: (Will be argued by contradiction.) Suppose g n = g m where n, m ∈ Z, n 6= m.

WLOG, m > n. So m − n > 0.

g m−n = g m g −n = g n g −n = g (n−n) = g 0 = e
↑
as per initial assumption g n = g m

This contradicts g having infinite order. 

Corollary 2.7 Suppose G is a group, g ∈ G, g having infinite order. Then hgi is an infinite
subgroup of G.

Proof: Follows from lemma 2.6. 

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Lemma 2.8 G is a group, g ∈ G has order n. Then

(i) g, g 2 , g 3 , ..., g n−1 , g n = e all distinct.

(ii) s, r ∈ Z where s = kn + r, k ∈ Z, 0 ≤ r < n. Then g s = g r .
(iii) Let s, r ∈ Z. Then g s = g r ⇔ s ≡ r (mod n).
(iv) g s = e ⇔ n|s.

Proof:

(i) Suppose g s = g t where 1 ≤ s, t ≤ n. Assume s 6= t and WLOG t > s. Then 1 ≤ t − s < n.

g t−s = g t g −s = g s g −s = g s−s = g 0 = e

Since t − s < n, this contradicts n being the order of g.

(ii) g s = g kn+r = g kn g r = (g n )k g r = ek g r = eg r = g r
↑
as g n = e

(iii) Suppose g s = g r . So s = k1 n + r1 and r = k2 n + r2 , with k1 , k2 ∈ Z, 0 ≤ r1 < n and

0 ≤ r2 < n.
By (ii), g s = g r1 and g r = g r2 thus g r1 = g r2 . If r1 = r2 , done. Otherwise use part (i) to get
r1 = r2 . Thus r ≡ s (mod n).
(iv) is a special case of (iii).

Corollary 2.9 If G is a group and g ∈ G, g of order n, then the order of elements in

hgi = {e, g, ..., g n−1 } is n.

Proof: from lemma 2.8 (i), (ii). 

Orders of elements in symmetric groups

Sn : look at an r-cycle, Ω = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}, with α1 , α2 , ..., αa ∈ Ω. In cyclic notation we write
(α1 , α2 , ..., αa ) and if α ∈
/ {α1 , α2 , ..., αa }, then α 7→ α.
Say σ = (α1 , α2 , ..., αa ) ∈ Sn . A cycle in Sn of length r has order r. Then σ r = identity permutation.
Let σ ∈ Sn be any permutation (not necessarily cyclic). However we can write it as a product of
pairwise disjoint cycles:
σ = (α1 α2 ...αa ) (β1 β2 ...βb ) (...) ...
| {z } | {z } |{z}
r1 r2 r3

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Let m ∈ N. σ m = (α1 α2 ...αa )m (β1 β2 ...βb )m (...)m (due to the fact that pairwise disjoint cycles
commute).

σ m = identity permutation ⇔ (α1 α2 ...αa )m = identity ⇔ r1 |m

m
(β1 β2 ...βb ) = id. ⇔ r2 |m
m
(...) = id. etc.

The lengths of the cycles must divide m for σ m to be the identity; this must be true for all cycles.
Thus we want to find the smallest m for which this is true.
The order of σ is the least common multiple of the length of cycles σi (where σ = σ1 σ2 ...σl ).
Example:
(i) σ = (137624985) order 9.
(ii) σ = (12) (345) (6789)
|{z} | {z } | {z }
2 3 4
⇒ LCM(2, 3, 4) = 12 thus σ is of order 12.
(iii) σ = (1234)(56)(478) is NOT a product of pairwise disjoint cycles! Write:
σ = (123784)(56).

Some Subgroups of GLn (R)

GLn (R) can also be written GL(n, R).

Fix n ∈ N.

(i) The Special Linear Group of degree n over R

SLn (R) = {A ∈ GLn (R) det(A) = 1 }
SLn (R) ≤ GLn (R): By definition, SLn (R) ⊆ GLn (R). Also, In ∈ SLn (R). So the subgroup
is not empty, i.e. ∅ =
6 SLn (R) ⊆ GLn (R).
Let A, B ∈ SLn (R) so det(A) = 1 = det(B). Since det(AB) = (detA)(detB) = 1 ∗ 1 = 1,
∴ AB ∈ SLn (R).
Let A ∈ SLn (R). det(In ) = det(AA−1 ) = (detA) (detA−1 ) = detA−1 .
| {z }
=1
So detA−1 = 1, and therefore A−1 ∈ Ln (R). Therefore SLn (R) ≤GLn (R) by the subgroup
criterion.
(ii) The subgroup of all scalar matrices:
  
 λ 0 0 λ ∈ R
Scal(n, R) =  0 λ 0
0 0 λ λ=6 0
 

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MATH20201 SUBGROUPS

(iii) The subgroup of all diagonal matrices:

  




λ1
λ2
0  λi ∈ R




D(n, R) = 
 
.. 
.





0 λn

λi 6= 0 





(iv) The subgroup of all triangular matrices:


∗
 
 λ1 

 λi ∈ R
 
λ2

 
Tr(n, R) or T(n, R) = 
 
.. 
.



 0 λn

λi 6= 0 





Where the upper triangular ∗ is populated by any real numbers.

Remark: Scal(n, R) ⊆ Diag(n, R) ⊆ Tr(n, R), but as we know they are subgroups of GL(n, R),
Scal(n, R) ≤ Diag(n, R) ≤ Tr(n, R).
(v) The subgroup of all upper triangular matrices:

∗
 
 1 

 ∗any real number
 
1

 
U(n, R) or UT(n, R) = 
 
.. 
.





0 1
 





Remark: UT(n, R) ≤ Tr(n, R).

There are similar subgroups of GLn (Q) and GLn (C). Likewise for GLn (Zp ) where p is a prime.
Note that if Zn is a group, the binary operation is always ⊕.

Centralizers

We have a general way of making subgroups. Given G group, g ∈ G, hgi is a subgroup.

Definition 2.10 Suppose G is a group, g ∈ G:

C(g) = {x ∈ G | xg = gx}

i.e. the set of all elements that commute with the fixed element g. C(g) is called the Centralizer
of g.

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MATH20201 SUBGROUPS

Example: Cyclic Groups: S3

Consider C((123)). None of its transpositions (cycles of length 2) commute with (123),
but it can be seen that
(132)(123) = (1)(2)(3)
(123)(132) = (1)(2)(3)
Thus (123)(132) is the identity element, and C(g) = {(1), (123), (132)}.
Note (132) = (123)(123) = (123)2 .

REMARKS ON C(g):

(i) g ∈ C(g)
(ii) C(e) = G

(iii) hgi ⊆ C(g)

(iv) If G is abelian, then ∀g ∈ G, C(g) = G, and conversely.

Lemma 2.11 Suppose G is a group and g ∈ G. Then C(g) ≤ G.

Proof:

(i) By remark (i), g ∈ C(g) and C(g) ⊆ G by definition. Therefore ∅ =

6 C(g) ⊆ G.
(ii) Let x, y ∈ C(g). So xg = gx and yg = gy. Now
G2 G2 G2
(xy)g = x(yg) = x(gy) = (xg)y = g(xy).

Therefore (xy)g = g(xy) ∀ x, y ∈ C(g), so xy ∈ C(g).

(iii) Suppose x ∈ C(g). So xg = gx. So

x−1 g = x−1 ge = x−1 gxx−1 = x−1 xgx−1 = egx−1 = gx−1

∴ x−1 g = gx−1 . So x−1 ∈ C(g).

Hence C(g) ≤ G by the subgroup criterion. 

Recall G = S3 , C((123)) = h(123)i
Example: G = Sn for (n ≥ 2), τ = (1, 2, 3, ..., n). Show that C(τ ) = hτ i.
We know (generally) that hτ i ⊆ C(τ ). So στ = τ σ (and στ i = τ i σ) (**)
For any l ∈ Ω, (1)τ l−1 = l. (*)

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MATH20201 SUBGROUPS

Let σ ∈ C(τ ).
(1)σ = k ∈ Ω. Show σ = τ k−1 .
We need to show ∀m ∈ Ω, (m)σ = (m)τ k−1 .
Let m ∈ Ω.

(m)σ = ((1)τ m−1 )σ by (*) l = m

m−1
= (1)(τ σ)
m−1
= (1)(στ ) by (**)
m−1
= ((1)σ)(τ )
m−1
= (k)(τ )
k−1
= ((1)(τ ))(τ m−1 ) by (*), l = k
k−1 m−1
= (1)(τ τ )
m−1 k−1
= (1)(τ τ )
m−1 k−1
= ((1)(τ )τ )
k−1
= (m)τ by (*) l = m

∴ (m)σ = (m)τ k−1 . ∴ σ = τ k−1

Hence C(τ ) = hτ i.
 
1 1
Example: G = GL(2,R) g =
1 0
Calculate C(g).  
b a
∈ C(g)
d c
    
a b 1 1 a+b a
= (1)
c d 1 0 c+d c
    
1 1 a b a+c b+d
= (2)
1 0 c d a b
 
a b
∈ C(g) ⇔ (1) = (2)
c d
a= b+d
⇔
c= b
  
a b a = b + d a, b, d ∈ R
C(g) =
c d ad − b2 6= 0

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MATH20201 SUBGROUPS

Centre of a Group

Definition 2.12 Given any group G, then the centre Z(G) = C(g) = {x ∈ G | xg = gx ∀g ∈ G}.

Lemma 2.13 Given any group G, then Z(G) ≤ G.

Proof:

(i) Note that eg = ge (= g) ∀g ∈ G (just G3). ∴ e ∈ Z(G).

∅=
6 Z(G) ⊆ G (by def.).
(ii) Let x, y ∈ Z(G). Let g ∈ G (arbitrary).

(xy)g = x(yg) = x(gy) = (xg)y = (gx)y = g(xy)

y∈Z(G) x∈Z(G)

∴ (xy)g = g(xy), xy ∈ Z(G)

(iii) Let x, y ∈ Z(G). Let g ∈ G (arbitrary).

x−1 g = x−1 ge = x−1 gxx−1 = x−1 xgx−1 = egx−1 = gx−1

x∈Z(G)

∴ x−1 g = gx−1
So x−1 ∈ Z(G).

Hence Z(G) ≤ G by the subgroup criterion. 

Example: S3 = G, find Z(G).
Possible elements:

(1)X (123)(12) = (1)(12)
6=
(123)

 (12)(123) = (13)(2)

(132)

 (132)(13) = (1)(23)
 6=
(12)
 (13)(132) = (12)(3)

(13)
 (13)(23) = (123)
 6=
(23)
  (23)(13) = (132)
So in this case Z(S3 ) = {(1)}.

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MATH20201 CYCLIC GROUPS

Cyclic Groups

Definition 3.1 A group G is a cyclic group if ∃g ∈ G such that hgi = G.

Say g is a generator for G.

Recall hgi = {g i | i ∈ Z} = {...g −2 = g −1 g −1 , g −1 , g 0 , g 1 = g, g 2 = gg, ...}.

Example: (Z, +) is a cyclic group because h1i = Z.
Binary operation = addition
{...(−1)3 , (−1)2 , (−1)1 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , ...}
−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Example: Choose n ∈ N. (Zn , ⊕) s.t. {0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1} ∈ Zn is a cyclic group because h1i = Zn .
Proof: must find a hgi = G (itself, its powers, or powers of inverse).
Example: n = 3, h1i = h2i = Z3 . Then Z3 = {0, 1, 2}.
n = 4, h1i = h3i = Z4 ; h2i =
6 Z4 . Then Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}.

Theorem 3.2 Suppose G is a cyclic group and H ≤ G. Then H is also a cyclic group.

Proof: Since G is cyclic, ∃g ∈ G such that hgi = G. If H = {e}, then H = hei, and so H is cyclic.
Now assume H 6= {e}. So we have g k ∈ H, some k ∈ Z, k 6= 0. As H ≤ G, (g k )−1 = g −k ∈ H. Since
one of k, −k is a positive integer (and 6= 0), we may choose m to be a positive integer so that m is
minimal with the property g m ∈ H.
We now show hg m i = H. So as H ≤ G and g m ∈ H, hg m i ⊆ H. Thus we must show H ⊆ hg m i.
Let h ∈ H. So h = g t for some t ∈ Z. Write t = lm + r, l ∈ Z, r ∈ {0, 1, ..., m − 1}.
h = g t = g lm+r = g lm g r = (g m )l g r
h = (g m )l g r . If we multiply both side by the inverse of (g m )l , which ∈ H, then g r is the
So |{z}
| {z }
∈H ∈H
product of two elements of H, which means it must exist in H as well. By our minimal choice of
m, r = 0. Thus t = lm, and so
h = g t = g lm = (g m )l ∈ hg m i.
Hence H ⊆ hg m i ⇒ H = hg m i. 
Suppose G = hgi (the generator) has order n. Then H = hg n i.

Lemma 3.3 Suppose G is a finite cyclic group of order n with generator g. Then for any
m ∈ Z,
hg m i = hg d i
where d is the highest common factor of n and m: hcf(n, m).

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MATH20201 CYCLIC GROUPS

m m
Proof: Show hg m i ⊆ hg d i: Note d|m. Then we can write g m = g d d (as d ∈ Z.)
dm m
gm = g d = (g d ) d ∈ hg d i

Because g m belongs in the subgroup hg d i, then all possible powers of g m are also in the subgroup
hg d i, by definition. Thus hg m i is also a subgroup. As hg d i ≤ G, then hg m i ⊆ hg d i.
Show hg d i ⊆ hg m i:
Recall d = an + bm where a, b ∈ Z. Look at g d = g an+bm = g an g bm :

g d = (g n )a (g m )b

Our group has order n, so the generator, g, also has order n. Thus g n is the identity element. So:

g d = (g n )a (g m )b = ea (g m )b = (g m )b

hg m i contains all powers of g m , thus (g m )b ∈ hg m i. Thus g d ∈ hg m i ≤ G. So hg d i ⊆ hg m i.

Hence hg d i = hg m i. 

n
Corollary 3.4 The order of g m is the same as the order of g d , which is d.

Proof: hg m i is a cyclic group with generator g m . So the order of hg m i is the same as the number
of elements in hg m i.
Order of g m = |hg m i| = |hg m i| = order of g d .
Since d|n, we see easily that the order of g d is nd . ( nd is the smallest power to which we can raise g d
to get the identity:)
n dn
(g d ) d = g d = g n = e


Corollary 3.5 The element g m is a generator for a cyclic group G ⇔ hcf(n, m) = 1.

Proof: g m is a generator for G ⇔ order of g m = n ⇔ d = 1 (corollary 3.4). 

Theorem 3.6 The subgroups of a cyclic group of order n are in 1-1 correspondence with the divisors
of n.

Proof: Let G by a cyclic group of order n with generator g.

By theorem 3.2, a subgroup of G looks like hg m i.
lemma 3.3
hg m i = hg d i

where d = hcf(n, m). hg m i corresponds to d (which divides n):

hg m i → d

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MATH20201 CYCLIC GROUPS

The number of elements in |hg m i| = nd . This correspondence must be 1-1 as if d1 , d2 with d1 |n and
d2 |n, then the subgroups corresponding to d1 and d2 will have orders dn1 and dn2 respectively. If
d1 6= d2 , then they have different orders. 
General remark: if G = hgi is cyclic, and H ≤ G, then g m = H for some m ∈ Z.
We know that the number of elements in |hg m i| = nd because n
d is the order of hg m i. Thus order(H)
divides order(G):
|H| n = |G|
i.e. the number of elements in the cyclic group must divide the number of elements in G.

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MATH20201 COSETS AND LAGRANGE’S THEOREM

Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

Definition 4.1 Suppose G is a group and H ≤ G. Then a right coset of H (in G) is a subset of
the form
Hg = {hg | h ∈ H}, where g ∈ G.

Note “right” is referring to the fact that g is to the right of h.

Note g ∈ G, H ≤ G and h ∈ H, thus Hg ⊆ G.
Example: G = S3 , H = h(12)i = {(1), (12)}.

g Hg
(1) {(1), (12)} *multiply transposition by
(12) {(12), (1)} itself for identity
(13) {(1)(13), (12)(13)} = {(13), (123)}
(23) {(1)(23), (12)(23)} = {(23), (132)}
(123) {(1)(123), (12)(123)} = {(123), (13)}
(132) {(1)(132), (12)(132)} = {(132), (23)}

Example: G = (Z9 , ⊕)
Z9 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
h3i = {0, 3, 6}

h3i0 = {0 ⊕ 0, 3 ⊕ 0, 6 ⊕ 0} = {0, 3, 6} ∗
h3i1 = {0 ⊕ 1, 3 ⊕ 1, 6 ⊕ 1} = {1, 4, 7}
h3i2 = {0 ⊕ 2, 3 ⊕ 2, 6 ⊕ 2} = {2, 5, 8}
h3i3 = {3, 6, 0} ∗
h3i4 = {4, 7, 1}
h3i5 = {5, 8, 2}
h3i6 = {6, 0, 3} ∗
h3i7 = {7, 1, 4}
h3i8 = {8, 2, 5}
h3i9 = {0, 3, 6} ∗

Note the same set ∗ keeps reoccurring. Also, g appears in its own set.

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MATH20201 COSETS AND LAGRANGE’S THEOREM

Remark
If G is a group, H ≤ G, g ∈ G. Then g ∈ Hg as Hg = {hg | h ∈ H}, e ∈ H.
It is obvious why this happens: one of the elements will be the identity element of the group. As
H is a subgroup, the identity element of the larger group exists in H by definition.
Also, in the example above, the same sets keep reoccurring, but are pairwise disjoint. (See lemma
4.2.)

Lemma 4.2 Suppose G is a group and H ≤ G. Let x, y ∈ G. Then either

Hx = Hy OR Hx ∩ Hy = ∅.

Proof: If Hx ∩ Hy = ∅, then we are done.

We need to show if Hx ∩ Hy 6= ∅, then Hx = Hy .
Suppose Hx ∩ Hy 6= ∅. Thus ∃g ∈ Hx ∩ Hy.
So g = h1 x = h2 y (where h1 , h2 ∈ H) ⇒ x = h−1 −1
1 h2 y = h3 y where h3 = h1 h2 ∈ H as H ≤ G.
| {z }
(∗)

Show Hx ⊆ Hy:
Hx = {hx | h ∈ H} = {hh3 x | h ∈ H} ⊆ Hy
| {z }
∈H

Back to (∗): y = h−1 −1

2 h1 x = h4 x where h4 = h2 h1 ∈ H.

Show Hy ⊆ Hx:
Hy = {hy | h ∈ H} = {hh4 x | h ∈ H} ⊆ Hx
| {z }
∈H

So we have shown Hx ⊆ Hy and Hy ⊆ Hx, therefore Hx = Hy. 

Corollary 4.3 Suppose G is a group and H ≤ G. Then G is the disjoint union of the right cosets
of H (in G).

S
Proof: Keep in mind g ∈ Hg. G = Hg. Corollary follows from 4.2.
g∈G

Note, any subgroup allows us to do this. 

Definition 4.4 The number of right cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G.

Example: G = (Z9 , ⊕). H = h3i.

[G : H] = 3 (as there are three right cosets of h3i in Z9 .)

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MATH20201 COSETS AND LAGRANGE’S THEOREM

Lemma 4.5 Suppose G is a group and H ≤ G. Assume H is finite. Then for any g ∈ G, |Hg| =
|H|.

Proof: Assume H = {h1 , h2 , h3 , ..., hm }, all distinct (|H| = m).

Multiply all the elements on the right by g:

Hg = {h1 g, h2 g, h3 g, ..., hm g}

If any of these are equal, say, hi g = hj g, then by the cancellation lemma we have hi = hj .
Thus |Hg| = m = |H|. 

Theorem 4.6 (Lagrange’s Theorem) Suppose G is a finite group and H ≤ G. Then

|G| = |H|[G : H].

Proof: Let’s suppose Hx1 , Hx2 , ..., Hxm are all the disjoint cosets of H in G (no duplicates).
Corollary 4.3 says
G = Hx1 ∪˙ Hx2 ∪˙ Hx3 ∪˙ ... ∪˙ Hxm
⇒ |G| = |Hx1 | + |Hx2 | + |Hx3 | + ... + |Hxm |
lemma 4.5
⇒ |G| = |H| + |H| + ... + |H| = |H|m = |H|[G : M ]
| {z }
m

As m is the number of right cosets of H in G.

Note: ∪˙ disjoint union. 

Corollary 4.7 G is a finite group, H ≤ G. Then |H| divides |G|.

Example: G = S4
|G| = 4! = 24, if H ≤ G, then |H| 24.

Corollary 4.8 Suppose G is a finite group, g ∈ G. Then the order of g must divide |G|.

Proof: Recall that the order of g = |hgi|. Since hgi ≤ G, so |hgi| |G| by Corollary 4.7. 

Corollary 4.9 Suppose G is a group, and |G| = p where p is a prime. Then G is a cyclic group.

Proof: Since |G| = p ≤ 2, we may choose g ∈ G, g 6= e. Now hgi ≤ G. By Corollary 4.7, |hgi| p
(as |G| = p).
As p is a prime, |hgi| = 1 or p. But g, e ∈ hgi and so |hgi| = p (= |G|)...hgi = G. So G is cyclic. 

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MATH20201 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms

Example:
(S3 , composition of permutations) and (GL(2, 2), matrix multiplication)
(Recall: GL(2, 2) is the group of all 2x2 invertible matrices with entries Z2 = {0, 1}.)

Definition 5.1 Suppose (G, ∗) and (H, ◦) are groups. A map

φ : G −→ H

is a group homomorphism if

φ(x ∗ y) = φ(x) ◦ φ(y) ∀x, y ∈ G (∗)

[Note on notation: soon we will write G and H groups, (∗) becomes φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y). It should be
understood that the operations for the LHS and RHS are NOT THE SAME, and are the operations
for G and H respectively.]
Example: G = (R, +) and H = (GL(2, R), matrix mult.)
 
1 x
Define φ : G −→ H by φ(x) = x ∈ R.
0 1
Let x, y ∈ G = R.
      
1 x+y 1 x 1 y 1 x+y
φ(x + y) = and φ(x)φ(y) = =
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Therefore φ(x + y) = φ(x)φ(y) .

↑ ↑
binary op in G matrix mult

Example: G = (GL(n, R), matrix mult.) and H = (R\{0}, mult. of real numbers)
Define φ : G −→ H by, for A ∈ G, φ(A) = detA.
Since A is invertible, detA 6= 0, so φ is indeed a map G → H.
Let A, B ∈ G = GL(n, R).

φ(AB) = det(AB) = (detA)(detB) = φ(A)φ(B) ∴ φ(AB) = φ(A)φ(B)

Lemma 5.2 Suppose G and H are groups and φ : G → H is a homomorphism. Then:

(i) φ(eG ) = eH
(ii) For g ∈ G, φ(g −1 ) = φ(g)−1 .
“For any group element, its inverse in the group H is the element of the inverse of G.”

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MATH20201 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS

(iii) The image of φ, imφ = {φ(g) g ∈ G} is a subgroup of H.

“The image of φ is a subgroup of H.”

Proof:

(i) φ(eG ) = φ(eG eG ) = φ(eG )φ(eG ) as φ is a homomorphism.

So φ(eG ) = φ(eG )φ(eg ) and cancellation (in H!) gives eH = φ(eG ).
(ii) eH = φ(eG ) = φ(gg −1 ) = φ(g)φ(g −1 )
So eH = φ(g)φ(g −1 ). Multiply (in H!) both sides by φ(g)−1 to get φ(g)−1 = φ(g −1 ).
(iii) We use the subgroup criterion. (1) Since G 6= ∅, imφ 6= ∅ ∴ ∅ =
6 imφ ⊆ H.
(2) Now ab = φ(x)φ(y) = φ(xy) (as φ is a homomorphism). Since xy ∈ G, ab ∈ imφ.
(3) Need to check a−1 ∈ imφ.
(ii)
a−1 = (φ(x))−1 = φ(x−1 )

Since x−1 ∈ G, it is the case that a−1 ∈ imφ. Hence imφ ≤ H by the subgroup criterion.

Recall: φ(x + y) = φ(x)φ(y) ∀x, y ∈ G. 

↑ ↑
binary op in G binary op. in H

Definition 5.3 A homomorphism φ : G → H is an isomorphism if φ is a bijection (1-1 and

onto). If such an isomorphism exists, we say that G and H are isomorphic (groups). Write
G=∼ H. Formally:
∃ φ : G → H a bijection ⇒ G ∼ = H.

Example: G = UT(2, R), matrix mult.) and H = (R, +)

  
1 a
Reminder: UT(2, R) = a∈R
0 1
Show that UT(2, R) ∼
= R.
 
1 x
Define φ :UT(2, R) → R by φ : 7→ x.
0 1
        
1 x 1 y 1 x+y 1 x 1 y
φ =φ =x+y =φ +
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

So φ is a homomorphism.
Now check that it is a bijection:

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MATH20201 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS

   
1 x 1 y
φ is injective (1-1) because if φ =φ then x = y and so
0 1 0 1
   
1 x 1 y
= .
0 1 0 1

   
1 x 1 x
φ is surjective (onto) as if x ∈ R, then ∈ UT(2, R) and φ = x so
0 1 0 1
the imφ = R.
To summarize: φ is an isomorphism, therefore our UT(2, R) ∼
= R.
Example: G = S2 (symmetric group of size 2, ∗ multiplication of permutations)
H = Z2 ({0, 1}, ∗ is addition mod 2)
Prove: S2 ∼
= Z2 . Define φS2 → Z2 by

φ :(1) 7−→ 0 For a homomorphism, id. element of G

(12) 7−→ 1 must map to id. element of H.

φ is clearly a bijection.
Check homomorphism condition:

φ((1)(1)) = φ((1)) = 0 = 0 ⊕ 0 = φ((1)) ⊕ φ((1))

φ((1)(12)) = φ((12)) = 1 = 0 ⊕ 1 = φ((1)) ⊕ φ((12))

φ((12)(12)) = φ((1)) = 0 = 1 ⊕ 1 = φ((12)) ⊕ φ((12))
Note that these two groups are abelian, so the order of the binary operation does not
matter. Thus we have checked that

φ(xy) = φ(x)φ(y) ∀x, y ∈ S2 .

∼ Z2 .
Thus φ : S2 7→ Z2 is an isomorphism, and S2 =
In general, showing two groups are isomorphic can be difficult. Showing that they’re not, however,
can be much easier.

Group Theoretic Properties

Let P be a property of groups. P is a group theoretic property if G has property P, and if G ∼

= H,
then H has property P as well.
Group theoretic properties can be used to show G  H by showing G satisfies P but H does not,
for some group theoretic property.

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MATH20201 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS

A (by no means exhaustive) list of group theoretic properties

(i) Being finite;

(ii) Being infinite;

(iii) Being abelian;
(iv) Being cyclic;
(v) Having an element of infinite order;

(vi) Having an element of order n;

(vii) Having a trivial centre.

Example: (Z8 , ⊕), (Z16 , ⊕)

Z8 6= Z16 as they have different orders.
Logically, there can be no bijection if the two groups don’t have the same number of
elements.
Example: (S3 , mult. of permutations), (Z6 , ⊕)
Note |S3 | = 6 and |Z6 | = 6. However S3  Z6 because Z6 is abelian, but S3 is not
abelian (Z(S3 ) = {(1)}).
Example: G = (Z4 , ⊕), H = ({(1), (12), (34), (12)(34)}, multiplication of permutations)
|G| = 4 = |H|. We also have that both G and H are abelian.
However H is not cyclic; also G has an element of order 4, and H has no such element.
Therefore G  H.
Example: The property of being cyclic is a group theoretic property.
Suppose G is cyclic and G ∼
= H. We will show H must also by cyclic.
So G = hgi for some g ∈ G. Let θ : G → H be an isomorphism. We will show
H = hθ(g)i.
Let h ∈ H. Since θ is a bijection, ∃x ∈ G such that θ(x) = h. We have that x = g m for
some m ∈ Z.
h = θ(x) = θ(g m ) = θ(g)m
↑
θ is a homomorphism

∴ h ∈ hθ(g)i, so H = hθ(g)i
∴ H is cyclic.

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MATH20201 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS

Example: The property of the centre of G being only the identity element, Z(G) = {eG }, is a
group theoretic property.
Suppose Z(G) = {eG } and G ∼ = H. To show Z(H) = {eH }: Let θ : G → H be an
isomorphism. Let h ∈ H, h 6= eH . We will show h ∈
/ Z(H).
Since θ is a bijection, ∃x ∈ G such that θ(x) = h.
Note x 6= eG (if x = eG , then h = θ(x) = θ(eG ) = eH , a contradiction as by definition
the identity element of G will always map to the identity element of H).
Since Z(G) = {eG } and x 6= eG , x ∈ / Z(G). So there must be a y ∈ G such that xy 6= yx.
So, as θ is a bijection, θ(xy) 6= θ(yx).
Since θ is a homomorphism, θ(x)θ(y) 6= θ(y)θ(x).
So hθ(y) 6= θ(y)h ∴ h ∈
/ Z(H).
Hence we must have that Z(H) = {eH }.

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MATH20201 CONJUGACY

Conjugacy

Suppose G is a group, x, y ∈ G. Say x and y are conjugate (in G) if ∃g ∈ G such that

x = g −1 yg ≡ x ∼ y.

Note: ∼ is used as temporary notation here.

Lemma 6.1 ∼ is an equivalence relation on G.

Behind every equivalence relation is a partition of the set. This is why we find them interesting.
Proof: Use the criteria of an equivalence relation.

∼ is reflexive: For x ∈ G, x ∼ x as x = e−1

G xeG .

∼ is symmetric: Let x, y ∈ G with x ∼ y.

So ∃g ∈ G s.t. x = g −1 yg, and then

gxg −1 = gg −1 ygg −1 = eG yeG = y

∴ (g −1 )−1 xg −1 = y
Since g −1 ∈ G, x ∼ y.
∼ is transitive: Let x, y, z ∈ G and suppose x ∼ y and y ∼ z. So ∃g ∈ G s.t. x = g −1 yg and
∃h ∈ G s.t. x = h−1 yh. So

x = g −1 yg = g −1 h−1 zhg = (gh)−1 zhg.

Since hg ∈ G, we have shown x ∼ z.


It’s the partition that interests us, and the partition is given by equivalence classes (subsets of G).
The equivalence classes of ∼ are called conjugacy classes.
Let x ∈ G,
xG = {y ∈ G x ∼ y} = {g −1 xg g ∈ G}
G
where x is called the conjugacy class of the element x.
G is the disjoint union of its conjugacy classes.
Example: Suppose G is abelian. Let x ∈ G.

xG = {g −1 xg g ∈ G} = {g −1 gx g ∈ G} = {x}

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MATH20201 CONJUGACY

Conjugacy classes in abelian groups are a bit boring as we only get one element. e.g. (R, +)
conjugacy classes are {x}, x ∈ R.
Example: (S3 , multiplication of permutations)
|S3 | = 6

• x ∈ S3 , x = (1) (= eS3 )
g G = {g −1 (1)g g ∈ S3 } = {(1)}

• x = (123)
g G = {g −1 (123)g g ∈ S3 }
List of all possible elements of S3 ...
g = (1) (1)−1 (123)(1) = (123)
(123) (132)(123)(123) = (123)
(132) (123)(123)(132) = (123)
(12) (12)(123)(12) = (132)
(13) (13)(123)(13) = (132)
(23) (23)(123)(23) = (132)

xG = {(123)(132)} = (123)G = (132)G

• x = (12)
g G = {g −1 (12)g g ∈ S3 }
= {(132)(12)(123), (123)(12)(132), (1)(12)(1), ...}
g=(123) g=(132) g=(1)

= {(1)(23), (13)(2), (12), ...}

= {(12), (23), (13)}
= (23)G = (13)G

Remarks
G any group.

−1
(i) For any g ∈ G, g ∈ g G . (g = eG geG )
(ii) eG
G = {eG }
−1
eG
G = {g e g g ∈ G} = {eG }
| {zG }
eG

(iii) Suppose x ∈ Z(G), xG = {x}

xG = {g −1 xg g ∈ G}
−1
= {g gx g ∈ G}
= {x g ∈ G}

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MATH20201 CONJUGACY

Conjugate of a Cycle

Let f, g ∈ Sn , Ω = {1, 2, ..., n}

(∗) Suppose f : α 7→ β (where α, β ∈ Ω). Then

g −1 f g : (α)g 7−→ (β)g

( (α)g)(g −1 f g) = (α) (gg −1 f g) = (α)gf = ((α)f )g

↑ | {z }
comp. of maps mult. in Sn

And, by the definition, (α)f = β,

((α)f )g = (β)g

Lemma 6.2 Suppose f is the cycle of length a such that

f = (α1 , α2 , α3 , ..., αa ) (αi ∈ Ω)

Then g −1 f g = ((α1 )g, (α2 )g, (α3 )g, ..., (αa )g).

(g −1 f g is an a-cycle in the form {(αi )g}.)

Proof:

f : α1 7→ α2
α2 7→ α3
α3 7→ α4 α 7→ α if α ∈ Ω \ {α1 , ..., αa }
..
.
αa 7→ α1

g −1 f g : (α1 )g 7→ (α2 )g by (∗)

(α2 )g 7→ (α3 )g
(α3 )g 7→ (α4 )g (α)g 7→ (α)g by (∗)
..
.
(αa )g 7→ (α1 )g


Example: S9
f = (13579246), g = (1968)(24753)

g −1 f g = (92356478)

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MATH20201 CONJUGACY

If f is any permutation in Sn , then f = σ1 σ2 ...σk where σi are pairwise disjoint cycles. Let g ∈ Sn .
Then

g −1 f g = g −1 σ1 σ2 ...σk g
= g −1 σ1 gg −1 σ2 gg −1 σ3 ...gg −1 σk g as gg −1 = e
= (g −1 σ1 g)(g −1 σ2 g)...(g −1 σk )

Example:
f = (1, 2, 3, 4)(15, 14, 13)(12, 6)(7, 8, 9, 10, 11)
g = (1, 14)(15, 3, 6, 7, 4, 2)(10, 11)

g −1 f g = (14, 15, 6, 2)(3, 1, 13)(12, 7)

We see that f and g −1 f g have the same number of 1-cycles, the same number of 2-cycles, the same
number of 3-cycles, etc. This is called the cycle type of a permutation, which specifies how many
cycles there are of each size. To say two groups have the same cycle type means if the permutations
are written as a composite of disjoint cycles, then the number of cycles of any given length is the
same in both decompositions.
Conjugate permutations, e.g. for f, g ∈ Sn , f and g −1 f g have the same cycle type.

Theorem 6.3 Let f, f 0 ∈ Sn . Then f and f 0 are conjugate iff f and f 0 have the same cycle type.
Note double implication: iff := ⇔ .

Proof: ⇒ see above/trivial.

⇐ Suppose f and f 0 have the same cycle type.

f = (α1 , α2 , ..., αa )(β1 , β2 , ..., βb )(γ1 , γ2 , ..., γc )(...

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
0
f = (α10 , α20 , ..., αa0 )(β10 , βb0 , ..., βb0 )(γ10 , γb0 , ..., γc0 )(...

Then (αi )g = αi0 , (βi )g = βi0 , etc.

Note g ∈ Sn , and by (∗), g −1 f g = f 0 . Hence f and f 0 are conjugate. 

Recall (∗): f ∈ Sn , f : α 7−→ β (α, β ∈ Ω)

g ∈ Sn , g −1 f g : (α)g 7−→ (β)g

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MATH20201 CONJUGACY

Example: S9

f1 = (12345)(6)(789)
f2 = (12345)(67)(89)
f3 = (98765)(12)(34)
f1 is not conjugate to either f2 or f3 , however f2 and f3 are conjugate as they have the
same cycle type.
g1−1 f2 g1 = f3 [g1 = (18)(27459)(36)]

Definition 6.4 A partition of a natural number n ∈ N is a sequence n1 , n2 , n3 , ..., nt ∈ N with

n1 ≤ n2 ≤ ... ≤ nt such that n1 + n2 + ... + nt = n.

Example: n = 5

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 5

1+1+1+2=5 



1+1+3=5



1+2+2=5 7 conjugacy classes in S5 ⇔ 7 partitions of S5
2+3=5




1+4=5




5=5


Corollary 6.5 The conjugacy classes of Sn are in (1-1) correspondence with the partitions of n
(as the conjugacy class determines the cycle type).

Revisit S3 :

(1)S3 = {(1)} ←→ 1 + 1 + 1
S3
(12) = {(12), (13), (23)} ←→ 1 + 2
S3
(123) = {(123), (132)} ←→ 3

Theorem 6.6 (The Class Theorem) Suppose G is a finite group and g ∈ G. Then

|G|
|g G | = [G : C(g)] =
|C(g)|

i.e. the number of conjugates of an element g is equal to the index of the centralizer of g in G.

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MATH20201 CONJUGACY

Proof: We want to show that a−1 ga = b−1 gb ⇔ C(g)a = C(g)b. This will show that the elements
in the conjugacy class g G are in (1-1) correspondence with the right cosets of C(g) in G.

H ≤ G, x, y ∈ G
Hx = Hy ⇔ xy −1 ∈ H
bb−1 gba−1
so a−1 ga = b−1 gb ⇔ ba−1 g |aa{z−1} = |{z}
eG eG

⇔ (ba−1 )g = g(ba−1 )
⇔ ba−1 ∈ C(g)
⇔ C(g)a = C(g)b

Since we see the same element on both sides, it must ∈ C(g) as that is all elements which commute
with g. (See sheet 5, Q5). 
There are as many conjugates of g as there are elements in the right coset of the centralizer of G.

Corollary 6.7 If G is a finite group and g ∈ G, then |g G | divides |G|.

Proof: By theorems 4.6 and 6.6, |g G ||C(g)| = |G|. 

Theorem 6.8 Suppose G is a group where the order of the group |G| = pn > 1, and p is a prime
number. Then Z(g) 6= {eG }.

Proof: Let C1 , C2 , ..., Ck be the conjugacy classes of our group G. Assume C1 is the conjugacy
class of the identity element, e.g. C1 = eG
G = {eG }.

By definition G = C1 ∪˙ C2 ∪˙ ... ∪˙ Ck .
Let ni = |Ci |. (note n1 = 1)

pn = |G| = |C1 | + |C2 | + |C3 | + ... + |Ck |

pn = 1 + n2 + n3 + ... + nk (†)
By corollary 6.7, each of these ni must divide the group order |G|. Since |G| is pn > 1, each ni
either is equal to 1 or a power of p (ni = 1 or p ni ).

By (†) we cannot have p ni (i = 2, 3, ..., k) and so there must be at least one ni (i 6= 1) such that
ni = 1. Thus there is more than one conjugacy class consisting of a single element.
If one such of these conjugacy classes, say Ci = {x}, then x ∈ Z(G) 6= {eG } (note x 6= eG ). 
Recall: G group, g ∈ G. |g G | = 1 ⇔ g ∈ Z(G).

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MATH20201 NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Normal Subgroups

Definition 7.1 Suppose G is a group and H ≤ G. If ∀g ∈ G, ∀h ∈ H, g −1 hg ∈ H, then H is a

normal subgroup of G. Write H E G.

Remark: H E G is the same as: H is a subgroup of G and H is the union of G-conjugacy classes.
[
H= hG
h∈H

Example: 1.
For any group G, G E G, {eG } E G because g −1 eG g = eG ∈ {eG } ∀g ∈ G.
Example: 2.
Suppose G is abelian. (Any two elements in the group commute). Every subgroup of G
is a normal subgroup of G.
Suppose H ≤ G. We want to show if G is abelian, H must be normal.
Let g ∈ G, h ∈ H. g −1 hg = g −1 gh = eG h = h ∈ H.
S
Also note in an abelian group, h ∈ H, looking at the conjugacy class H = h∈H {h}
(this is another way to prove above).
[ [
hG = {h} so H = {h} = hG
h∈H h∈H

Example: 3. G = S3
H = h(123)i = {(1), (123), (132)} = (1)G ∪ (123)G
The subgroup H is the union of conjugacy classes.
⇒ H = h(123)i E G = S3 .
Example: NON-EXAMPLE: G = S3
H = h(12)i = {(1), (12)}. Then H 5 G (“H is not a normal subgroup”)
Let’s take (123) ∈ G.

(123)−1 (12)(123) = (12)(123) = (23) ∈

/ H.

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MATH20201 NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Example: 5. G = GL(n, F ) where F is any field.

H = SL(n, F ) = {A ∈ GL(n, F ) detA = 1F }.
First check H ≤ G (don’t forget to prove something is a subgroup before trying to prove
normalcy!):
 

1F
1f
0
 ∈ SL(n, F ). So ∅ =
6 SL(n, F ) ⊆ GL(n, F ).
 
 ..
.

0 
1F

Let A, B ∈ SL(n, F ) ∴ detA = 1F = detB.

det(AB) = (detA)(detB) = 1F 1F = 1F

∴ AB ∈ SL(n, F ).
So A−1 ∈ SL(n, F ), as detA−1 = (detA)−1 = 1−1
F = 1F .

So by the subgroup criterion SL(n, F ) ≤ GL(n, F ).

Now show SL(n, F )E GL(n, F ).

A ∈ GL(n, F ), B ∈ SL(n, F ), detB = 1F

det(A−1 BA) = (detA−1 )(detB)(detA) = 1F (detB) = 1F 1F = 1F

∴ A−1 BA ∈ SL(n, F ).

We will see a strong connection between homomorphisms and normal subgroups.

Homomorphisms: recall θ : G → K with G, K groups.
For θ to be a homomorphism it must satisfy the following additional properties:

∀g1 , g2 ∈ G, φ(g1 , g2 ) = φ(g1 )φ(g2 )

↑ ↑
binary op in G binary op in K

Lemma 7.2 (i) θ(eG ) = eK

(ii) ∀g ∈ G, θ(g −1 ) = θ(g)−1

Definition 7.3 Suppose θ : G → K is a homomorphism.

ker θ = {g ∈ G θ(g) = eK }

where ker θ denotes the kernel of θ.

Lemma 7.4 Suppose θ : G → K is a homomorphism, G, K are groups. Then ker θ E G.

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Proof: Show that ker θ ≤ G. Use the subgroup criterion.

• Note ker θ ⊆ G by the definition.

• Since θ(eG ) = eK (lemma 5.2i), eG ∈ ker θ. So ∅ =
6 ker θ ⊆ G.
• Let x, y ∈ ker θ. So θ(x) = eK and θ(y) = eK .
θ(xy) = θ(x)θ(y) (as θ is a homomorphism).

θ(xy) = θ(x)θ(y) = eK eK = eK

∴ x, y, ∈ ker θ.
• Let x ∈ ker θ. (We want to show x−1 ∈ ker θ.) So θ(x) = eK .
−1
θ(x−1 ) = θ(x) = e−1
K = eK .
↑
lemma 5.2ii

∴ x−1 ∈ ker θ.

Hence ker θ ∈ G by the subgroup criterion.

Now show
kerθ E G: let g ∈ G, x ∈ kerθ. So θ(x) = eK .

θ(g −1 xg) = θ(g −1 )θ(x)θ(g) = θ(g −1 )eK θ(g) = θ(g −1 )θ (g) = eK

↑ ↑
θ is a homomorphism Lemma 5.2ii

Hence θ(g −1 xg) = eK , and so g −1 xg ∈ ker θ. ∴ ker θ E G. 

Lemma 7.5 For any group G, Z(G) E G.

Proof: We already know Z(G) ≤ G.

Let g ∈ G, x ∈ Z(G).

g −1 xg = g −1 gx = eG x = x ∈ Z(G) ∴ Z(G) E G.

Lemma 7.6 Suppose G is a group and H ≤ G, with [G : H] = 2. Then H E G.

Proof: Since H ≤ G, we only need to show

∀g ∈ G, ∀x ∈ H, g −1 xg ∈ H.

So H has two right cosets: H, and G\H (N.B.: for any y ∈ G\H, G\H = Hy).

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Suppose ∃g ∈ G, ∃x ∈ H such that g −1 xg ∈

/ H, and seek a contradiction.
/ H (as H ≤ G) ∴ g ∈ G\H and g −1 xg ∈ G\H. So g −1 xg ∈ Hg. Hence g −1 xg = hg for
Note g ∈
| {z }
Hg
some h ∈ H.
Cancelling gives g −1 x = h, so g −1 = hx−1 ∈ H as x−1 , h ∈ H and H ≤ G.
Hence g ∈ H (as H ≤ G), a contradiction. 

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MATH20201 FACTOR GROUPS AND FIRST ISOMORPHISM THEOREM

Factor Groups and First Isomorphism Theorem

Factor Groups

Suppose G is a group and N E G. Define

G/N = {N g g ∈ G}

i.e. the elements of G/N are all the right cosets of N.

For x, y ∈ G,
(N x)(N y) = N xy (∗)

Lemma 8.1 (∗) is a binary operation on G/N .

To prove this, we must show that (∗) is well-defined (there is a unique solution).
Proof: Suppose N x = N a and N y = N b with x, y, a, b ∈ G.
(∗) says (N x)(N y) = N xy, and (N a)(N b) = N ab.
We want to show that N xy = N ab. Recall: two right cosets are either the same subset or have
an empty intersection, so it suffices to show that xy ∈ N ab (since xy ∈ N xy, we then have
N xy ∩ N ab 6= ∅ which shows they are the same).

Since x ∈ N x = N a, x = n1 a for some n1 ∈ N N.B.: for normal subgroups,

and since y ∈ N y = N b, y = n2 b for some n2 ∈ N.
Then we can write an2 a−1 = (a−1 )−1 n2 a−1 = n3 ∈ N.

xy = n1 an2 b Therefore (∗∗) is not a commutation, but a

property of normal subgroups.
Since N is normal in G, we can write
an2 a−1 = n3 ∈ N, and we have that

an2 = n3 a. (∗∗)

By (∗∗), xy = n1 n3 ab ∈ N ab. We know n1 , n3 ∈ N ≤ G ∴ xy ∈ N ab.

Hence N xy = N ab, and (∗) is well-defined: it doesn’t depend on x, y but only on the right coset
itself. Therefore (∗) is a binary operation on G/N. 
Example: G = S3 , N = h(123)i E G.
|G| = 3! = 6.

G/N = {N, N (12)} = {{(1), (123), (132)}, {(12), (13), (23)}}

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MATH20201 FACTOR GROUPS AND FIRST ISOMORPHISM THEOREM

(∗) N N (12)
N (1)N (1) = N (1)(1) = N
N N N (12) N (12)N (12) = N (12)(12) = N
N (12) N (12) N N (1)N (12) = N (1)(12) = N (12)

Theorem 8.2 Suppose G is a group and N E G. Then G/N with binary operation (∗) is a group.

Proof:

(G1) X by lemma 8.1.

(G2) Let N x, N y, N x ∈ G/N.

((N x)(N y))(N z) = (N xy)(N z) = N (xy)z

| {z }
=
z }| {
(N x)((N y)(N z)) = (N x)(N yz) = N x(yz)

(G3) Let N x ∈ G/N. Then N = N eg ∈ G/N.

(N x)(N eG ) = N xeG = N x

(G4) Let N x ∈ G/N. Then x − nv ∈ G and so N x−1 ∈ G/N.

(N x)(N x−1 ) = N xx−1 = N eG = N

(N x−1 )(N x) = N x−1 x = N eG = N


G/N is called the FACTOR GROUP of G by N or the QUOTIENT GROUP of G by N.
Example: G = (Z, +), N = {3k k ∈ Z}
Remember, G is an abelian group, and all subgroups are thus normal. So we check
N ≤ G and it follows that N E G .

G/N = { N, {3k + 1 k ∈ Z}, {3k + 2 k ∈ Z}}

= = =
eG/N N +1 N +2

N N +1 N +2
(N + 1)(N + 1) = N (1 + 1) = N + 2
N N N +1 N +2 (N + 1(N + 2) = N + (1 + 2) = N
N +1 N +1 N +2 N
N +2 N +2 N N +1
Notice this is the group (Z, ⊕).

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MATH20201 FACTOR GROUPS AND FIRST ISOMORPHISM THEOREM

We can repeat the above for any n ∈ N:

G = (Z, +) N = {nk k ∈ Z}
G/N = {N, {nk + 1 k ∈ Z}, {nk + 2 k ∈ Z}, ..., {nk + (n − 1) k ∈ Z}}

This is the group (Zn , ⊕).

The First Isomorphism Theorem

Lemma 8.3 Suppose G is a group an N E G. Define

θ : G −→ G/N
g 7−→ N g

i.e. θ(g) = N g. Then θ is a homomorphism.

Proof: Note θ : G → G/N is a map as N g ∈ G/N.

Let x, y ∈ G.
θ(xy) = N xy = (N x)(N y) = θ(x)θ(y)
↑ ↑ ↑
def. of θ mult. in G/N mult. in G/N

Hence θ(xy) = θ(x)θ(y). 

Theorem 8.4 (The First Isomorphism Theorem) Suppose θ : G → K is a homomorphism,

and G and K are groups. Then
G/ ker θ ∼
= Gθ.

Remarks: Lemma 7.3 says for any homomorphism, ker θ E G, so G/ ker θ; also from lemma 5.2(iii),
Gθ ≤ K.

Reminder: ker θ = {g ∈ G θ(g) = eK } and Gθ = image of θ = {θ(g) g ∈ G} ≤ K.

Proof: Set N = ker θ = {g ∈ G θ(g) = eK }. Define ψ : G/ ker θ → Gθ by

ψ(N g) = θ(g)

where N g is some typical representative of a right coset. Thus we must check that ψ is well-defined,
i.e. N g = N h for some h ∈ G.
Suppose N g = N h. So according to our definition, ψ(N g) = θ(g) and ψ(N h) = θ(h). In particular
g ∈ N g (fact of right cosets), and N g = N h. ∴ g = nh for some n ∈ N.

ψ(N g) = θ(g) = θ(nh) =θ(n)θ(h) = eK θ(h) = θ(h)ψ(N h).

↑
θ(n) = eK , def. of kernel

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Thus ψ is well-defined.
Check ψ is a homomorphism: let N x, N y ∈ G/N.

ψ(N xN y) = ψ(N xy) = θ(xy) = θ(x)θ(y) = ψ(N x)ψ(N y)

↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
mult. in G/N def. of ψ θ is a homomorphism def. of ψ

∴ ψ(N xN y) = ψ(N x)ψ(N y), so ψ is a homomorphism from G/N → Gθ.

Finally, we must show that ψ is isomorphic, i.e. there is a bijection between G/N and Gθ.
Surjective: let z ∈ Gθ. So z = θ(g) for some g ∈ G. Then ψ(N g) = θ(g) = z ∴ image of ψ is Gθ.
Injective: Suppose ψ(N x) = ψ(N y). We need to show then that N x = N y.
ψ(N x) = ψ(N y) = θ(x) = θ(y), so θ(x)θ(y)−1 = θ(y)θ(y)−1 = eK . Use lemma 5.2(ii):

θ(x)θ(y)−1 = eK = θ(x)θ(y −1 ) = θ(xy −1 ).

So we know θ(xy −1 ) = eK and thus xy −1 ∈ ker θ = N.

(See sheet 5 Q5) xy −1 ∈ ker θ = N ⇔ N x = N y. So ψ is an isomorphism.
We have shown that ψ is well-defined and isomorphic. Therefore G/ ker θ ∼
= Gθ. 

Using the First Isomorphism Theorem

Example: What is R/Z?

((R, +)) (C∗ = C\{0}, ×)

Consider the map θ : R −→ C∗

x −→ cos(2πx) + i sin(2πx)

First show that θ is a homomorphism:

Let x, y ∈ R.
θ(x + y) = cos(2π(x + y)) + i sin(2π(x + y))
And

θ(x)θ(y) = (cos(2πx) + i sin(2πx))(cos(2πy) + i sin(2πy))

↑
mult. in C∗
= (cos(2πx) cos(2πy) − sin(2πx) sin(2πy)) +
i(sin(2πx)cos(2πy) + cos(2πx)sin(2πy))
= cos(2πx + 2πy) + y sin(2πx + 2πy)
= θ(x + y)

Thus θ is a homomorphism.

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Now, the image of θ = θR = {z ∈ C∗ |z| = 1}.

ker θ = {x ∈ R θ(x) = 1} = Z

Note the identity element of (C∗ , ×) is 1.

∴ R/Z = R/ ker θ ∼
= image of θ
F.I.T.

R/Z ∼
= {z ∈ C∗ |z| = 1}

Example: G = GL(n, F ) where n ∈ N, F is any field.

SL(n, F ) = {A ∈ GL(n, F ) det A = 1}
(K = R\{0}, mult.)
We already checked θ is a homomorphism, A ∈ GL(n, R). (See section 7 example 5.)

ker θ = {A ∈ GL(n, R) det A = 1} = SL(n, R)

N.B. images of θ = K.
Let λ ∈ K = R\{0}.  

A=

λ
..
0 ∈ GL(n, R)
.
0 λ
det A = λ, ∴ λ ∈ image of θ.
= K, ∴ GL(n, R)/ SL(n, R) ∼
GL(n, R)/ SL(n, R) = GL(n, R)/ ker θ ∼ = (R\{0}, ×).
F.I.T.

In general, it is very hard to show if two groups are isomorphic (often it is much easier to show
that they are not). This makes this theorem quite powerful.

This marks the end of the course content. I hope you found these unofficial notes helpful. Please
remember to fill out your course unit evaluations if you have any feedback for the professor with
regards to what worked or didn’t work well in this course!

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References
[1] Rowley, Peter. “Algebraic Structures.” University Lecture, School of Mathematics,
University of Manchester, Manchester. September 2017 - December 2017.
[2] Fraleigh, John B. “A First Course in Abstract Algebra,” 7th Edition. Pearson
Education, 2003.

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