INTRODUCTION

The term 'computer' originates from the word 'computare', which means 'to calculate'. We,
human beings, are always involved in some kind of calculations-simple or complex.
Mathematical calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc can be solved
easily with simple tools, mouth and finger or sometimes we may need formulas, pen and
paper or calculating machines. Such calculations can be simple, consuming less time to
calculate while some calculations can be complex and so difficult that the simple tools,
formulas or methods may not work. Even the calculation may take long time, and the result
can be wrong or inaccurate.
A computer, independent of it's size, is an electronic device used for processing of data
(numbers, alphabets, any other symbols). It basically performs the following three functions
in sequence;
• Receive raw data and instructions from input devices
• Process data according to the instruction, and
• Produce useful output and stored information for future used.
Contd…
Raw Data as Input Information as Output

Sharma
Mina
Everest, Mina Sharma is a
Thapathli, BCA student of
Processing
Everest College,
Thapathalil

Computer is, in fact, a dumb machine in the absence of human intervention. That means, computer can't do
anything in its own, user must provide appropriate instruction to the computer in order to generate useful
result. But, once we provide instructions and data, computer can continue working continuously with very
high speed without any tiredness. If we provide wrong instruction and data, computer will produce incorrect
result. This is called Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Now-a-days computer is playing an important role in every sector of daily
life; it has become a basic need of most of the people just like television,
telephone or other electronic devices at home, and gaining popularity
among others as well. It can solve numerical, logical or other decision
related human problems very quickly as well as accurately. The
important characteristics of a computer are described below:
1. Speed: The computer is a very high speed electronic device. The
operations on the data inside the computer are performed through
electronic circuits according to the given instructions.
2. Accuracy: In addition to being very fast, computer is a very accurate
device. It gives accurate output result provided that the correct input
data and set of instructions are given to the computer. It means that
output is totally depended on the given instructions and input data.
 Contd…
5. Retrieving data and programs: The data and program stored on the
storage media can be retrieved very quickly for further processing or
use. It is also very important feature of a computer.
6. Automation: A computer can automatically perform operations
without interfering to or the intervention of the user during the
operations.
7. Versatility: Versatile means flexible. Modern computer can perform
different kind of tasks one by one or simultaneously. It is the most
important feature of computer. At one moment you are playing game
on computer, the next moment you are composing and sending
emails etc.
8. Communications: Today computer is mostly used to exchange
messages or data through computer networks all over the world. For
 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer is playing very important role in every field of life. Computers are applied or used
everywhere such as at home, at school, at working place, at entertainment etc. In most of the fields
where computer is playing very important role for different purpose. Some of them are:
Education
Education is the process of developing knowledge through instructions. The instructions are received
from people such as parents, teachers etc. and from printed material such as books, journals etc.
Today, the modern technique to get knowledge is by using computers. All schools use computers in
classrooms and labs to teach students. Many educators prefer to deliver their lectures by computer-
based presentations or multimedia programs. In schools, colleges and universities, students use
software packages to complete their assignments.
Entertainment
Computer has also played a very important role in entertainment for different levels of people.
Computer has become need of humans for entertainment at their home, like playing video games,.
Similarly, software is available to see movies and to listen music. Today the movie files and famous
songs are mostly available on CDs or on the web at very low cost. We can listen music while work on
the computer. On the web, we can view fine art images in online museums and galleries. Some artists
sell their works online and others display them for our viewing pleasure.
 E-Commerce
E-commerce (electronic commerce) or e-trade or e-business is a financial
business transaction conducted electronically between business partners
over computer network (such as on Internet). With e-commerce,
transactions can occur instantaneously and globally. Today, many mobile
computers can also access the internet on wireless.
The following services are mostly used in e-commerce or e-business.
i. E-mail: It is the most popular service through which we can
electronically send and receive messages anywhere in the world. The
spoken messages are sent and received through voice mail.
ii. Video Conferencing: Video conference is a meeting between two or
more people residing at various places. They use a network to
participate in a video conference with the help of a video camera, a
microphone, speaker and software (special video conferencing
 Health Care
Nearly every area of the medical field uses computers, such as laboratories,
researches, scanning, monitoring, pharmacy, telemedicine etc., which are
helping the doctors to diagnose diseases and many other purposes.
The main uses of computer in medical field are described below:
i. Maintaining Patient History and Other Records: The complete bio-data
as well as medical history of patient is recorded into the computer
before check up of patient.
ii. Patient Monitoring: The electronic scanning units (medical equipments)
used in hospital can also be attached to computers. These are very
expensive and are used to monitor the patient continuously. Thus
computers are normally used in the following medical units of hospitals.
• ICU (Intensive Care Unit) • Operation Theater
• Recovery Room • Medical Ward
iii. Diagnosis of Diseases: Computer is also used in hospital for diagnosis.
 Contd…
Science and Engineering
Computer is used in all branches of science and engineering to collect and
analyze data. The scientists also use internet to collect the latest information
around the world. Today, it is impossible to carry out scientific researches
without use of computers.
Publishing
In the field of publishing, computer is playing very important role to publish
the books, magazines and newspapers etc. Many writers and publishers use
Internet to collect information that is used for compiling a new book of
magazine. Some websites allow you to download and entire book, called an
electronic book (e-book).
Traveling
Computer is also playing very important role in traveling by car or airplane
 Contd…
Government and E-Governance
A government runs the country by making policies, and provides services and information
to the citizens. Most of the government departments have their own websites.
Governments use computers and networks to implement e-governance. computers and
networks to implement e-governance as part of their daily routine.
Home
Like other electronic devices used in home such as T.V. set, washing machine etc.
computer has also become the need of every person at home. But it is also used at home
to keep records, write letters, prepare budgets, connect with others to send and get
information on the internet, to watch films and to listen music or other entertainment
etc.
Agriculture
In agriculture field also, computer is playing very important role. The agricultural
scientists are using computer for analyzing the agricultural data. The students of
agriculture also uses computer to get latest information about agriculture on the internet.
Energy
Energy companies use computers to locate or search oil, coal, natural gas and uranium.
Similarly electric power companies use computers to monitor the power networks. In
addition, meter readers use hand held computers to record the units consumed in homes
and business.
Industry

In industry, computers are used to control the manufacturing system and

continuous running of the machinery. These also help in monitoring temperature,
pressure, check the quality and accuracy and measurement needed in the
manufacturing process.
In industry, robots are used to perform most of the activities as mentioned above.
A robot is an automatic programmable machine that moves and performs
mechanical tasks. It means that a robot acts like human beings. Robot can work in
environment that is dangerous for human being such as opening chemical packages
and packages believed to contain bombs. It can perform repetitive tasks
continuously without any break, at very high accuracy than human. Robots can also
be used in hundreds of applications such as:
• Assembling & spray-painting cars
• Lifting of heavy equipments, power cables etc.
• Testing blood samples
• Performing experiments in artificial satellites and radioactive environment etc.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER
The development of computer was not spontaneous. Many scientists and many
activities contributed to the evolution of computers. Computer is a complex
machine having many components interrelated with each other. Each of these
components was invented separately, and by different inventors. Peoples are
considered as the first computer, because the word computer was used to describe
people who were involved in repetitive computations.
Therefore, in terms of technological innovation, method of operation, and the
historical perspective of phases of computer development, the historical time
period can be divided into different eras;
• First Era: Pre-history era or Pre-mechanical era (500BC-1642)
• Second Era: Mechanical era (1642-1890)
• Third Era: Electro-mechanical era (1890-1945)
• Fourth Era: Electronic era (1946-today)
Generations of Computers
The term generation indicates the stages of evolution or development of
computers based on the type of technology used in the computer
construction over a period of time. As new technology was emerging, it was
being used in the making of computer.
Each new generation has made the following changes in computer
characteristics:-
a. Increased speed
b. Increased storage capacity
c. Increased reliability
d. Reduced size of a computer
e. Reduced cost of a computer
 First Generation Computers (1946 - 1956)
The computers developed between 1946-1956 was the
first generation computer. In this generation Vacuum
tubes were used for electrical current flow between
electrodes and magnetic drums for memory. Entire
machine is dedicated to a particular job until the
completion of work. In this generation everything was
handled manually by the human operator. The technology
Vacuum tube was invented by John Ambrose Fleming in
1904.
Features
a. Vacuum Tubes for circuitry and magnetic drum for primary memory.
b. Punched card for input.
c. Printout display for output.
d. Magnetic Tape for storage memory (Secondary memory).
e. Limited storage capacity (1KB-4KB).
f. Large in size (Occupied more than one room).
g. Slow and expensive.
h. Generated large amount of heat.
i. Used machine language.
Contd…
Advantages
The main advantages of first-generation computers were:
a. These computers were the fastest of their time.
b. They were programmed using machine language.
c. The electronic digital computers were introduced due to the vacuum
tube technology.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of first-generation computers were:
a. Very big in size
b. Not reliable
c. Consumed large amount of energy (Electricity)
d. Constant maintenance required and short life
span
e. More heat generated and air-conditioning was required
f. More costly
 Second Generation Computers (1956-1965)
The transistor technology was used in second-generation
computers. The electronic component transistor was
invented in December 23, 1947 by William Shockley, John
Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Laboratories in Murray
Hill, New Jersey, USA. The transistor is smaller in size, fast
and more reliable than vacuum tube. Therefore, the
transistor technology was used in computer in place of
vacuum tube technology. The assembly language was also
introduced in second-generation of computers.
Features
a. Transistor used for electric circuitry.
b. Magnetic core memory for internal storage purpose.
c. Magnetic tape for external storage.
d. Reduced size and cost of a computer.
f. Larger storage capacity.
g. Heat generated by the computer.
h. Punched card for input.
Examples: IBM 1401, 7030, 7050, GE 635, 200, 400 series etc.
 Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of this generation compute
The main advantages of second- were:
generation computers as compared to a. Air-conditioning required
first-generation computers are: b. Commercial production was difficult and these were
a. Low cost very costly
b. Smaller in size c. Constant (or frequent) maintenance required
d. Only used for special purposes
c. Fast in speed
d. Consumed low power
e. Used for commercial purposes
f. Portable than first generation
 Third Generation Computers (1965-1973)
The computers developed between 1965-1973 were the Third
generation computers. In this generation Integrated Circuits
(IC) were used for memory and processing units. Many
transistors are placed on Silicon chips, which drastically
change the speed and efficiency of computers. Computers
included significant advances in machine hardware along with
heavy emphasis on software. Computer programs designed to
make the machine work.

Features
a. IC (SSI & MSI) is used for memory and processing units
b. Semiconductor memory for internal storage.
c. Keyboard for input
d. Monitor for Output.
e. Started to use operating System.
f. Processor speed in nanoseconds.
g. Reduced size, cost and more reliable.
h. Used high level language.
i. Magnetic disk for external storage.
Example, IBM 360 & 370 series, PDP-8 series, CDC-7000 & 7600 series
 Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages
The main advantages of third-generation as The main disadvantages of third-generation
compared to previous generations of
computers were: computers were:
a. Smaller in size a. Air-conditioning required
b. Production cost was low b. Highly sophisticated technology required for
c. Very fast in computational power manufacturing chips
d. More reliable
e. Low power consumption
f. Magnetic disk used for external storage
g. More storage capacity
h. Easily portable
 Fourth Generation Computers (1973-2020)
The computers developed between 1973-2020 were the fourth
generation computers. The significant distinction of the fourth
generation is the development of LSI and VLSI (thousands and
hundred thousand transistors on single chips). These developments
were followed by creation of microprocessors. Hundreds of circuits
may be placed on a chip of the size of a pinhead. Thus due to the use
of microprocessor, fourth-generation may be called Microcomputer
generation. The single chip Microprocessor invented in 1968 by
Gilbert Hyatt. IBM introduced its personal computer for use in 1981.

Features
a. Semiconductor memory.
b. Storage capacity drastically increased (TBs).
c. Versatile input and output devices used.
d. Smaller in size, more reliable, and reduced cost.
e. Very user friendly.
f. 4 GL languages.
g. Used microcomputers (Laptop, Notebook, and PDA).
h. Decrease in used of Desktop.
Examples: IBM PCs, Remits II/III, Alpha, Intel PCs, Macintosh PCs, Portable hand held computer etc.
 Contd…
Advantages
The advantages of fourth-generation as compared to
previous generation computers are:
a. Smaller in size (Fully portable computer)
b. Production cost is very low
c. Very reliable
d. Hardware failure is negligible
e. Easily portable because of their small size
f. Totally general purpose
g. Air conditioning is not compulsory
h. Very high processing speed (8-cores chip)
Disadvantages
 Fifth Generation Computers (2020 and
beyond)
Computers based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) are known as fifth generation
computers. This generation computers are capable of billions of calculations
per second and they can “think” and “reason” with further specialization of
computer hardware. AI can be described as a branch of computer science
that is involved with using computers to solve problems that appear to
require human imagination or intelligence.

Features
a. Use of ULSI (Millions of transistors in chip) technology.
b. AI programming (PROLOG and LISP).
c. Knowledge based problem solving technique.
d. High performance multiprocessor system.
e. Input and output in the form of speech and graphics images.
f. Able to understand natural language like English, Japanese etc.
g. Future vision system in computer.
h. Having their own thinking power
i. Having capacity to make decisions itself
j. Having capabilities of learning
 COMPUTER SPEED AND MEASUREMENT UNIT
Computer speed and its measurement can be taken in different ways:
Bit Width
The first way of describing a processor is to say how many bits it processes in a single instruction or
transports across the processor's internal bus in a single cycle (not exactly correct, but close enough).
The number of bits used in the CPU's instructions and registers and how many bits the buses can
transfer simultaneously is usually expressed in multiples of 8 bits.
Clock Cycles
The second way of describing a processor is to say how many cycles per second the chip operates at.
This is how many times per second a charge of electricity passes through the chip. The more cycles, the
faster the processor. Currently, chips operate in the billions of cycles per second range.
Execution Cores
The third way of describing a processor is to say how many execution cores are in the chip. The most
advanced chips today have eight execution cores. More execution cores means you can get more work
done at the same time, but it doesn't necessarily mean a single program will run faster.
CPU Speed Measurements
The main measurement quoted by manufacturers as a supposed indication of processing speed, is the
clock speed of the chip measured in hertz. The theory goes that the higher the number of mega or
gigahertz, the faster the processor.
 Contd…
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the capacity of any communications link to transmit the maximum amount of
data from one point to another over a computer network or internet connection in a given
amount of time -- usually, one second. Synonymous with capacity, bandwidth describes
the data transfer rate. Bandwidth is not a measure of network speed.
Storage Unit
The storage capacity is measured in terms of either:
Unit Abbreviation Storage
Bit b 1or 0
Nibble - 4 bits
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 B
Megabyte MB 1024 KB
Gigabyte GB 1024 MB
Terabyte TB 1024 GB
Petabyte PB 1024 TB
Exabyte EB 1024 PB
Zettabyte ZB 1024 EB
Yottabyte YB 1024 ZB
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
Classification means a system of arranging something (devices) in different
groups according to their common characteristics, uses or operating
principle. Computers, also, can be classified based on their processing speed,
amount of data that they can hold; purpose of the computer, and working
principles. Generally, a computer with high processing speed and large
internal storage is called a large computer, while the others are called small
or medium sized computers.
Size of computer indicates the processing speed and storage capacity. On the
basis of size, computers are classified into following four main groups.
• Microcomputer.
• Minicomputer.
• Mainframe computer.
• Supercomputer.
 Microcomputer
A microcomputer is a smallest general purpose processing system. It is a self contained
unit designed specially for the use by one person at a time. The microcomputers are also
known as personal computers or simply PCs. Microprocessor is used in this type of
computer. These are very small in size and cost. The IBM’s first microcomputer was
designed in 1981 and was named as IBM-PC.
• Personal computers are available in two models. These are:
• Desktop PCs
• Tower PCs
Contd…
Microcomputers are further divided into following categories.
1. Laptop computer
2. Note book
3. Palmtop (Handheld computer)
a. Personal Digital Assistance
b. Cellular telephones

Laptop Notebook Palmtop PDA Cellular Phone

Further classification of computer is on the basis of size. These computers are in the
name of Laptop, Notebook, and Palmtop. Their size is in decreasing order. They are
portable- means easy to carry from place to place.
Minicomputers
These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and are
cheaper than mainframe. These computers are known as
minicomputers because of their small size as compared to
other computers at that time. The capabilities of a
minicomputer are between mainframe and personal computer.
It handles more than 100 workstations at a time. So, it is a
multi-user or multi-terminal time sharing system. These
computers are also known as midrange computers.
The minicomputer size prevents it from being portable, but it
can be moved more easily than mainframe computers. Mini
computers integrate commercial and technical operations
better than the more powerful PCs and are easier to use.
The first minicomputer was introduced in the mid-1960s by
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). After this IBM
Corporation (AS/400 computers) Data General Corporation and
Prime Computer also designed the mini computers.
 Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are large-scale computers, but supercomputers are
larger than mainframe. The mainframe computer specially requires a very
large clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and
operate. It can support a large number of various equipments. It also has
multiple processors. They can process data at several million instructions per
second (MIPS) and more than 1,000 remote workstation can be
accommodated by a typical mainframe computer. Large mainframe systems
can handle the input and output requirements of several thousands of users.
The users often access the mainframe with terminals or personal computers.
There are basically two types of terminals used with mainframe systems.
These are:
i. Dumb Terminal
Dumb terminal does not have its own CPU and storage devices. This type
of terminal uses the CPU and storage devices of mainframe system.
Typically, a dumb terminal consists of monitor and a keyboard (or mouse).
ii. Intelligent Terminal
Intelligent terminal has its own processor and can perform some
processing operations. Usually, this type of terminal does not have its own
storage.
 Supercomputer
Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also
very expensive. It was developed in 1980s. It is used to
process large amount of data and to solve the
complicated scientific problems. It can perform more
than one trillion calculations per second. It has large
number of processors connected in parallel. So, parallel
processing is done in this computer. In a single
supercomputer 10 thousands of users can be connected
at the same time and the supercomputer handles the
work of each user separately. Supercomputers are mainly
used for:
• Weather forecasting.
• Nuclear energy research.
 MOBILE COMPUTING
Mobile computing is a generic term describing one's ability to use
technology while moving, as opposed to portable computers, which are
only practical for use while deployed in a stationary configuration. It is a
technology that allows transmission of data, via a computer, without having
to be connected to a fixed physical link. Mobile computing embraces a host
of portable technologies that make Internet access on the go not only
possible, but integral to everyday life.
Features
• Easy to handle and carry these small devices.
• Data can be transferred easily between users.
• Collect simulated data to current zone or your time.
• Arbitrary network, easily connect to other environment and transmit
data.
Contd…
Applications
• Traffic control and information
• Emergencies Situation
• Use in Business
• Credit Card Verification
• Replacement of Fixed Networks
• Entertainment
• Construction
• Defense
Technical and other limitations of mobile computing
• Insufficient bandwidth
• Security threats
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND
ORGANIZATION
Computer Architecture
Computer architecture emphasizes the engineering decisions and tradeoffs that must be
made in order to produce a "good" design. The computer architect answers questions like:
• How many registers should there be?
• What machine instructions should there be?
• How should the cache be organized?
• What hardware support should there be for virtual memory?
Computer scientists used three related terms to describe the general area of low-level
machine organization. Computer architecture is the study of the components that make up
computer systems and how they are interconnected. Computer organization is concerned
with the implementation of computer architecture. Computer engineering refers to the
actual construction of a system: lengths of wires, sizes of circuits, cooling and electrical
requirements, etc.
 Levels within the computer architecture
a. The simplest distinction between levels that between hardware and
software. The hardware, the lowest and most basic level of computer
onto which a layer of software is added.
b. Multi-Layered computer architecture consists of several layers and
software on top of the hardware level.
The computer architecture layer of H/W and S/W are further layer into
first four denote as a H/W layer and remaining three layer are S/W
layer. These layers are briefly mentioned here:
• The Physical Device Layer (1st level) consists of electrical (power
supply) and electronic components such as transistors (acts as
electronic switch that is either ON (1) or OFF (0)), capacitors, and
resistors, and these components rely on suitable power supplies
and operating environment.
• The Digital Logic Layer (2nd level) can store, manipulate and
transmit data in the form of simple binary representations forming
 Contd…
• The Machine Layer (4th level) is the level at which program can be written and indeed it is
only machine language instructions, which can be directly interpreted by the hardware.
• The Operating System Layer (5th level) controls the way in which all software uses the
underlying hardware.
• The Higher Order Software Layer (6th level) covers all programs in language other than
machine language, which require translation on to machine code before they can be
executed.
• The Application Layer (7th level) is the language of the computer as seen by the end user.
Here is the layer where we used to communicate (interface) with the system.

7 Application layer
6 Software level Higher order software level
5 Operating System Layer
4 Machine Layer
3 Microprogramming Layer
Hardware level
2 Digital Logic Layer
1 Physical Device Layer
 Computer Organization
Computer Organization refers to the level of abstraction above the digital logic
level, but below the operating system level. At this level, the major components
are functional units or subsystems that correspond to specific pieces of hardware
built from the lower level building blocks.
The classic description of a computer's organization is attributed to John von
Neumann (1903-1957), though his original description of a machine named the
EDVAC was far more complex. The Von Neumann model is characterized by five
major subsystems:
• Input
• Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU)
• Control unit
• Memory
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
The computer system is a complex system basically having two distinct
components hardware and software. Here we are talking only hardware
components. A typical digital computer capable of performing these
tasks can be illustrated with the help of the following block diagram;
 Components of a typical digital computer
Input Unit
The input unit is a device that is used to feed the data and instructions into the
computer. The input can be entered either by typing on the keyboard or by
using point and click devices. Keyboard and mouse are commonly used as
input devices. There are many other input devices; like OCR, scanner, graphic
tablet, light pen etc which can be used as input devices. All the input devices
perform the following functions.
• Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.
• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
• Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU is a major component of any computer system. Therefore, the processing
 Contd…
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
It contains electronic circuits necessary to perform all the arithmetic and
logical operations. It also does comparison and takes decision. The
arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
etc. Similarly this unit also executes the logic operations.
Control Unit (CU)
It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit instructs the
input unit, where to store the data after receiving it from the user. It
controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit to ALU.
The task of the control unit is to carry out the fetch-execute cycle over and
over and over again:
• Fetch the next instruction from memory.
• Decode the instruction.
• Execute the instruction.
Contd…
Memory
Memory is the location where data and programs entered through the input unit are
stored. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output
devices. It also saves the data for the future reference. Memory is the main storage unit in a
computer. In simple terms, memory indicates the primary memory. But, memory can be
divided into two types- primary or main memory and secondary or auxiliary memory.
The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore
most computers have limited primary storage capacity. The secondary memory is slower
and cheaper than the primary memory.
Output Unit
An output unit of a computer is a peripheral device that provides the information and
results of a computation to outside world. It communicates information to humans or
another machine by accepting data from the computer and transforming them into a usable
form. The output device gives the desired result to the user.
Printers, Plotters, Visual Display Unit (VDU) like CRT and LCD monitor, Multimedia projector,
are the commonly used output devices. Other commonly used peripheral devices are
floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.
 MICROPROCESSOR
It is a processing unit called Microprocessor. The Microprocessor is an entire CPU built in a single
chip. We know that the central processing unit (CPU) contains three separate components- the
ALU, CU and the Register array. When all these three components are fabricated on a single chip
to form a complete computation system engine, then the CPU is commonly known as the
microprocessor.
In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used
interchangeably.
 Contd…
Microprocessors can be differentiated based on the following three
basic characteristics;
Instruction set: Depending on the type of microprocessor or brand or
version of computer, the set of instructions that the microprocessor can
execute can vary.
Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction can
also vary, such as 8-bits processor, 16 bit processor or 32 bits processor
or 64 bits processor etc.
Clock speed : The clock speed determines how many instructions per
second the processor can execute. It is measured in Mega Hertz or Giga
Hertz. The higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a
32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-
bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz.
The microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer, whether it is a
desktop machine, a server or a laptop. Microprocessors also control the
logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection
systems for automobiles.
 Contd…
Microprocessor being the central component of a computer performs the
following functions;
1. Receives instructions and data from input units
2. Reads instructions and data from memory
3. Decodes the instructions and generates control signals for different
components to control their operations.
4. Processes data or makes decisions based on the instructions
5. Provides result to the outside world as information
In addition, a microprocessor can be used in;
• Turning traffic lights (street light) ON and OFF.
• Computing mathematical functions
• Making decisions
 CONCEPTS OF SYSTEM BUSES
A bus is a data communication path over which bits of information are
transmitted between the various computer components. These
electronic pathways are nothing more than tiny wires that carry
information, data and different signals throughout the computer from
one component to the other components. This network of wires or
electronic pathway is commonly known as the 'System Bus' or simply
‘Bus’.
The expansion slot can be:
1. ISA bus: It stands for Industry Standard Architecture. It has been used
in the past for plug-in modems, sound cards, and various other low-
speed peripherals.
2. AGP bus: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. This is a 32-bit bus
designed specifically for a video card.
Contd…
Depending on the type of information carried, bus can be divided into three
types (as shown in fig below). They are:
• Control (also called timing and control) bus
• Address bus, and
• Data (also called a memory bus) bus.
Processor

Control Bus
Processor Address Bus
Data Bus

Input Memory Output

 Contd…
1. Control Bus: The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other
functional areas of the computer. It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write,
interrupt, acknowledge, and so forth) necessary to control and coordinate the operations of the
computer. The control bus is unidirectional- from CPU to other components.
2. Address Bus: The address bus consists of all the signals necessary to define any of the possible
memory address locations within the computer, or for modular memories any of the possible
memory addresses locations within a module. An address is defined as a label, symbol, or other
set of characters used to designate a location or register where information is stored. Before data
or instructions can be written into or read from memory by the CPU, an address must be
transmitted to memory over the address bus.
3. Data Bus: The bidirectional data bus, sometimes called the memory bus, handles the transfer of
all data and instructions between functional areas of the computer. The bidirectional data bus can
only transmit in one direction at a time. The data bus is used to transfer instructions from memory
to the CPU for execution. It carries data (operands) to and from the CPU and memory as required
by instruction translation. The data bus is also used to transfer data between memory and the I/O
section during input/output operations. According to how much it transfers data, the bus can be
called 1 bit, 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits, or 64 bits data bus.
 MEMORY
Memory is a location or space where we can keep data, information, and
programs temporarily as well as permanently. It is one of the major components
of computer system. It can be internal or external. Some computers also use
virtual memory, which xpands physical memory onto a hard disk.
Memory can be basically classified into two major categories. They are;
1. Primary Memory or Main memory, Internal memory and
2. Secondary memory or Auxiliary memory or External memory
Memory hierarchy in computer system
Registers
High Cost

Fast Speed

Cache Size

Primary Memory
(RAM, ROM)

Secondary Memory
(Hardisk, Flopy, Magnetic
tape, CD, DVD etc)
Primary Memory
Primary Memory is a semiconductor chip memory. Generally, this type of memory is
used for temporary storage and data processing. This memory consists of hundreds of
thousands of cells called "storage locations" each capable of storing one word of
information. Primary memory is of two types: one is RAM and another one is ROM.
RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM is considered “random access” because
any word in the memory can be directly accessed in any order. RAM also refers to read
and write memory; that is, we can both write data randomly into and read data from
RAM. This is in contrast to ROM, which permits you only to read data. Actually, the
primary or main memory is referred to as RAM.
 Contd…
The storage capacity of RAM or main memory is measured in bytes. A byte is a group of 8-bits. One character
takes one byte of memory. The amount of data and program size are also measured in bytes.

1 Byte = 8-Bits
1 Kilo Byte = 1024 Bytes
1 Mega Byte = 1024 Kilo Bytes
1 Giga Byte = 1024 Mega Bytes
1 Tera Byte = 1024 Giga Bytes

Microcomputers come with different capacity of RAMs which can be from MB to few GBs. RAM can be further
divided into DRAM and SRAM.
i. DRAM : DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAM is the most common type of RAM used
to access data & instructions in micro computers. DRAM has memory cells with a pair of transistor and
capacitor requiring constant refreshing.
ii. SRAM : SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for
each memory cell but doesn’t have a capacitor in SRAM cells, and does not need refreshing circuits.
Contd…
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The ROM contains instructions that are
permanently stored on the chips by the manufacturers themselves. In fact
recording data and instructions permanently into this kind of memory is called
"burning in the data". The instructions stored in ROM can only be read but cannot
be modified. This is the reason why it is called Read Only Memory. Data stored in
these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation or device called
burner to change the information stored in ROM chips.
The ROM contains the Basic Input / Output System (BIOS) which is a set of
instructions that are automatically activated when the computer is turned on. It
means that computer uses the instructions on ROM at the time of booting for the
following purposes.
• To check different components of computer system.
• To load the operating system into computer memory etc.
 Contd…
Masked ROM is simply a ROM, and Field programmable ROM is a ROM
which can be programmed by the user. It can be divided into PROM,
EPROM, and EEPROM.
1. PROM : PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. PROM is
a blank ROM chip on which the user can write his own program
instructions and data, but only once. However once the program or
data is written into PROM chip, it cannot be changed. The programmer
uses micro-code instructions to write information in a PROM chip.
2. EPROM: Once the ROM or PROM is programmed, its contents cannot
be changed. However there is another type of memory chip called
EPROM that overcomes this problem. EPROM stands for Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory. Like PROM, it is initially blank and
the user or manufacture can write his own program or data by using
Cache Memory
The cache is also a kind of primary memory. It is meant to improve
access times and enhance the overall performance of the computer.
Cache is the way that most CPUs are matched to RAM. Instead of
retrieving the data from RAM, the CPU retrieves it from the cache,
which is much faster to access since it is located on the CPU itself or
near the CPU.
There are two types of caches internal (L1) and External (L2) based on
the level.
Internal Cache (Level I or L1)
Internal cache is a small amount of SRAM that is placed inside the CPU
that is accessed directly. It runs at the same speed as the processor,
and enhances the performance. It is also called Level I or L1 cache.
Contd…
Buffer
Buffer is used for an uninterrupted flow of information, especially, when there is faster
device transferring the data to a slower device. Due to the mismatch between the
processing speeds of two devices, a faster device may drown the slower device with an
overload of data. Therefore, the data transferred by a faster device is first saved into a
memory called the buffer until the slower device completes its current task and reads next
data from the buffer in sequence one after another.
Secondary Memory
The main memory of the computer is volatile. It cannot be used as permanent storage
because when computer is switched off, its contents are erased. Its storage capacity is also
very small. Therefore, to overcome these limitations of primary memory, a memory is
required which is permanent and has large capacity. This later category of memory is called
secondary memory. While primary memory is concerned mainly with storing programs
currently executing and, data currently being accessed, secondary memory is generally
intended for storing anything that needs to be kept even if the computer is switched off or
no programs are currently executing.
Types of Secondary Memory
As discussed earlier, secondary storage is a long term non volatile or permanent memory.
This means it stores and retains the programs and data even after the computer is
switched off. It is used as a backup memory for future reference. The storage devices can
be categorized into various types: They are based on Data Access, Storage Technology and
External storage.
Based on the type of data access. They are sequential access and random access.
1. Sequential access: In sequential access devices, the data is written or read in sequence
one after another. We can't go directly to the desired location without going through
all the preceding locations. Magnetic tape like audio cassette is an example of
sequential access media. They are slow and used for backup purpose.
2. Random access: In contrast to sequential access, in random access storage devices, the
data can be written to any location or read from any location in random without going
through the preceding points. Random access storage is also called direct access
because any data from or to any location can be read or written directly. Magnetic
disks, optical disks etc are some example of random storage.
 Based on the technology, the storage devices can
be divided into semiconductor memory, magnetic
1. storage
Semiconductor and optical
Storage: storage.
The semiconductor memory is built of from the semiconductor
devices like transistors and gates. RAM, Cache and ROM are examples of semiconductor
memory. They are very fast and utilize completely random access method to read or write the
data. Semiconductor memories are generally used for primary storage.
2. Magnetic Storage Memory: In magnetic storage, magnetic properties are used to read or
write the data. The magnetization of the magnetic material on the disk changes the
orientation of magnetic particles to store data.
The magnetic storage memory can be Floppy disk, Zip Disk, Hard disk, Magnetic tape, etc.

a. Magnetic (Hard) disk: Hard disk is a most commonly

used storage device in personal computers and
laptops. Most application programs and operating
systems require hard disk for installation and
operation. It contains one or more metal platters
mounted on a central spindle, like a stack of rigid
diskettes. A hard disk is actually a stack of platters.
Each platter is coated on both sides with magnetic
material.
b. Floppy disk: A floppy disk is a magnetic storage media. The floppy disk is a thin and flexible
plastic disk made of up Mylar coated on both side with magnetic recording material (ferrous
or iron oxide). It is also called a diskette. It is packed in a stiff protected jacket made of plastic.

b. Zip disk: A Zip disk is a type of portable magnetic media. Its storage capacity is about 100 MB to 800 MB.
It is used to back up important data. ZIP disk is similar to floppy disk but its storage capacity is about 100
times greater than floppy disk.
 Contd…
d. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is the most popular and oldest
storage medium used to store large amount of data and instructions
permanently. The magnetic tape is a plastic ribbon with width 0.25
inch to 1 inch and one side coated with magnetic recording material
(ferrous-oxide or iron-oxide), which can be magnetized.

3. Optical Storage Memory: But in the case of optical storage, the read write process uses
optical properties like laser beams. Today, somehow used and reliable storage devices are
the optical storage devices. These devices use laser technology i.e. laser light to write and
read data to and from the optical disk such as CDs (compact disks). For example, if a
computer has one floppy drive, one hard disk, one Zip disk drive and one CD-ROM drive then
letters assigned to drives will be as under:
▪ 'A' for floppy disk drive
▪ 'C' for Hard disk drive
▪ 'D' for zip disk drive
 Contd…
a. CD-ROM-R or R/W: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read-Only-
Memory. CD-ROM is a type of optical disc that uses laser technology to
store and to read data to and from the disc. A large amount of data can
be stored on a single disk. Once the information is stored on the CD-ROM,
it becomes permanent and cannot be changed (altered). The information
can only be read for processing. Therefore, it is called Compact Disc Read
Only Memory.
b. DVD-R or R/W: DVD stands, for Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc. DVD-
ROM is an extremely high capacity optical disc with storage capacity from 4.7 GB to
17 GB. DVD disc is specially used to store movie films. It is also used to store huge
databases, music, complex software etc.
External Storage Devices
The storage devices which can be connected to the system externally are called
external storage devices. It is not necessary to connect them within the system.
External devices can be connected and detached whenever necessary.
Online storage, smart cards, flash memory etc are becoming common as mobile
storage devices as well. Some of the common external storage devices or media are
described here.
Online Storage
Online storage is a website on the Internet that offers the storage of data for free of
cost or against some payment through credit card. The capacity of storage depends
upon the packages offered by the website owner. Through the website, data is
stored on a computer which remains online 24 hours a day and 7 days a week.
When you connect to the website, you can browse through your allocated memory
space just as you browse with the help of Windows Explorer on your personal
computer. Thus you can access your data/information wherever you travel
throughout the world.
 Contd…
A smart card is a small card normally of the size of credit
card or ATM card or even smaller than that.
In order to read and write data on a smart card, a special
device called smart card reader is needed.
There are two types of smart cards:
1. Intelligent Smart card
2. Memory Smart card
Flash Memory
It is a kind of EEPROM that uses circuit wiring to erase the entire chip or
predetermined sections of the chip called blocks, by applying an electrical
field. Flash memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs because it
writes data in chunks, usually 512 bytes in size, instead of 1 byte at a time.
Similarly, the following devices are also used as external storage;
1. Portable Hard Disk: It is same as fixed hard disk, and has same capacity
and speed.
2. Zip Disk
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
The input-output or I/O devices provide the means of communication
between the computer and the user. The input and output devices are the
hardware components that allow the user to input data and instructions into
the computer and to receive the processed data as information. The data
and instructions are given to the computer through input device. The
computer processes the data according to the given instructions and output
is received onto the output device or it is stored permanently on the storage
device.
Various types of input/output devices are available. The I/O devices are
slower as compare to the speed of CPU and memory. It is because the speed
of I/O devices depends upon the mechanical movement of the components
of the devices. It is impossible that the I/O devices, the CPU and primary
storage have the same speed.
 Input Devices
The devices that are used to enter data and instructions into the computer
are called input devices. In old computers, the punched card readers, paper
tape readers were used as input devices. Now-a-days the most commonly
used input devices are Keyboard and Mouse. The input into the computer can
be entered:
• Through keyboard (by typing characters).
• By selecting commands (icons) on the screen and then clicking with
mouse.
•● Keyboard
●
By
Mouse
pressing finger on a touch
●
●
screen.
Digital Camera
Microphone
●• Touchpad
By speaking into a microphone.● Digitizer
● Trackball ● Stylus and Curser
●• Joystick
By sending image through ● digital camera.
Optical Readers
● Light Pen ● MICR
●
The input devices
Digital Scanner
are the eyes and ears of computers. The commonly used
 Keyboard
The keyboard is the most commonly used input device. It is used to
feed data and instructions into a computer. It is similar to an electric
typewriter. A keyboard contains keys for each alphabetic characters,
digits and special characters. The original PC keyboard and AT
keyboard has 84 keys. These three types of keyboards differ
somewhat in the location of function keys, control keys, enter key,
and the shift key etc.
Division of Keyboard
A keyboard cab be divided into four areas, which are described below.
1. Alphanumeric Keypad: This area is like a typewriter key, it is because this area of keyboard is referred to as
Typewriter Area
2. Numeric Keypad: A set of numeric keys and arithmetic operator keys on the right of keyboard that are
similar to calculator keys is referred to as Numeric Keypad
3. Screen Navigation Keys: The keys that are normally used in word processor or other application programs
to move cursor into the document on the screen are referred to as navigation keys.
4. Editing Keys: The keys that are normally used in word processor or other application programs for editing
(modifying) the document are referred to as editing keys.
5. Function Keys: There are 10 or 12 function keys on the top of keyboard that are labeled as F1, F2,... F12.
These keys are referred to as Function Keys.
 Mouse
Mouse is a pointing input device. It is the most commonly used
pointing device in Windows environment on the personal computers.
The mouse has two or three buttons on the top of its body. Mouse is
used to select any option from a group of options by pointing the
mouse pointer on it and then clicking one of the mouse buttons.
The most popular types of mouse and their functions are:
1. Mechanical Mouse: It has a rubber or metal ball at its bottom and an electronic circuit containing sensors.
Whenever the mouse is rolled over a flat surface; the pointer moves in the same direction as of mouse. The
sensors detect the direction of movement of ball and electronic circuit translates the movement of the
mouse into signals and then feeds it as input in the computer.
2. Optical Mouse: It has advance features and is more expensive than mechanical mouse. It has no ball inside
it. It uses the laser technology to detect the mouse movement by optical sensors. Mouse may be cordless
(wireless).
3. Opto-mechanical Mouse: It is same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect motion of the
ball.
 Contd…
Trackball
A trackball is also a pointing input device. It is like a mouse, but it is a
stationary pointing device with a ball on its top. It is a hard box with a
rolling ball at the top and one or more buttons that work just like
mouse. The ball is rolled or rotated with finger to move the cursor or
pointer around the screen. Like mouse, specific item is selected by
pointing with trackball and then pressing with one of the buttons. The
trackball is usually available with laptop computers and is fixed on the
keyboard.

Touchpad
A touchpad is also known as track pad. It is small, flat,
rectangular stationary pointing device. It has sensitive
surface of 1.5 or 2 inches square. To move the pointer, slide
finger tips across the surface of the pad.
 Contd…
Joystick
Joystick is also a directional pointing input device. It has
small box with a moving handheld stick and buttons like
gear of a vehicle. The handheld stick is used to control
the movement of pointer on the screen.

Light Pen
Light pen is another pointing input device. It can detect the presence
of light. It is a handheld pen shaped device with a photocell
mounted at its front end. When the front end of the pen is touched
with the monitor screen, the photocell detects or senses a position of
display screen. This device also has button. The user points the
object to be selected on the screen with light pen and then presses
the button on the pen. Light pen devices are used by engineers,
graphic designers etc.
Contd…
Digitizer
A Digitizer is also known as Graphic Tablets. It is a flat,
rectangular electronic plastic board (or pad). Each
location on the digitizer points to corresponding
computer screen. It is mainly used for making maps
and engineering drawings. The input devices stylus
and puck (or cursor) is used to trace drawings and
sketches on the digitizer.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device used to enter the sound signals of
user into the computer. It is used to record the voice of the user in
a computer. It is also used to talk to others on the Internet. For this
purpose, it is necessary to have the microphone and a sound card
with the computer.
 Contd…
Digital Camera
Digital Camera is an input device used to take pictures and to
store directly in computer in digital form. It operates on the
same basic principle as a traditional or conventional camera
but digital camera sends images directly inside the PC in digital
form instead of storing it on a conventional film.

Digital Scanner
Digital scanner is a very popular input device. It is a light-sensing input device. It reads
images and text printed on the paper, and then translates into electronic form that
can be processed and stored by the computer. The scanner is also known as image
scanner. The Scanner uses the laser technology to scan the image of the printed paper
and store it into the computer. Once an image is scanned, it can be used for following
purposes.
▪ Can be stored in a disk for future use.
▪ Can be printed on the paper.
▪ Can be attached to an e-mail message etc.
 Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
MICR is similar to OCR but used magnetic instead of optical. It is used by banking organization for
faster processing of large volume of cheques handled every day.
It is used to automatically read numbers on cheque.
Optical Readers
An optical reader is a device that uses a light source to read characters, marks printed on the paper
etc. and then converts them into digital form that can be stored and processed in computer. These
devices are similar to digital scanners. There are three main types of optical readers.

1. Bar Code Readers: Data coded in the form of light and dark lines or bars
are known as bar codes. The bar codes are particularly used for labeling
products (or goods) and books in public libraries. The code number on the
product or book is represented by a pattern of vertical bars. The most
widely used bar code is the Universal Product Code (UPC).
2. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): The OCR devices (or
scanners) are used to scan special characters (such as
alphabetic and numeric characters) printed on the paper and
fed into the computer as input data. The characters printed
on paper may be typewritten or handwritten. In case of
handwritten, the characters must be of standard size but in
case of typewritten, the characters must have the special
type font called an OCR font. The accepted OCR fonts are
OCR-A (American standard) and OCR-B (European standard).
3. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): The scanner is capable of
recognizing a pre-specified type of mark made by pencil or pen. The
actual technique used by an OMR device for recognition of marks
involves focusing a light on the page being scanned and detecting the
reflected light pattern from the marks. For example, Objective type
choices of correct answer on a special pre-printed test scoring sheet
by darkening a small square, circular, or oval shaped box by a pencil
are read by OMR.
Output Devices
Output Devices
The processed input data into a useful form is called output. The computer
processes the given input data and gives the output. Therefore, devices that
are used to get output from a computer in readable form are called output
devices. When input data is processed, computer generates several types of
output, depending upon the hardware and software used and the
requirements of the user. The user views output on a screen print it on the
printer or hear it through speakers or headsets.
A number of output devices are available. Some commonly used output
devices are video display units (VDU) and printers. Output is normally
classified as:
1. Softcopy Output Device
2. Hardcopy Output Device
 Softcopy Output Device
The output received on the display screen or in the audio or video form is
called softcopy output. It is stored in computer. This kind of output is not
tangible and it cannot be touched. The most popular and commonly used
softcopy output device is display screen.
It is useful for text, graphics, audio, video or animation etc.
Monitors
The monitor is a popular and most commonly used output device. The
monitor consists of a screen and the electronic components that produce
the output on the screen temporarily. Monitors can be divided into
following categories.
1. Monochrome monitors: Monochrome means information displays in
two colors, one color (such as white, green, black, blue, amber or gray)
for fore ground and one color for background, which is usually black.
 Types of Monitors
These are types of monitors that are used with personal computer:
1. CRT Monitors: A CRT monitor is similar to standard television. It
contains a cathode ray tube (CRT). A cathode ray tube is a large,
scaled glass tube. The front of the tube is the screen. The back of
the screen is coated with phosphor (chemical material that glows
when electron beam falls on it). The screen is organized into a grid
of tiny dots of phosphor material.
2. Flat Panel Monitors: A flat panel monitor is also called LCD monitor. It
uses a liquid crystal display (LCD) instead of a cathode ray tube to
produce output on the screen. The LCD uses a liquid compound to display
information on a screen.
There are two main categories of LCDs. These are:
i. Active Matrix LCD
Active matrix LCD uses a transistor for each liquid crystal cell or pixel and
thus displays high quality images. Active Matrix LCD is also known as Thin
Film Transistor (TFT) display.
 Contd…
ii. Passive Matrix LCD
Passive matrix LCD uses fewer transistors and requires less power than
active matrix LCD. The colors on passive matrix LCD are not bright as
compared to active matrix LCD.
3. Touch Screen Monitors: These are special monitors through which
input data is directly entered by touching the screen with user fingertip.
Usually, it is used to make selection from a menu of choices. Most touch
screen computers use sensors in the computer’s screen to detect the
touch of a finger. Automated Teller Machines (ATM) interface is an
example of touch screen.

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor: This type of screen is composed of light-emitting
diodes. Its name comes from the English Light Emitting Diode. Light emitting diodes are the
most popular tool for lighting liquid crystal displays nowadays. Light emitting diodes
consume a little electricity, retain a low temperature even after long hours of performance, and
endure high loads. That’s why such displays are used as TV screens and monitors for
computers.
Contd…
5. Plasma Monitor: It is a type of flat panel display that utilizes small cells containing
electrically charged ionized gas. A plasma display is a computer video display in which
each pixel on the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma or charged gas, somewhat
like a tiny neon light. Plasma displays are thinner than cathode ray tube (CRT) displays
and brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD). It has better picture quality and less
energy saving as well as usually available in large size.
Difference between CRT and LCD Monitor
CRT LCD
1. Uses vacuum tube and electron guns. 1. Uses Liquid Crystal.
2. Light glow while striking electron on a 2. While supplying electricity, crystal becomes
coated surface of phosphor transparent.
3. Emit radiation. 3. No radiation emitted.
4. Harmful for the eyes. 4. Not harmful for eyes.
5. Picture quality is high. 5. Picture quality is low.
6. Viewing angle is large. 6. Viewing angle is very small.
7. Cost is low. 7. Cost is high.
8. Occupy large space. 8. Occupy small space.
9. High power consumption. 9. Low power consumption.
10. Screen size is not exact of its given size. 10. Screen size is about to mention size.
11. Screen is flicking 11. No flicking.
12. Resolution can be changed according to our 12. Better to keep the default resolution.
need frequently.
13. Old technology. 13. New technology.
Speakers
Speaker is an electro-acoustic transducer that converts electrical signals into
sounds loud enough to be heard at a distance. Speakers are soft copy output
devices that can be used to produce sound as output. In order to produce
sound output through speaker, a sound card is necessary. The sound card also
helps to record sound input from a microphone, and manipulate sound stored
on a disk. Speakers can be used to produce mono, stereo or 3D sound.
Hardcopy Output Device
The output printed on the paper is called hardcopy. The printers and plotters devices are
used for this purpose. The hard copy output can be stored or transported by the user in
paper form. Hard copy output is useful, especially when there is no provision of soft copy
output, computer or power supply. It is useful especially for text and graphics, and it can't
be used for audio, video or animation etc.
Contd…
Printers and Plotters
People often prefer to get printouts of the work they have done
rather than to look at it on the screen. Printouts are called hard
copy output. Unlike images on a screen, hard copy can provide a
permanent record of work and can be looked at away from the
computer.
Printer
Printers are usually divided into two different categories:
1. Impact Printer
2. Non-Impact Printer.
This is a "family tree" of output devices that can produce hard copy:
1. Impact Printers: Impact printers produce output by striking a
 Contd…
a. Dot Matrix Printers: Dot matrix printers produce an image by hammering a
column of 9 or 24 pins against a ribbon. Characters are produced as the print
head (which contains the pins) moves across the page. This is very old printing
technology, but it is popular in most of the billing departments.

b. Daisy Wheel Printers: Daisy wheel printers are rarely

used any more. A daisy wheel printer hammers character
stamps (like those on typewriters) against a ribbon to
produce high quality text output. The character patterns
are all arranged around the edge of a wheel. When a letter
is to be printed, the wheel rotates so that the correct letter
is against the ribbon.
Contd…
c. Line Printers: Dot matrix and daisy wheel printers both print only one
character at a time. For that reason they are called Character Printers. In
contrast, a line printer prints a whole line (typically 80 or 132 characters) of
text at a time. These printers are very fast, the fastest can print 3,000 lines of
text per minute. The line printers may be Chain or Drum (Band) type.

2. Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers do not use hammering action. Because there
is no hammering action, non-impact printers are very quiet but cannot print multiple
copies using carbon paper. The cost of printers are varies from low to high according to
its quality and manufacturing company. It is a present mostly used printing technology.
The non-impact printers can be Inkjet, Laser, and Thermal.
 Contd…
a. Ink Jet Printers: An Inkjet printer uses one of the most popular
printing technologies today. The relatively low cost of the printers
and multi-purpose printing abilities make it a good choice for small
businesses and home offices.
b. Laser Printers: Laser printers are called Page Printers because they print a whole page at
a time. Laser printer operates in the similar manner as a photocopy machine. A laser
beam is used to draw the image to be printed onto a light sensitive Drum. After the
image has been drawn on the drum a fine dust like powder ink called Toner is put onto it.
They are relatively expensive but have following advantages.
1. Very high speed.
2. Low noise
3. Low maintenance cost.

c. Thermal Printers: Thermal printers are no longer used as printers for

PCs. They are, however, still used in some computer control systems,
calculators and in many fax machines. These printers print on special
heat sensitive paper which is expensive.
Difference between Impact and Non-Impact
printer
Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer
1. Impact printer prints by striking hammer head 1. Non-impact printer prints without striking on a
over the ink ribbon on a paper. paper.
2. This printing technology is a electromechanical 2. Printing technology may be thermal, electrostatic,
which is becoming obsolete. laser or any other which is emerging.
3. It is very noisy. 3. No sound produced while printing.
4. Slow in printing. 4. Printing is fast.
5. It is a text printer. 5. Prints text as well as graphics.
6. It can print multiple copies at a time. 6. It can print single copy at a time.
7. Print quality and cost is low. 7. Print quality and cost are both high.
8. It can print character or line at a time. 8. It can print whole page at a time.
9. Cost of printer is low. 9. Cost of printer is high.
10. For example, Dot Matrix, Daisy wheel, Line etc. 10. For example, Inkjet, Laser, Thermal, etc.
 Plotters
A plotter is a specialized output device designed to produce hard copy output of
charts, maps, large drawings, graphs etc. A plotter is a very versatile tool. It is a
device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer.
There are three types of plotter. They differ in the way that the pen can be
moved about on the piece of paper to draw lines:

▪ Flatbed Plotter: The paper is fixed and the pen moves left and right and up and down across the paper to
draw lines. In this, plotter uses more than one pen to draw on a paper.
▪ Drum Plotter: The pen moves up and down on the paper and the paper is moved left and right by rotating
a drum on which the paper is placed.
▪ Electrostatic Plotter: There is one more plotter which is technologically different than above two types,
and it is called electrostatic plotter.
COMPUTER PERIPHERALS
Peripheral devices, or simply peripherals, are the
computer devices that are connected to the computer
externally such as printer, scanner, keyboard, mouse,
tape device, microphone and external modem. Some
of them can be internal such as CD-ROM or internal
modem and external as the scanner, printer and Zip
drive. Peripherals are used to communicate with the
outside world or hold information over a long period
of time. Peripheral devices can be classified into
different types according to their functions or use.
The different types of peripherals are;
• Input devices that are used to feed data and
instructions into the computer such as keyboard,
INTERFACES
Interface is a boundary across which two independent systems meet and
interact or communicate with each other. Therefore, it is simply a point from
where the communication can be possible. In computer, there are different
types of interfaces like user interface, software interface and hardware
interface. In this lesson, we will concentrate on the hardware interface alone.
Hardware interface is the wires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use
to communicate with each other, and electrical signals that are passed across
them. In short, it is a jack (port) for connecting different peripheral devices.
Input to the system and output from the system is possible because of the
interface. Hardware interfaces exist in computing systems between many of
the components such as the various buses, storage devices, other I/O
devices, etc. USB, FireWire, Ethernet, parallel and serial ports as well as
Compact Flash cards, PCI cards and PC Cards are all examples of hardware
interface (devices connecting to other devices).
Serial port
Serial ports are a type of computer interface that complied with
the RS-232 standard. It is serial communication physical interface
through which information is transferred in or out one bit at a
time. Each byte is broken up into a series of eight bits, hence the
term serial port. Serial ports are one of the oldest types of
interface standards. Before internal modems became
commonplace, external modems were connected to computers
via serial ports, also known as communication or "COM" ports.
Computer mice and even keyboards also used serial ports.

Serial ports Interrupt Memory address

COM 1 IRQ 4 0x3f8
COM 2 IRQ 3 0x2f8
COM 3 IRQ 4 0X3E8
Com 4 IRQ 3 0x2e8
Parallel Port
Parallel port is a port on the PC that handles a data stream in a parallel mode.
On PCs, the parallel port uses a 25-pin RS-232 connector (type DB-25) and is
used to connect printers, computers and other devices that need relatively
high bandwidth.
Most personal computers have both a parallel port and at least one serial port.

A newer type of parallel port, which supports the same connectors as the Centronics
interface, is the EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) or ECP (Extended Capabilities Port). Both
of these parallel ports support bi-directional communication and transfer rates ten times
as fast as the Centronics port. Macintosh computer uses a SCSI port, which is parallel,
but more flexible than centronics port.
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
USB stands for ‘Universal Serial Bus’. A USB port is a standard cable
connection interface on personal computers and consumer electronics
that works universally. USB ports allow stand-alone electronic devices to
be connected via cables to a computer or to each other. Now, The USB
connector ports are available as standard on virtually every computing
machine manufactured in the past eight years.
USB is an external bus standard that supports data transfer rate of 12
Mbps. USB also supports plug and play installation. USB has become
widespread, and is expected to completely replace serial and parallel port.
USB currently exists in three standards: 1.0, 1.1, and the high-speed 2.0.
The original USB 1.0 was relatively slow, transferring in 1.5 Mbps. Revision
1.1 USB jumped up to 12 Mbps. ‘High-Speed USB’ or USB 2.0, now the
most common interface around, boasts theoretical speeds of up to
 IEEE 1394
IEEE 1394 is a personal computer / consumer electronic
serial bus interface standard offering high-speed
communications and asynchronous real-time data services.
The IEEE 1394 standard for the High Performance Serial
Bus defines a serial data transfer protocol. The capabilities
of the 1394 bus are sufficient to support a variety of high-
end digital audio/video applications, such as consumer
audio/video device control and signal routing, home
networking, nonlinear DV editing, and 32-channel (or
more) digital audio mixing.
IEEE - 1394 Features
▪ Real-time data transfer for multimedia applications
▪ 100 - 200 - 400 - 800 Mbits/s data rates
▪ Live connection/disconnection without data loss or interruption (hot-plug)
▪ Automatic configuration supporting "plug and play"
▪ Freeform network topology allowing mixing branches and daisy-chains
▪ No separate line terminators required
▪ Guaranteed bandwidth assignments for real-time applications
 Network Interface Cards (NIC)
Network Interface Cards can be a network card, network
adapter, LAN Adapter or NIC (network interface card). They
are a piece of computer hardware designed to allow
computers to communicate over a computer network. It is
used for fault communication via cable. Data is transmitted
over a cable network. The NIC connects computers and
other devices such as printers. Many modern motherboards
have NICs built in by default. This interface can be wire or
wireless.

Personal System 2 (PS/2)

PS/2 ports (now outdated) were for connecting peripherals such as
your keyboard and mouse to the computer. PS/2 based mice and
keyboards have now been replaced by USB ports as the popular
standard. This trend for USB over PS/2 started in circa 2004.
 Assignment
Brief Answer Questions
1. What is ROM? List out the different types of ROM.
2. What is secondary memory? Explain about hard disk.
3. What is printer? Differentiate between impact and non-impact printer.
4. Describe the bus structure in computer system.
5. What is output unit? Describe the different types of printers.

 Descriptive Answer Questions

1. Draw the block diagram of computer system. Explain the input and processing units.
2. Explain different types of system bus. Differentiate between primary and secondary memory.
3. Define the memory structure of computer system. Explain cache, main and secondary memory
with purpose.
4. What is computer system? Explain different components of computer system with their function.