Photodiode

A photodiode is a semiconductor diode sensitive to photon radiation, such as visible light, infrared
or ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.[1] It produces an electrical current when it absorbs
photons. This can be used for detection and measurement applications, or for the generation of
electrical power in solar cells. Photodiodes are used in a wide range of applications throughout the
electromagnetic spectrum from visible light photocells to gamma ray spectrometers.

Principle of operation Photodiode

A photodiode is a PIN structure or p–n junction.

When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it creates an electron–hole pair. This
mechanism is also known as the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in
the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion
length away from it, these carriers are swept from
the junction by the built-in electric field of the
depletion region. Thus holes move toward the One Ge (top) and three Si (bottom)

anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photodiodes

photocurrent is produced. The total current Type Passive, diode

through the photodiode is the sum of the dark
Working principle Converts light into
current (current that is passed in the absence of
current
light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current
must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of Pin names anode and cathode
the device.[2]
Electronic symbol

To first order, for a given spectral distribution, the

photocurrent is linearly proportional to the
irradiance.[3]
Photovoltaic mode

I-V characteristic of a photodiode. The linear load lines

represent the response of the external circuit: I=(Applied
bias voltage-Diode voltage)/Total resistance. The points of
intersection with the curves represent the actual current and
voltage for a given bias, resistance and illumination.

In photovoltaic mode (zero bias), photocurrent flows into the anode through a short circuit to the
cathode. If the circuit is opened or has a load impedance, restricting the photocurrent out of the
device, a voltage builds up in the direction that forward biases the diode, that is, anode positive with
respect to cathode. If the circuit is shorted or the impedance is low, a forward current will consume
all or some of the photocurrent. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for
solar cells – a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode. For optimum power output, the
photovoltaic cell will be operated at a voltage that causes only a small forward current compared to
the photocurrent.[3]

Photoconductive mode

In photoconductive mode the diode is reverse biased, that is, with the cathode driven positive with
respect to the anode. This reduces the response time because the additional reverse bias increases
the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance and increases the
region with an electric field that will cause electrons to be quickly collected. The reverse bias also
creates dark current without much change in the photocurrent.

Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode can exhibit more electronic noise due to
dark current or avalanche effects.[4] The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (<1 nA) that
the Johnson–Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.
Related devices

Avalanche photodiodes are photodiodes with structure optimized for operating with high reverse
bias, approaching the reverse breakdown voltage. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be
multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases
the effective responsivity of the device.[5]

Electronic
symbol for a
phototransistor

A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. A common type of phototransistor, the bipolar

phototransistor, is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can
reach the base–collector junction. It was invented by John N. Shive at Bell Labs in 1948[6]: 205 but it
was not announced until 1950.[7] The electrons that are generated by photons in the base–collector
junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's
current gain β (or hfe). If the base and collector leads are used and the emitter is left unconnected,
the phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a higher responsivity for
light they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes. Phototransistors
also have significantly longer response times. Another type of phototransistor, the field-effect
phototransistor (also known as photoFET), is a light-sensitive field-effect transistor. Unlike
photobipolar transistors, photoFETs control drain-source current by creating a gate voltage.

A solaristor is a two-terminal gate-less phototransistor. A compact class of two-terminal

phototransistors or solaristors have been demonstrated in 2018 by ICN2 researchers. The novel
concept is a two-in-one power source plus transistor device that runs on solar energy by exploiting a
memresistive effect in the flow of photogenerated carriers.[8]

Materials

The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons
with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant
photocurrents.
Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes are listed in the table below.[9]

Electromagnetic spectrum
Material
wavelength range (nm)

Silicon 190–1100

Germanium 400–1700

Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600

Lead(II) sulfide <1000–3500

Mercury cadmium telluride 400–14000

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-
based photodiodes.

Binary materials, such as MoS2, and graphene emerged as new materials for the production of
photodiodes.[10]

Unwanted and wanted photodiode effects

Any p–n junction, if illuminated, is potentially a photodiode. Semiconductor devices such as diodes,
transistors and ICs contain p–n junctions, and will not function correctly if they are illuminated by
unwanted light.[11][12] This is avoided by encapsulating devices in opaque housings. If these
housings are not completely opaque to high-energy radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays),
diodes, transistors and ICs can malfunction[13] due to induced photo-currents. Background radiation
from the packaging is also significant.[14] Radiation hardening mitigates these effects.

In some cases, the effect is actually wanted, for example to use LEDs as light-sensitive devices (see
LED as light sensor) or even for energy harvesting, then sometimes called light-emitting and light-
absorbing diodes (LEADs).[15]
Features

Response of a silicon photo diode vs

wavelength of the incident light

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include spectral responsivity, dark current,

response time and noise-equivalent power.

Spectral responsivity
The spectral responsivity is a ratio of the generated photocurrent to incident light power,
expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The wavelength-dependence may also be
expressed as a quantum efficiency or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to
incident photons which is a unitless quantity.
Dark current
The dark current is the current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated
in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background
radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be
accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical
communication system.
Response time
The response time is the time required for the detector to respond to an optical input. A photon
absorbed by the semiconducting material will generate an electron–hole pair which will in turn
start moving in the material under the effect of the electric field and thus generate a current. The
finite duration of this current is known as the transit-time spread and can be evaluated by using
Ramo's theorem. One can also show with this theorem that the total charge generated in the
external circuit is e and not 2e as one might expect by the presence of the two carriers. Indeed,
the integral of the current due to both electron and hole over time must be equal to e. The
resistance and capacitance of the photodiode and the external circuitry give rise to another
 response time known as RC time constant ( ). This combination of R and C integrates the
photoresponse over time and thus lengthens the impulse response of the photodiode. When used
in an optical communication system, the response time determines the bandwidth available for
signal modulation and thus data transmission.
Noise-equivalent power
Noise-equivalent power (NEP) is the minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal
to the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. NEP is essentially the minimum detectable power.
The related characteristic detectivity ( ) is the inverse of NEP (1/NEP) and the specific detectivity
( ) is the detectivity multiplied by the square root of the area ( ) of the photodetector (
) for a 1 Hz bandwidth. The specific detectivity allows different systems to be
compared independent of sensor area and system bandwidth; a higher detectivity value indicates
a low-noise device or system.[16] Although it is traditional to give ( ) in many catalogues as a
measure of the diode's quality, in practice, it is hardly ever the key parameter.

When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, all these parameters contribute to
the sensitivity of the optical receiver which is the minimum input power required for the receiver to
achieve a specified bit error rate.

Applications

P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as

photoconductors, charge-coupled devices (CCD), and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to
generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog for measurement), or to
change the state of circuitry (digital, either for control and switching or for digital signal processing).

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, medical devices[17] and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control
equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or
photoconductors may be used. Either type of photosensor may be used for light measurement, as in
camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.

Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light or to a source of light which is
part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component with an
emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a mechanical
obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch) or to couple two digital or analog circuits while
maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler). The
combination of LED and photodiode is also used in many sensor systems to characterize different
types of products based on their optical absorbance.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry.
They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay), and pulse
oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p–n junction diodes, and hence are often used
for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P–n photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity
is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are
used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser
rangefinding.

Comparison with photomultipliers

Advantages compared to photomultipliers:[18]

1. Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light

2. Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other
semiconductor materials

3. Low noise

4. Ruggedized to mechanical stress

5. Low cost

6. Compact and light weight

7. Long lifetime

8. High quantum efficiency, typically 60–80%[19]

9. No high voltage required

Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

1. Small area

2. No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 102–103 compared
to 105-108 for the photomultiplier)

3. Much lower overall sensitivity

 4. Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with
special electronic circuits

5. Response time for many designs is slower

6. Latent effect

Pinned photodiode

The pinned photodiode (PPD) has a shallow implant (P+ or N+) in N-type or P-type diffusion layer,
respectively, over a P-type or N-type (respectively) substrate layer, such that the intermediate
diffusion layer can be fully depleted of majority carriers, like the base region of a bipolar junction
transistor. The PPD (usually PNP) is used in CMOS active-pixel sensors; a precursor NPNP triple
junction variant with the MOS buffer capacitor and the back-light illumination scheme with complete
charge transfer and no image lag was invented by Sony in 1975. This scheme was widely used in
many applications of charge transfer devices.

Early charge-coupled device image sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely explained
with the re-invention of the pinned photodiode.[20] It was developed by Nobukazu Teranishi,
Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980.[20][21] Sony in 1975 recognized that lag can be
eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the CCD. This led to
their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low lag, low noise, high
quantum efficiency and low dark current.[20] It was first publicly reported by Teranishi and Ishihara
with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an anti-blooming structure.[20][22] The
new photodetector structure invented by Sony in 1975, developed by NEC in 1982 by Kodak in 1984
was given the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD
began to be incorporated into most CCD sensors, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video
cameras and then digital still cameras.[20]

A CMOS image sensor with a low-voltage-PPD technology was first fabricated in 1995 by a joint JPL
and Kodak team. The CMOS sensor with PPD technology was further advanced and refined by R.M.
Guidash in 1997, K. Yonemoto and H. Sumi in 2000, and I. Inoue in 2003. This led to CMOS sensors
achieve imaging performance on par with CCD sensors, and later exceeding CCD sensors.
Photodiode array

A one-dimensional
photodiode array chip
with more than 200
diodes in the line across
the center

A two-dimensional
photodiode array of only
4 × 4 pixels occupies the
left side of the first
optical mouse sensor
chip, c. 1982.

A one-dimensional array of hundreds or thousands of photodiodes can be used as a position

sensor, for example as part of an angle sensor.[23] A two-dimensional array is used in image sensors
and optical mice.

In some applications, photodiode arrays allow for high-speed parallel readout, as opposed to
integrating scanning electronics as in a charge-coupled device (CCD) or CMOS sensor. The optical
mouse chip shown in the photo has parallel (not multiplexed) access to all 16 photodiodes in its 4 ×
4 array.

Passive-pixel image sensor

The passive-pixel sensor (PPS) is a type of photodiode array. It was the precursor to the active-pixel
sensor (APS).[20] A passive-pixel sensor consists of passive pixels which are read out without
amplification, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a MOSFET switch.[24] In a photodiode
array, pixels contain a p–n junction, integrated capacitor, and MOSFETs as selection transistors. A
photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968, predating the CCD.[25] This was the basis for
the PPS.[20]

The noise of photodiode arrays is sometimes a limitation to performance. It was not possible to
fabricate active pixel sensors with a practical pixel size in the 1970s, due to limited microlithography
technology at the time.[25]

See also

Electronics

Band gap

Infrared

Optoelectronics

Optical interconnect

Light Peak

Interconnect bottleneck

Optical fiber cable

Optical communication

Parallel optical interface

Opto-isolator

Semiconductor device

Solar cell

Avalanche photodiode

Transducer

LEDs as photodiode light sensors

Light meter

Image sensor

Transimpedance amplifier

Photoelectric sensor
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{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

External links

Photodiode I–V characteristics (https://naadal.com/photodiode/) Archived (https://web.archiv

e.org/web/20220226105607/https://naadal.com/photodiode/) 2022-02-26 at the Wayback
Machine

Using the Photodiode to convert the PC to a Light Intensity Logger (http://www.emant.com/32400

3.page)

Design Fundamentals for Phototransistor Circuits (https://web.archive.org/web/2005020515191

7/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/an/AN/AN-3005.pdf) (archived on February 5, 2005)

Working principles of photodiodes (http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/chapter4/ch4

_7.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090212171128/http://ece-www.colorado.ed
u/~bart/book/book/chapter4/ch4_7.htm) 2009-02-12 at the Wayback Machine

Excelitas Application Notes on Pacer Website (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304182654/htt

p://www.pacer.co.uk/assets/pacer/user/photodiodes.pdf) (archived on March 4, 2016)