Block 3

HYDROLOGY
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor
Director, ICAR-National Rice Research SOITS, IGNOU
Institute Cuttack, Odisha
Prof. Shachi Shah,
Prof. P.A. Azeez Director, SOITS, IGNOU
Director, SACON, Coimbatore
Prof. B. Rupini,
Prof. I.S. Thakur SOITS, IGNOU
School of Environmental Sciences, JNU,
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar,
New Delhi
School of Environment & Natural
Prof. Uma Melkania Resources, Doon University, Dehradun
Dean, College of Basic Sciences and
Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Humanities, GBPUAT, Pantnagar
SOS, IGNOU
Prof. Nidhi Rai
Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya
University College of Science, M.L.
Department of Civil and Environmental
Sukhadia University, Udaipur
Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology,
Prof. Jitendra Pandey Mesra, Ranchi
Centre of Advanced Study in Botany,
Dr. Pulak Das
BHU
School of Human Ecology, Ambedkar
Prof. R. Baskar University, Delhi
Department of Environmental Science &
Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar
SOITS, IGNOU
University of Science & Technology,
Hisar, Haryana Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi
SOS, IGNOU Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Kapoor
SOS, IGNOU Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Biswas
STRIDE, IGNOU Dr. Deeksha Dave
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOA, IGNOU Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, Director, SOITS, IGNOU, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, SOITS, IGNOU,
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS, IGNOU

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 9, 10, 11 & 12
Dr. Onkar Chauhan,
Retd. Scientist,
CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography,
Dona Paula, Goa-403004

COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Transdisciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
CONTENT EDITOR
Prof. R. Baskar, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guru
Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana

FORMAT EDITOR
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Transdisciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance:
Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

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BLOCK 3: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is the
third block in the course on Earth processes and it deals with hydrology. The block
has four units, and the details of each unit is explained in the following paragraphs.

Unit 9 introduces the learners to the concepts in oceanography. Further, the

physiography of oceans, the origin and evolution of ocean basins; Shelf and deep-sea
sedimentation have been explained with suitable diagrams. Finally, the unit explains the
various physical, chemical, and biological aspects of sea water.

Unit 10 deals with ocean currents. The leaner will get a thorough understanding of
ocean currents and circulation, Waves properties and motion. Detailed explanations
are given on the tidal currents and their characteristics. Finally, details on air-water
interface exchange, gas solubility and circulation models have been explained.

Unit 11 deals with hydrology. The unit discuses on the distribution of water in the
earth’s crust and the hydrological cycle. Further, the types of groundwater, residence
time and vertical distribution of groundwater have been explained with suitable diagrams.
In the end the various types of aquifers, springs, and their classification are also given.

Unit 12 deals with hydrogeology. This is the last unit in this block. The geological
control of groundwater, the classification of rocks with reference to their water bearing
properties have been discussed. The unit also describes the occurrence of groundwater
in the different geological terrains of India. Finally, Darcy’s law and its validity, the
determination of hydraulic conductivity and groundwater tracers has been touched
upon.

Overall, this block in the core course Earth processes will equip you well with knowledge
on the various hydrological processes.
Hydrology

200
 Introduction to
UNIT 9 INTRODUCTION TO OCEANOGRAPHY Oceanography

Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Physiography of Ocean
9.2.1 Physiographic Subdivision of Ocean
9.2.2 Subdivision of Ocean
9.2.3 The Continental Margin of the Ocean
9.2.4 Oceanic Margin
9.3 Origin and Evolution of Ocean Basins
9.4 Shelf and Deep Sea Sedimentation
9.5 Physical, Chemical and Biological Aspects of Sea Water
9.5.1 Physical Aspects
9.5.2 Chemical Composition of the Seawater
9.5.3 Biological Characteristics of Ocean
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 References and Suggested Readings
9.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

9.0 INTRODUCTION
The earth is divided into several plates. Each plate has two parts, i.e., continental and
oceanic. The continental section comprises the land segment. It may be subdivided in
(i) continental shelf (ii) slope and (iii) rise. On the shelf one finds remnant topographic
features of land that have submerged because of sea level rise. The deep regions of
ocean comprise oceanic plate. These regions have formed because of generation of
new ocean at a convergent or a divergent boundary. During the antecedent cold climate
phase over the earth, a sizeable amount of water got locked in the ice sheets and in the
glaciers, and this has reduced the level and spatial extent of the oceans.
The plate tectonic determines the arrangement of continents and oceans and plays a
vital role in destruction or expansion of the ocean. The new plate has a very young age
at the mid-oceanic ridge, and it become older in the regions that have drifted away.
The sedimentation over the ocean is regulated by the supply of detritus from rivers,
winds, and from biological productivity. Slumping supplies sediments over the rise.
The oceanic plate receives negligible amount of sediments from land.
The chemical and physical processes regulate biogeochemical cycle of the ocean. The
ocean has a layered structure. The density of seawater increases with depth. The
salinity of the sea water declines in halohaline. Temperature decreases in thermocline.
The physical, chemical and biological properties of the ocean are described to provide
a glimpse of the influence of these on the processes of the earth that regulate the global
climate.
201
Hydrology
9.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to;
• Explain the physiographic subunits of the ocean;
• Describe the formation of oceans at a divergent plate boundary and destruction of
plates at convergent plate boundary;
• Explain the sedimentary process at the shelf, slope, rise and in the deeper region;
• Discuss thermal and euphotic structures of the ocean and salinity variations in the
ocean; and
• Describe the diverse life of the upper and deeper regions of the ocean.

9.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF OCEANS

The earth has formed as a molten mass of gasses billions of years back. The cooling of
the earth has released gases and water vapour and that has formed atmosphere and
water over the globe. It is believed that during the formation of the core, mental and
crust of the earth, the water has migrated from the deeper region of the earth to the
crust. About 96% of the water on the globe is stored in the ocean, and it has a horizontal
extent of several hundred km. Ocean covers about 71% area of the globe. It has a
variable vertical extent (average depth 3.7km). The physiography of the ocean is
therefore very important because it determines the quantity of water that can be stored
in the ocean. Exchange of water from the ocean to other reservoirs determines the
extent of submergence of the continental margin under the ocean.

9.2.1 Physiographic Subdivision of Ocean

The physiography of the ocean is regulated by the ongoing geologic processes of the
earth. The most of the oceans is very young compared to the age of the earth. It is
because the ocean is created at the divergent centers and it is consumed at the
convergence centers. The continued destruction of the ocean and reorganization of
continents have reshaped the oceans. The present reorganization of continents started
with the breakup of Pangaea, the supercontinent. The ocean crust, therefore, does
not have age older than 200 million years. The physiographic features of the ocean
therefore vary over the time. A brief glimpse of subdivision of the ocean is provided
below:

9.2.2. Subdivision of Ocean

The submerged region of the continents is classified as continental margin while the
oceanic crust that has formed due to tectonic processes at the divergent boundary is
known as oceanic region. The tectonic and hydrological processes (that regulate the
amount of water in the ocean) have shaped the physiographic features present on the
floor. Based on the processes of their formation and extent of submergence, the margin
of the ocean may be subdivided into two distinct categories, i.e., continental and ocean
margins. The continental margin is the portion of the existing continent that is now
submerged in the sea. It essentially is the land region that has a low density (average
density 2.7 g/ cm3). Being produced by the volcanogenic processes, the density of the
202
oceanic plate is 2.9 g/cm3. The continental section has a thickness of several km while Introduction to
the oceanic plate is very thin (Fig. 9.1). Oceanography

9.2.3 The Continental Margin of the Ocean

This region comprises three main zones, i.e., (i) continental shelf, (ii) continental slope
and (iii) the continental rise (Fig. 9.1). Adjacent to the land –ocean boundary, the
submerged shallow flat region of the continent is termed a shelf region. The spatial
extent of this region is highly variable. It varies from few to several hundred km depending
upon the tectonic setting of the region. Generally for an active margin, the spatial
extend of continental margin is very short. For example, the continental margin of the
state of California, USA is only one km
The landward migration of sea is known as transgression of the sea.

The landward
migration of sea is
known as
transgression of
Fig. 9.1. The subdivision of the ocean the sea.

because it is an active margin. The width of shelf of the Siberia is, however, 1290 km.
The depth of the shelf is also highly variable. It varies from 80 to 200 m. The shelf of
an active margin has deeper depth.
Because the shelf is an extension of the continental land mass, it has all the physiographic
features of land. Even though not visible, the shelf has small hills, basins and remnant of
channels of old rivers that were following over the shelf when it was subaerially exposed.
We must remember that the shelf is the the region of the earth that has periodically
submerged or has been aerially exposed depending upon regression or transgression
of the sea in response to a change in the earth’s climate. The earth has experienced
several regression and transgression cycles. The most recent is 20 kilo (k) years old.
It has been archived that about 20k years back the global sea level was about 120
meters less than the present level of the sea. At such time sea - land boundary was
about 60-300 km oceanward. One may note here that at that time the present shelf
was exposed land, and it was not part of sea. Size of oceans on the globe was,
therefore, reduced during this period. As the sea level has gradually increased during
past 14.5k years, the shore has migrated towards the land and has submerged
considerable amount of land. This has shifted the shoreline and the mouth of the rivers
inland. If one explores the shelf region by the underwater sensors, one will discover
203
Hydrology many buried channels of rivers on the shelf. The channels of old rivers are manifestation
of antecedent sea level.
The east and the west coast of India has a passive margin. The width of the shelf along
the east and the west coasts of India is highly variable. The west coast has a much
wider shelf in the northern region that extends to some 300 km in the Bombay Offshore
Region. The vast shelf width in this region has been attributed to the tectonic setting of
the region. The shelf narrows down from north to south along the west coast. The
width of the shelf along the eastern margin of India also varies from the north to south.
It is narrow at the southern tip (about 60 km).
We have learned that the actual boundary of land and sea keeps shifting. Since we are
in the transgression cycle, the shoreline has shifted towards land. It may be borne in
the mind that sea may recede during transgression phase and shore at those times may
shift again to the edge of the continental shelf.
The continental self has a gentle dipping (slope 1:1000), and it attains a depth of about
120-140 m at the shelf break in India. Some shelves are even and have a gentle slope,
but some are steep. The sea bed of the shelf may vary from even to rugged. The
sedimentation processes regulate the ruggedness. A large supply of terrigenous flux
creates an even shelf. Relict features and mounds associated with reefs, small hills and
depressions on shelf may build uneven shelf. The slope and evenness of the shelf is
therefore related to the tectonic nature, physiographic setting and mechanism of detritus
supply. The East Coast of India has a high concentration of rivers that discharge an
enormous amount of sediments into the shelf. This supply has buried the antecedent
hills and channels on the shallow regions of the shelf (< 50 m water depth). Formed by
the biogenic or volcanogenic processes, isolated or a chain of bathymetric perturbations
(known as seamounts) of low height (less than 50 m) occur on the shelf. It also has
channels of the paleo rivers that are now submerged or buried under the modern
sediments.
Check Your Progress 1
Paleo-rivers are
the extinct rivers Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
that were
following over the b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
shelf prior to Why there are variations in the physiographic features of the shelf?
increase in the
level of sea. .....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
The continental shelf terminates at shelf break, a region where the slope of the shelf
increases several-fold. The shelf break may be abrupt or gradual depending upon the
tectonic nature and sedimentation during the last or antecedent episodes of sea level.
The continental slope is the region that dips steeply (60) and connects continental shelf
with the base of the slope (Fig. 1).The depth of continental slope is highly variable and
it extends down to 2000 - 2,500 m. It has several sea mounts and that may rise to
several hundred meters above the slope. These mounts are a manifestation of either
tectonic activities or are formed by the volcanic activities. The seamount with the flat
top is termed as Guoyt. The base of the slope has deposition of a pile of the sediments
204
(known as turbidities). Most of these are deposited by the down-slope movement of Introduction to
the sediments started at the shelf edge during the episodes of sea level changes or by Oceanography
the slope failure because of a change in the depositional environment. Along the Indian
Coast, the east coast has shallower depth at the base of the slope due to a large supply
of sediments by several perennial rivers such as the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The
slope has a much-reduced depth off the northern region of the west coast. The West
Coast of India has a higher number of seamounts on the shelf.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
What is the physiography of continental slope?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
At the base of the slope, a high bathymetric region is termed as continental rise. This
region is the boundary between an ocean and a continental plate. For the legal
demarcation of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of a country, the thickness of
sediments at the continental rise is very important. A 1% sediment thickness is the
criteria to extend the EEZ of any country beyond a legal limit of 200 nautical miles
(nm). India has claimed a larger region, i.e., over 200 nm based on a large supply of
sediments by its rivers over the continental plate.

9.2.4 Oceanic Margin

The oceanic plate occurs at > 3000 m depth. This region is comparatively very young
as it is formed rather recently at the divergent ocean spreading centre by the volcanic
processes. We know the oceanic plate to be very flat, and it has a gradient of 1:10000.
However, some region of the plate has a chain of hills of varying height (formed by the
volcanogenic processes) and we know this region as mid-oceanic ridge. This is the
place where two ocean plates are moving apart. Some hills are several km tall and
give rise to a chain of islands in the ocean. Hawaii is one of the examples of oceanic
islands. The Laccadive Islands of India is another example. These islands were formed
during the northward migration of Indian Plate after its recent break up during Early
Jurassic Period (201 million to 174 million years ago). The trench (a negative bathymetry
formed because of subduction at a converging margin) is the deepest region of the
ocean. The Mariana Trench is the deepest region of the world, and it has a depth of
about 11km.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
What is the gradient of the oceanic plate?
.....................................................................................................................
205
Hydrology .....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

9.3 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF OCEAN BASINS

The age of the earth is about 4.54 billion years. The oldest continental crust on the
earth is about 4.0 billion years. However, you will find in the Figure 9.2 (prepared by
Encyclopaedia Britannica; https://www.britannica.com/science/ocean-basin/Evolution-
of-the-ocean-basins-through-plate-movements) that the age of the ocean basin is ~
200 million year, and these age becomes younger (recent - 2 million years) over the
mid-oceanic ridges. From the forgoing example, it is evident that the land is younger
than the earth, and oceanic crust is very young. A student may wonder why is there a
variation in the age of different rocks on the land and in the ocean. The age of the
continental crust is lesser than the earth because the land mass has formed by cooling
of the magma at some later stage. The map of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Fig. 9.2)
confirms that at the mid-oceanic ridges a young oceanic plate is forming. This poses a
question on the date of the origin of the ocean. Because of degassing of the magma,
water molecules have formed over the earth. Dr. Graham Rider has found sedimentary
rocks that have the age of 3.9 billion years, though the age of the igneous rock is found
to be about 4.0 billion. We may infer, therefore, that water was existing on the earth in
the initial stage. Considering the quantum of degassing and oldest ages of sedimentary
rocks, it is also clear that the ocean may have come in existence some 3.9 billion years
back. A student of earth science may find it unusual that even though oceans have
formed on the earth in the early stage, no ocean is older than 200 million years. The
answer to this riddle lies in the persistent destruction and regeneration of ocean. To
understand the generation and destruction of the material of the crust, first, we shall
briefly grasp some of the fundamentals of plate tectonics. The material of the land is
made of sial (that is silica and aluminum, density 2.7) and is lighter compared to sima
(material comprises of silica and magnesium; density > 2.85). The sial is mostly a
continents crust, while the sima is found below sial on the oceanic crust. The continents
by virtue of a low density have higher elevation due to isostasy.
It may be noted here that as per the plate tectonic, the lithosphere of the earth may be
divided into seven major plates. These plates are African plate, Antarctic plate, Eurasian
plate, Indo-Australian plate, North American plate, Pacific plate and South American
plate. Each of these, except the Pacific Plate, has oceanic and continental crusts. It is
believed that the arrangement and the geographical distribution of the landmass and
the oceans of the globe are regulated by movements of these plates. We have learned
that the crust of earth consists of oceanic and continental plates. We have also learned
that oceanic plates are newly formed region and are much thinner though denser that
the continental plates. The continental plates are old regions that have been the
continents or the land masses of the globe. From the above description it is also
learned that the ocean crust is very young at the mid-oceanic ridges in the Atlantic
Ocean though it becomes older as it moves away towards continents. As per the
theory of the plate tectonics, it is also known that mantle plumes are driving force to
move plates of the lithosphere (as shown schematically in Figure 9.3).

206
 Introduction to
Oceanography

Fig. 9.2: Age of the oceanic plates (as provided in the Encyclopedia Britannica).

At the divergent boundaries, the plumes emanate from the mantle at the mid-oceanic
ridges (Fig. 9.3). We have learned in the previous section that the volcanic activities at
mid-oceanic ridges generate new plates and positive bathymetry by accumulating
volcanic mater. The age of the oceanic plate at the mid-oceanic ridges and at the distal
locations close to the continental rise, therefore, provides a clue that there is a constant
generation of the new ocean at the divergent boundary, and the newly formed plates
move away from the place of origin. The oldest age of an oceanic plate, therefore,
gives a clue on the time of initiation of formation of a new ocean. However, we have
yet to find the answer to the question “what has happened to the old ocean?”
The answer to this riddle is also provided in the plate tectonics. It has been learned Divergent and
that most of the plates are made of continental and oceanic plates, and these have convergent
divergent and convergent boundaries. At the convergent boundary or subduction zone, boundaries
the plate is consumed as one plate subducts under the other plate (Fig. 9.3). The determine the
destruction of the oceanic plate at a subduction zone explains that the oceans are points of the
constantly lithosphere where
the mental plumes
are emanating or
sinking. At the
divergent
boundary, the
mantle plumes
bring the molten
material that forms
new oceanic crust.
At divergent
boundary, one
plate subduct
under the other and
this process
destroys a plate.
The formation and
destruction of
plates are ongoing
phenomena since
the birth of earth.

Fig. 9.3: Schematic diagram of formation and destruction of oceans at divergent and
convergent boundaries. The Mantle plumes and their advection are also shown. 207
Hydrology undergoing destruction. The rearrangement of plates is an ongoing phenomenon and it
has changed the position of continents and ocean several times in the history of the
earth. By the rearrangement of seven plates, individual ocean has expanded or shrank
during the past. Some oceans are now a land mass. For example, the Indian Ocean
has formed due to the breakup of a massive landmass known as the Gondwana Land.
The fractionation of the Gondwana Land with multi-directional drifting of the India, the
Australia, the Africa and the American plates has led to the opening of the Atlantic, the
Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. Southward drifting and rearrangement of a section of
the Gondwana Land has brought the Antarctica to its present position over the Southern
Pole, and that has led to the formation of the Antarctic Sea. It may also to be noted
here that at the present the Atlantic Ocean is widening while the Pacific Ocean is
shrinking.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Why the ocean has a younger age than the continents?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

9.4 SHELF AND DEEP SEA SEDIMENTATION

As described in the previous section, the sedimentary processes are unique over the
shelf as well as over the deep regions of the ocean. The shelf, being the extension of
continents over the sea, has a variable environment of deposition and sedimentation.
Being next to the land –ocean boundary, rivers discharge their load into the continental
shelf. The erosion of the land by the forces of the sea also contributes detritus to
ocean. The sediments that are supplied into sea from land are termed as allogenic.
Most of the sediments over the inner shelf are allogenic. These sediments are also
called terrigenous.
The redistribution of these detritus by the littoral and shelf currents is also very important.
Two modes of advection is derived over the shelf. The movement of detritus parallel
to the shore is termed as alongshore. This advection is carried out by the regional or
local currents. For example, the eastern and the western boundary currents in the
entire ocean carry detritus in alongshore direction. The alongshore transport is therefore
regional in nature. The other mode of transfer is across-shelf movement. This advection
carries the sediments from the inner shelf to the deeper region of the ocean. The
alongshore winds have a cross-shelf component (if these are inclined to shore). These
Bed load is winds generate across shelf currents. Off the mouth of the rivers, the plumes of the
advection of rivers are carried for several hundred km. Such plumes carry a considerable amount
detritus along the of suspended matter into the outer shelf by the way of across-shelf transfer.
sea bed. The sediments are also carried along or across a shelf in the form of bed load. The
direction of such sediment movement depends on the characteristics of bottom
circulation. The re-suspension of sediments by high winds causes a large magnitude of
208 bed load advection. These sediments are, however, coarser than the sediments that
are carried in sea water as suspension. The movement of sediment at the sea-bed is by Introduction to
a layer that has a very high density (nepheloid layer). Oceanography

Besides, detritus on the shelf are also supplied by the wind. Deserts and flood plains of
rivers have unconsolidated sediments. Wind picks up the sediments from the deserts
or the arid plains. Winds laden with the dust are known as dust storms. The dust
storms carry a considerable amount of detritus in the tropics. In India, the Thar Desert
is known for its dust storms and sediment contribution into sea. Similarly, other deserts
also contribute a significant amount of sediments. Because the aerosols (dust particles)
can be sustained in suspension for a longer time in the atmosphere, these are carried
inter-ocean by winds. It may be borne in mind that the winds can supply sediments to
a shelf or to deeper regions (oceanic plate) of ocean.
The other source of detritus to the ocean is through volcanic activities. The oceans Volcanogenic
receive sediments though volcanogenic processes at the sea bed. It may be borne in detritus are clastic
mind that the sediments contributed by the volcanogenic processes have very coarse sediments that are
grain size and these are termed as pyroclastic. The sediments that are discharged by discharged into
the volcanoes in the atmosphere are also found to be deposited in the sea. These atmosphere by
sediments become a distinct thin layer only in the deeper region of the sea. In the way of a volcanic
region of high sedimentation, the specific contribution of volcanogenic processes is eruption. These
noticeable only in the vicinity of the coast that has lava flows. sediments travel
across the globe
The other major source of sediments over the ocean is authigenic supply. The unicellular in the upper
organisms live in sea waters. Upon their death, the skeleton of these animals is deposited atmosphere.
on the sea bed. In India, we find very high marine productivity along the SW continental
margin of India. The shelf in that region has dominant deposition of remains of the
skeleton of the organism. Authigenic
sediments form
If one looks at the pattern of sedimentation, the shelf has several specific features. The within ocean due
inner shelf has channels filled with sediments. These channels were active when the sea to biological
level was lowered. The deep incision off the mouth of the River Indus and the Ganga production.
and Brahmaputra feed deeper fan in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The outer
shelf receives fewer detritus compared to the inner shelf because the across-shelf
movement is weaker than alongshore advection. The surface of the outer shelf, therefore, Turbidites are
has more roughness. Because the deeper waters have more productivity because of thick, homogenous
upwelling or the presence of reefs, authigenic carbonate sediments are found over the deposition of
outer shelf. In India, the outer shelf is covered with relict carbonate detritus. detritus. They are
The continental slope has a much reduced supply of the detritus. However, in India, mostly found at the
the waters over the slope of the SW continental margin are productive. The slope of base of slope or in
the most of the productive regions has a high amount of carbonate and organic carbon. a fan.
Once buried, these deposits are an excellent source for production of petroleum
product. The other source of sediments to the slope is through gravity transfer from At the regions that
the outer shelf. The slumping over the slope is episodic, and it is triggered by sea level have very high
fluctuations or by slope failure. The gigantic waves such as tsunamis and storm surges marine
also cause slope failure and slumming in the sea. The continental rise is mostly covered productivity, silica
with a thick pile of sediments. These sediments occur in the form of turbidites. or calcite ooze on
The deeper ocean receives very little supply from land. The sediments thickness over the shelf and in
the oceanic plate is, therefore, tiny. These sediments are carried over the deeper water the deep ocean is
in suspension by across shelf advection. Windblown dust and volcanogenic sediments found.
also occur over all the oceanic crust. In the vicinity of mid-oceanic ridges, the pyroclastic
209
sediments are found in abundance.
Hydrology The biological productivity is another source of the sediments in the deeper regions of
the ocean. The deposition of the shells of the dead organism is termed as ooze. These
oozes are of two types. The ooze that has carbonate shells is termed as calcareous
ooze. The ooze with the skeleton of opal/silica is called radiolarian ooze.
It shall be bone in mind that the CaCO3 dissolves below a certain depth known as
carbonate compensation depth (CCD). CCD has varied in geological past. It is ~4- 5
km deep now. Therefore, there shall be no carbonate deposition below this depth.
Because of this, most of the sediments in the deeper region (> 5 km water depth) are
comprised of siliceous ooze.
Along the Indian Coast, the sediments from the rivers such as the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra are found to have inter-basin advection (from the Bay of Bengal into the
SW continental margin of India that is located along the Arabian Sea). The studies
have documented deposition of detritus from the Bay of Bengal into the Arabian Sea.
As has been described earlier, the occurrence of intense biogenic activities has given
rise to a sizeable amount of carbonate and silicate shells at the shelves of India. The
shelves of India were aerially exposed during the last transgression (retreat) of the sea,
and there were massive reefs and bioherms over the outer shelf. The age of these
sediments is about 11-08k years. Such an environment has contributed a sizeable
amount of authigenic carbonate sand over the mid-outer shelf. Submerged and exposed
reefs over the islands of India have also been archived. It is very prominent at
Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands. These regions have a high deposition of carbonate
sands.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
What kind of sediments is found over the deeper region of the ocean (oceanic
plate)?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

9.5 PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

ASPECTS OF SEA WATER
9.5.1 Physical Aspects
The water in the ocean/sea is heavier than the fresh water on the continents. Seawater
has a density of 103 g/cm3. The amount of salt (salinity) and temperature of seawater
regulate its density. The density of sea water varies between 1.02 to 1.50 g per cm3.
The fresh water supply from the rivers and the melting of the continental and sea ice
influence the density of local waters. For example, during the rainy season (during
June - September) a large fluvial discharge of the rivers into the Bay of Bengal reduces
the density of sea water at a regional scale. Evapotranspiration also influences density.
210
A higher rate of evaporation leads to loss of water in the form of vapour and that Introduction to
increases density of sea water. Oceanography

The density of the seawater is crucial for vertical movement of sea water. The ocean
has a layered structure. In the ocean, we find lighter density in the mixed layer. The
density increases with the depth. The pycnocline is the second layer of the ocean,
which has a higher density than the surface layer. The deeper regions of the ocean
have higher density (Fig. 9.4).
The vertical variations in the temperature are presented in Figure 4. One finds a top
warm layer with a uniform temperature. This layer is termed as a mixed layer. The
water temperature below the mixed layer reduces rapidly with depth. This layer is
known as the thermocline. The water of the deeper layer also show a reduction in the
temperature, but the rate of decrease of temperature in the deeper layer is very low
(Fig. 9.4). The temperature of the water is a very important parameter to regulate
evaporation and vertical movement of water in the ocean. Associated with a low
temperature, below the thermocline, the sea water has high density. This leads to
floating of warm waters of upper surface over denser cold waters. Also, the water is
cold near the poles because of prevailing climate. This water also has a higher density,
and it sinks. It also aids the formation of cyclones. Because of a high sea surface
temperature (SST), the Bay of Bengal has a frequent formation of cyclones.
Check Your Progress 6
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
What is the role of sea surface temperature (SST) on salinity and density of any
parcel of sea water?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

9.5.2 Chemical Composition of the Sea Water

The seawater has a thermal conductivity of 0.6 W/mK at 250 C at a salinity of 35 g/kg
(35‰ (parts per million)). The pH of the sea water ranges from 7.5 to 8.4. Sea water
contains almost all the elements. The major constituents of the sea water are: Oxygen
(85.84%), Hydrogen (10.82%) Chloride (1.94%), Sodium (1.08%), Magnesium
(0.1292%), Calcium (0.04%), Potassium (0.04%), Sulphur (0.091), and Carbon
(0.0028). Sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulphate and calcium are the most abundant
dissolved ions. The salinity of sea water varies between 31-36‰. The salinity is not
uniform. The highest saline region of the world is the Red Sea.
A large influx of fresh water from the rivers and from the melting of the ice into the sea
reduces its salinity. Sir Edmond Halley was the first researcher to propose the reason
for the salinity variations in the sea. He postulated that the proceeds of the continental
weathering transported by the rivers contribute salt into the sea. The evapotranspiration
of sea also increases the salt contents (similar to one found in enclosed lakes or inland
water bodies such as the Caspian Sea). However, recent studies have shown that
211
Hydrology contribution of salts specifically that of sodium, through volcanogenic and hydrothermal
activities are also important processes that contributes to salinity enhancement of sea
water.

Fig. 9.4: Typical vertical profiles of temperature, salinity, and density in the ocean

The solubility of salts in the seawater also depends on the temperature and pressure.
In the ocean, the atmospheric pressure increases with depth (the increases for every
10 m is 1013.25 hP). Because the temperature of the ocean at the deeper level is low,
it also increases the dissolution of gases and salts and alters their physical and chemical
properties. The residence time of various salts in the sea is highly variable. Sodium and
chloride have a much longer residence time compared to calcium. Over the time, the
average salinity of the sea has remained same. This has been attributed to three
processes:
1. The input of the anion and cation estimated to be equal because there is continuous
precipitation of salt by chemical as well as biogeochemical processes.
2. When sea water moves inland by the tidal forcing or during storm surges, sodium
chlorite and calcium sulphate precipitate in warm or arid region of the marginal
seas. The Rann of Kachchh is one such example where a large amount of sea salt
is precipitated due to the cyclic influx of seawater and prevailing warm, arid climate.
3. The precipitation associated with super-saturation of salt in the sea. Gypsum and
carbonates are the salts that precipitate in the shallow seas. Also, silica and carbon
are extracted from sea water by biogenic processes, specifically by phytoplankton,
the microorganism that fixes these in the presence of sunlight through photosynthesis.
Corals, sponges, lobster and several other living animals including fish continuously
extracts skeletons containing CaCO3, phosphate and several other metals from
seawater through primary and secondary productivity.
Vertical variation in the salinity of the seawater is shown in Figure 4. As indicated
earlier, average salinity of seawater is 35.5‰. The salinity of seawaters, however,
varies locally depending upon the amount of evaporation, influx of freshwater from
rivers or from the melting of sea ice. Formation of ice also enhances salinity of sea.
Alike temperature, the salinity of the surface waters of the ocean remains constant in
the upper mixed layer. Below the mixed layer, the salinity reduces, and this layer has
been termed as halohaline. Below halohaline there is very litter change in the salinity of
sea waters.
212
Check Your Progress 7 Introduction to
Oceanography
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Which gas has maximum concentration in seawater?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
9.5.3 Biological Characteristics of Ocean
The information about the biological characters in the ocean waters is rather scanty
because an extensive section of the deeper region of the ocean remains virtually
unexplored. On the land, primary productivity, to a large extent, is light limiting, and
there is a well-defined food web. On the contrary, in the ocean, only top 100 m of the
water column is prominently sunlit (zone of sunlight penetration is maximum 1000 m in
rare cases). Yet the entire ocean including the deep, dark regions is found to have a
life. The primary producers in the ocean are of two types, i.e., photosynthetic (fixing
carbon using sunlight) and chemosynthetic (the organism that produces their food by
chemical processes). The former are planktons, mostly algae and cyanobacteria
(commonly called cyanophyta) that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The
chemosynthetic community lives in the deeper region of the ocean that does not receive
any sunlight. The life here derives its food through chemical reaction around thermal
plumes emanating from the hydrothermal vents.
The tropic levels in the ocean are given in Figure 9.5. The autotrophic communities
(primary producers) are generally unicellular planktonic species that drift in the euphotic
zone and produce their food through photosynthesis. It also comprises of some species
of macroscopic algae termed as weeds. The depth of euphotic zone depends upon
several factors, important among these is cloud cover and the turbidity of the sea
waters. The waters with reduced or no turbidity are found to have a deeper euphotic
zone. The water over the oceanic plates has very little sediments, and the depth of
euphotic zone is more here. The depth of euphotic zone is also less off the mouth of the
rivers. Despite a higher turbidity that attenuates deeper penetration of the sunlight, the
primary productivity of these waters was found to be many-fold higher due to enhanced
supply of the nutrients from the land. The mangroves and beach grasses are the only
plants that are found in the submerged land of the coastal region.
Zooplanktons, the floating herbivorous consumers, are heterotrophic, and these occupy
the next level in the tropic diagram (Fig. 5). These organisms vary in size from < 2 to
200 µm and mostly feed on eutrophic species. Over 1500 species of fungi are known
from marine environments. These are parasitic on marine algae or animals, or are
saprobes on algae, corals, protozoan cysts, sea grasses, wood and another substrate,
and can also be found in sea foam. The carnivorous consumers of the higher order viz.
fish, squid, and large mammals (e.g. whales and dolphin) occupy the top of the pyramid.
Generally, at each level, only 10% of the energy from an organism is transferred to its
consumer. The rest is lost as waste, movement energy, heat energy and so on. As a
result, each higher tropic level supports a smaller number of organisms – in other
words, it has less biomass. This means that a top-level consumer, such as a shark, is
supported by millions of primary producers from the base of the tropic pyramid. 213
Hydrology Unlike the land, there are diverse species that dwell in the bottom of the sea or float
below the euphotic zone. The bottom dwellers are generally termed as benthic fauna,
and most of these are heterotrophic, though a very small community may be the primary
producer (chemosynthetic community). The life in the dark, deep ocean is sustained
from the supply of organic matter from the primary production in euphotic surface via
biological pump. The decomposers are active at each of the levels of the

Fig. 9.5: Tropic levels in the oceans.

tropic and these play a vital role in dissolving organic matter and the nutrients from the
remains of primary of secondary producers. Despite (i) a high pressure, (ii) no primary
producer, and (iii) a low temperature, life in the deeper layers of the ocean is sustained
from the rains of dead skeletons, organic remains, and dissolution of nutrients released
from the decomposition of the biotic components. We find the marine biodiversity to
be related to climate, the supply of nutrients and the availability of sunlight. A higher
supply of nutrients from land or upwelling may lead to a high primary productivity, and
it enhances the supply of organic matter into the deeper subsurfaces. Most of this
organic matter is consumed by heterotrophs or bacteria. A high marine production
leads to a large consumption of oxygen by sinking organic matter, which makes these
waters sub-oxic or anoxic through the process of eutrophication. The oxygen-depleted
waters are hazardous for marine life, specifically for the heterotrophs in the higher
tropic order.

214 Fig. 9.6: Biological characteristics of ocean water.

Marine habitats are broadly divided into two sections, i.e., coastal and open Ocean. Ocean Currents
Coastal habitat extends from the coast to the edge of the continental shelf. The region
beyond the shelf edge is termed as Open Ocean Habitat. The deep ocean fish is
termed as pelagic whereas shallow water species are known as demersal.
Check Your Progress 8
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
What is the tropic level of the ocean water?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

9.6 LET US SUM UP

Oceans have been storing water for 3.9 billion years, but their age is only 200 million
years. This is because the ocean is constantly being formed and destroyed. At a
divergent plate boundary, ocean forms. At the convergent plate boundary, the ocean
gets consumed.
The ocean has two physiographic units. Continental margins are submerged portion of
the continental plate. This region is further divided into shelf, slope, and rise. The
oceanic plate is newly formed ocean, and it occurs in the deeper regions. It has a chain
of bathymetric highs and low at the mid-ocean ridge and at subduction zones.
The sedimentation in the ocean is regulated by the supply of sediments from the
continents. The physiographic features present on the shelf get buried under the
sediments. If the supply of sediments is very high, shelf or slope region has an even
physiography.
The oceanic plate receives very low amount of sediments. These sediments are mostly
contributed by water column deposition. The other source of sediments is by biological
production. The shells of the primary producers rain over the ocean floor.
Ocean has layered structure. The upper most layer has a uniform, salinity, density, and
temperature, and it is known as mix layer. The temperature and salinity decline in the
ocean below mix layer. The salinity and temperature of deeper water of the ocean are
having least variability. The density of seawater increased with depth.
The primary producers in the euphotic zone are the only source of food for the secondary
produces. Secondary producers live on the supply of organic matter from the euphotic
zone.
Terminal Questions
1. What is a continental shelf?
2. What is the maximum age of oceanic crust?
3. What causes slumping in the ocean?
215
Hydrology 4. What is the role of the wind in supplying sediments into ocean?
5. In which layer the density of water reduces in the ocean?
6. What is the depth of euphotic zone in the ocean? What controls this depth?

9.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
1972
William A. Anikouchine and Richard W. Sternberg: The World Ocean, an introduction
to oceanography. McGraw-Hill, New York 1974
Joseph Weisberg and Howard Parish: Introductory Oceanography. McGraw-Hill,
New York 1974
Keith Stowe: Ocean Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York 2nd Edition 1979
J. Michael McCormick and John V. Thiruvatakal: Elements of Oceanography. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia 2nd Edition 1981
John A. Black: Oceans and Coasts, an introduction to oceanography. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, Dubuque 1986
Paul R. Pinet: Oceanography, an introduction to the planet Oceanus. West Publishing
Company St. Paul 1992
Alison B. Duxbury and Alyn C. Duxbury: Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
6th Edition 1993
Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont California 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Introductory Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 7th edition
1994
David A. Ross: Introduction to Oceanography. Harper Collins New York 1995
Matthias Tomczak and Gunther Krause: Do Marine Scientists have a Scientific View
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995).
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 5th Edition
1996
Douglas A. Segar: Introduction to Ocean Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont
1998

216
 Ocean Currents
9.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Your answers should include the following points:
1. Continental margin is an extension of land that is now submerged in the sea due to
a change in the sea level.
2. The maximum age of the ocean crust is 200 million years.
3 Sea level variability is the major factor that causes slumping from the shelf into the
rise. The storm surges and tsunami also cause slumming.
4. Winds supply sediments of deserts into the ocean. The volcanogenic sediments are
also transproted into the ocean by the wind. The wind is, therefore, the one of the
major agents that supplies sediments to the deeper region of the ocean.
5. Pycnocline is the layer in which the density of the ocean water increases
6. The depth of euphotic zone is generally 100 m. Sunlight is known to have penetrated
as deep as 1000 m in the seawaters over the oceanic regions.
It depends on the sun light and turbidity of sea waters.
Answers of Terminal Questions
1. The submergence of the shelf and associated sedimentation causes exposure or
burial of physiographic features. Tectonic setting and sedimentary environment is
different over each shelf. The physiographic features are also variable due to change
in these parameters.
2. The continental slope has a high slope (60). It has hills of varying size formed due to
antecedent volcanic activities. Some of these hills may also be formed due to
biological activities such as reefs during the time when the sea level was low.
3. The oceanic plates have a very high gradient (1:10000).
4 The ocean plate is consistently destroyed due to plate tectonics. The continental
plate does not undergo such destruction. Because of this, the ocean is younger
than continents.
5. A thin layer of clastic or biogenic sediments is found over the oceanic plates. The
region deeper than 4.5 km does not have any carbonate sediments because of
CCD.
6. The SST is linked with the salinity and density of sea water. A high SST leads to
evaporation, and this increases salt contents in sea water (enhanced salinity), and
its density
7. Oxygen has maximum concentration in seawaters
8. The tropic level is the arrangement of primary and secondary consumers with
respect to supply of food. It also depicts the source of food.

217
Hydrology
UNIT 10 OCEAN CURRENTS
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Ocean Currents
10.2.1 Upwelling
10.2.2 Downwelling
10.3 Waves properties and motion
10.3.1 Classification of the wave
10.3.2 Sea waves and swells
10.3.3 Disintegration of waves
10.3.4 Littoral Current
10.3.5 Tsunami
10.4 Tides
10.4.1 Classification of Tides.
10.5 Air Sea Exchange
10.5.1 Solar Radiation Absorption, Reflection, and Scattering
10.5.2 Infrared Radiation: Emission, Reflection, and Absorption
10.5.3 Turbulent Heat Transfer
10.5.4 Evaporation
10.5.5 Precipitation
10.5.6 Buoyancy Flux at Sea Surface
10.5.7 Ocean Surface Wave Generation and Decay
10.6 Ion Exchange
10.7 Gas Exchange at Sea Water Interface
10.8 Ocean General Circulation Models
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 References and Suggested Readings
10.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

10.0 INTRODUCTION
Ocean is a storehouse of heat, dissolved gases and almost all the salts and metals
present on the earth. It contains about 96.5% of the water. This water constantly
remains in motion (termed as ocean currents). The currents have lateral and vertical
movements of a water mass, and are regulated by thermal gradient, density and salinity.
Waves are a circular movement of the water with no lateral advection of water mass.
The waves are important for generating littoral currents. The littoral currents carry
suspended particulate matter along the shore. Supply of these sediments determines
the stability of a coastline. Any man-made structure that obstructs littoral drift may
cause erosion or deposition along the coast.
218
Tides are cyclic waves generated by celestial bodies. Because the moon is closer to Ocean Currents
the earth, it exerts more tidal force on the earth. The position of the moon and the sun
shifts during a lunar month. The interplay of solar and lunar forcing plays an important
role on tidal cycle. The tidal forcing is important for flushing of estuarine regions and
navigation into the inland seas and creeks.
Air-sea interaction is an exchange of energy and material between atmosphere and
sea. General circulation models (GCM) are simulations that help to understand of
dynamics of the ocean.

10.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will learn:
• The processes that induce the lateral or vertical currents;
• The wind regime over the globe;
• Role of the wind in generating currents in the ocean;
• Western and eastern boundary currents and their role in redistribution of heat from
equator to the pole;
• The processes that generate waves;
• The Tsunami;
• Tides;
• The factors that influence the tidal amplitude;
• What is air-sea interaction; and
• General circulation model of ocean.

10.2 OCEAN CURRENTS

The ocean has 96.5% of the water present on the earth. This water is never at rest.
Lateral or vertical movement of sea water is prevalent at the surface as well at the
depths of the ocean. It is termed as “ocean current”. The currents in the upper surfaces
(100 m) are more intense because of air-sea interaction. In shallow region, these are
along the shore. In the open ocean, however, currents form a giant gyre. These gyres
are cyclonic (anticlockwise) in the southern basin though these remain clockwise
(anticyclonic) in the northern region. The currents are produced and maintained by the
interplay of winds, gravity, Coriolis force, atmospheric pressure and vertical and lateral
salinity and density gradients. The main driving force, however, is the solar energy.
Because of the inclination of the axis of the earth, the solar radiation is not uniformly
received over the globe. The equatorial region receives a higher amount of solar energy
round the year. The north and south poles have a seasonal change in the duration of
day and night (longer during the local summer) and have less insolation compared to
the equatorial region. Therefore, the ocean has different thermal properties at the
equator and at the poles. Higher insolation at the equator turns this region warmer. The
ocean at the

219
Hydrology

Gyres are
cyclonic and
anticyclonic basin
scale currents.
These are present
in all the oceans.
Fig. 10.1: A generalized global patterns of easterlies and westerlies winds over
the surface of the earth.

polar regions, however, remain very cold or frozen. Such a thermal gradient leads to
advection of heat from the equator to the poles. For example, at the equator, warm air
has a vertical displacement because of prevailing low pressure. Similarly, because of
cold air at the poles, these regions have high pressure. This establishes vertical and
lateral movements of the air parcel over the globe. While moving towards the poles,
the Coriolis force also deflects the winds (as described in the next para). This leads to
the formation of regional cells of the easterly and westerly winds over the globe. A
generalized pattern of these surface winds is shown in Figure 1.
The surface currents are primarily driven by these winds. As the wind prevails over the
surface of the ocean, it moves water mass into its direction. Because of the Coriolis
force, any poleward movement of water mass gets deflected to its right (left) in the
northern (southern) hemisphere, and that gives rise to the formation of a giant gyre in
the basins. The coastal land mass of continent (boundary of the basin) then channelizes
and guides these meridional

Zonal currents are

E-W. Meridional
movements are
N-S.
Fig. 10.2: Schematic diagram of ocean currents.

and zonal advections into regional currents (Fig. 10.2). A poleward advection of water
masses is found in the western (eastern) margin of the globe in the norther (south)
hemisphere. These regional currents many-a-time are seasonal. The clockwise western
(eastern) boundary currents in the northern (southern) region are rapid and warm, and
these carry heat from the equator to the poles. Such currents keep the polar region
220
warm. The equatorward currents are found along the eastern (western) boundary in Ocean Currents
the northern (southern) hemisphere and these carry cold water.
A lack of thermal gradient at a region forms zonal currents. At the equator, for example,
the winds are easterly, and the temperature gradient is rather absent. These winds
generate equatorial currents and north and south equatorial counter currents (as shown
in Fig. 10.2). The circumpolar cold current around the Antarctica is another example
of zonal current which prevents the equatorward advection of cold water from the
southern pole to the equator (Fig. 10.2).
Check Your Progress 1 The poleward
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words. currents along the
western (eastern)
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit. boundary in the
northern (southern)
1. Why the currents in the open ocean form a gyre?
hemisphere are the
..................................................................................................................... warm and rapid
currents. The most
..................................................................................................................... prominent Gulf
..................................................................................................................... Stream is an
examples of wind-
2. What shall be the direction of currents along the eastern margins in the Arabian driven currents.
Sea?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

10.2.1 Upwelling In the northern

Upwelling - a process that pumps deeper, cold water into the surface from the depth hemisphere, the
of the ocean, is an important vertical advection driven by the winds. The winds -that coastal waters get
prevail at an inclined angle to a shore, cause an alongshore advection of coastal waters. deflected to the
This process reduces sea-surface height (refer to Fig. 10.3). To compensate the right, while in the
reduction in the sea-surface height, there is an upward movement (upwelling) of deep, southern
cold, nutrient-rich water into the upper surface. Upwelling is an important process that hemisphere these
brings nutrients from the depth of ocean. The supply of nutrients from the ocean is a are deflected to
key factor that enhances marine primary productivity and production of O2 and the left by the
consumption of CO2 in seawater. Coriolis force

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Why upwelling is important for the biological cycle of the ocean.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
221
Hydrology

Fig. 10.3: Upwelling in the shallow water

10.2.2 Downwelling
The vertical sinking (downwelling) of seawater is also an important process that is
regulated by the temperature and density of the sea. From the subtropics to polar
regions, the surface water cools during winter. The cooling at the poles produces
denser waters and

Fig. 10.4. Schematic diagram of downwelling in the ocean.

these sink to the bottom of the ocean (in the northern region of the Atlantic Ocean and
close to the Antarctica; Fig. 10.5). Such waters then move equatorward as bottom
currents in all the major oceans (please refer to Fig. 5 to identify these points). These
222 currents overturn (upwell) in the Pacific and in the Indian Oceans (note this in Fig.
10.5) making it a conveyor circulation as schematically shown. The conveyor circulation Ocean Currents
releases a large amount of heat into the atmosphere from the ocean (Fig. 10.5). This
process regulates short and long scale changes in the climate of the globe. Another
process that regulates downwelling is a high rate of evaporation. Removal of water in
the vapour form increases salinity and density of sea water. Waters which have high
salinity sink by virtue of their higher density.

Fig. 10.5: Great conveyor belt. Please note downwelled (deep) and upwelled (shallow) water
circulation in the oceans of the world. Please note the release of heat in the polar region.

Downwelling is very prominent in the Northern Arabian Sea. During winter, the surface
waters of the northern region of the Arabian Sea cool. Being denser, these sink. The
vertical movement of water leads to upwelling from the deeper sub-surfaces in the
peripheral area (please refer to Fig. 10.4). This process is unique to the Arabian Sea,
and it enhances the marine productivity of the Northern Arabian Sea during winter
season.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Why are the eastern boundary currents cold in the northern hemisphere.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

10.3 WAVES PROPERTIES AND MOTION

Waves are surface perturbation in the water mass in which the particles of the medium
are displaced in the direction perpendicular to the direction of energy transport. These
perturbations are like the one created in a rope (that is stretched out horizontally) by
moving
223
Hydrology

Fig. 10.6: The terminology used to describe waves.

its open end back and forth in a vertical direction. Waves are therefore a manifestation
of circular motion of surface water which is sustained by energy passing through it.
During the motion of the waves, there is no lateral movement of water.
The main terminology used in describing the wave is:
1. Wave height (vertical distance between crest – trough). In the deep waters (water
depth over 1/2 of the wave length) it is denoted as H”
2. Wave length (denoted as L” for deep water waves) is considered as a distance
between two crests or troughs.
3. Wave period is time taken by two consecutive crests to travel at a stationary
point. It is denoted as T” for the deep waves.
4. Wave propagation (direction in which wave is propagating between 0-3590).
5. Wave steepness =H/L

10.3.1 Classification of the Wave

In the ocean, the frictional force created by the winds over the water produces most of
the waves. Besides, isolated displacement of water by an earthquake, volcano or
slumping creates waves. If not obstructed by a margin of continent, waves have potential
to travel across the globe. The waves have been classified based on their length,
period and mechanism of their formation. Table 1 describes various types of waves,
their typical length period and the mechanism that regulates their formation.
Table 10.1: The typical characteristics and classification of waves.
Nomenclature Wave Typical Generated Generating
Length period by Force
Capillary wave < 2cm Very small Wind Surface
tension
Wind wave 60–150m < 30 sec The Wind over Gravity
ocean
Seiche Equal to the Variable but Atmoshpheric Gravity
(Standing size of the larger that pressure,
waves ) Basin wind waves storm surge
Tsunami 200km Variable but Earthquake at Gravity
(Harbour larger than sea floor,
waves) wind wave volcanic
5 min to eruption,
224 12 h landslide
 Tides Half the 6 h – 24 h Gravitational Gravity and Ocean Currents
circum- attraction, celestial
ference rotation attraction
of Earth force

10.3.2 Sea Waves and Swells

We have learned that waves are generated by wind when it blows over a sizeable area
(known as fetch) of the ocean. The wind waves may have a height ranging from slight
ripples to 10 m. Following factors influence the formation of the wind waves:
1. Speed of wind relative to wave speed; the speed of the wind shall exceed that of
the wave;
2. The wind should blow over a large area (fetch) without significant change in its
direction;
3. Width of area affected by fetch;
4. Duration for which the wind has blown over a given fetch;
5. Water depth;

Fig. 10.7: Schematic illustration of the mechanism of the wind and swell waves formation

A large fetch and powerful winds that prevail for a longer duration generate higher sea
waves (Fig. 7). When directly generated and affected by local winds, the school of the
waves is called a wind sea, and it is comprised of many uneven waves. After the wind
ceases to blow, and the wind waves have left the fetch, their wavelength increases,
while their roughness is reduced. These waves are called swell. Swell waves comprise
wind-generated waves that are not significantly affected by the local wind (Fig. 7).
The speed of the waves is governed by the gravity, wave length, and the depth of
water. For the deep water waves, the speed is calculated from the following formula:

C=

where C= wave speed, L = wave length and T =wave period.

One may note that the period of the wave is inversely related to its speed.
The same equation may also be written as:

C=
225
Hydrology Where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2) and ð =3.14. Because the g and
ð are constants, the equation can be written as

C=2.51

The speed of the deep ocean waves, therefore, is proportional to their wavelength.
The waves that have more length have a faster energy transfer. The depth of water has
no effect on the speed of the wave in the deeper region of the ocean because circular
motion of water is not influenced by the sea-floor.
Once the waves reach the shallow water (less or equal to half of their wavelength), the
circular movement of the surface water touches sea floor, and it is transformed into
elliptical motion. In the shallow waters the wave speed is therefore governed by the
following relation:

C=

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and d=water depth.

In shallow water, therefore, the length of the wave does not determine the wave speed.
Here, the water depth determines the speed. It may be kept in mind that deep ocean
waves become slower once these reach into shallow water of the shelf. Their speed
further reduces during their journey from the shelf break to the shore.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What depth the wave with a wave length of 500 m will disintegrate?
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10.3.3 Disintegration of Waves

We have learned it that in the region shallower than ½ of wave length of waves, there
is an obstruction in the circular movement of water. This reduces the speed of waves
and enhances their height. Disintegration of the waves may, therefore, start even before
these enter the shelf. For example, the ocean waves with a wavelength of 400 m shall
be unstable in the region having a water depth of 200 m. Along the Indian coast, the
shelf break occurs between depths of 100-130 m. Any wave that has a length less
than 360 m shall retard over the Indian shelf. Because the continental slope has much
steeper gradient than the continental shelf, this effect is stronger over the slope region.
There are several hills and basins on the shelf and in the inland region. It has been
learned that the speed of the waves in the shallow region is regulated by the water
depth. This implies that the speed of the waves shall be more in the basins (depression)
compared to over a mound or a hill. On the continental shelf that has variable bathymetry,
there will a complex variation in the speed and height. Such variations lead to refraction
226 of the waves over the shelf (we will learn the significance of this in the next section).
Cyclone and depressions in the ocean generate enormous waves. The disintegration Ocean Currents
of these waves (enhancement in their height), thus, starts much earlier. The storm
waves therefore have more height and very high destructive effect.

10.3.4 Littoral Current

Waves break at the shore because of the disintegration of waves. A great majority of
the breakers (seen on a beach) result from the process and it generates “littoral currents”.
Littoral current (or long-shore currents) is an alongshore advection of seawater. The
currents direction of these is regulated by the direction of the waves. It has been
described in the previous section that the direction of the wave is regulated by the
winds. In most of the ocean basin, the direction of the wind is highly seasonal. For
India, the speed of winds is many-fold higher during the SW monsoon (June-September)
and their direction is from SW-W-SE. Winds are milder and their direction reverses
after the SW monsoon. The wave climate is, therefore, completely different during
each season. in response to the wind climate, longer and higher waves from SW-SE
prevail during the SW monsoon. These waves generate a strong littoral current.

Fig. 10.8. The schematic diagram explaining the littoral and rip currents.

Because of refraction of the waves (by the variability in water depth over the shelf),
littoral currents flow in cells. Two opposing currents at the point of convergence flow
offshore from the beach. The current that flows offshore is known as rip current
(Fig. 8). Because the cell of the littoral - rip currents is regulated by prevailing wave
conditions, it keeps shifting. Rip current is dangerous and often it carries a beach
swimmer into the deeper region of the sea.
Accretion or erosion of shore is regulated by supply of detritus. The sediments are
eroded or deposited on the beach depending upon the prevailing wave conditions.
High waves induce erosion on the beach, while the milder swells accrete beach. Most
of the beaches of India undergo a cycle of erosion-deposition. During the SW monsoon,
beach generally erodes. The milder waves during the rest of the year restore and
nourish a beach.
Littoral currents are the carrier of the sediments. The replenishment of sediments by
these currents is essential for accretion of a beach. Estimation of sediments budget
carried by the littoral currents is, therefore, very crucial for the coastal structures.
Anthropogenic activities that influence littoral current may change the overall 227
Hydrology characteristics of a shore. Construction of a groin or jetties (extending from shore to
sea) blocks natural supply of sediments carried in the littoral currents. Such obstruction
causes deposition of enormous quantities of sand in the down-drift side though the up-
drift side is starved of almost all sediments that are essential for the nourishment of a
beach. This leads to a massive erosion of shoreline or sever damage to the coastal
structures. Mariana Beach of Chennai is an example. The construction of a jetty for
the Chennai Harbour has led to the formation of a large beach south of the harbour,
while the northward region is now experiencing erosion. The wave characteristics,
therefore, form important parameters that determine the stability of coastal structures.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. The littoral currents are from the north along the East Coast of India. The formation
of a jetty will obstruct sediments on which side?
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10.3.5 Tsunami
Tsunamis, “the waves of the harbour” are the most destructive, very large solitary
waves. These cause inland inundation and destruction of coastal establishment for
several km. These have a wavelength ranging from 10 km to several hundred km and
have a very long period (100-3000 sec). Unlike the storm surge, tsunamis are not
produced by wind. These waves are caused by a vertical displacement of water of
ocean by an earthquake, a large slumping, or by an eruption of the volcano on the
ocean floor. The tsunamis are, therefore, produced by the processes at the bottom of
the seafloor. For example, the tsunami that stuck the East Coast of the India on 26th
December 2004 was formed several hundred km away by an earthquake in the
subduction zone at a converging plate boundary in the deep ocean.
Tsunamis have very low amplitude in the deeper region, and therefore these travel long
distance is all direction from the epicenter of their origin, unnoticed. However, when
these arrive in the coastal waters, the shallow depth of a shelf induces enormous
amplification in their height. The occurrence of tsunami is an episodic phenomenon,
and it continues till the energy of these waves is fully dissipated. Considering a large
destruction by these waves, Government of India has installed a Tsunami warning
system in the ocean.

10.4 TIDES
Tides are semidiurnal (6 hourly) to diurnal (12 hourly) cyclic changes in the sea level.
Tidal waves are generated because of the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon.
As per the Newton’s Law, the gravitational attraction between two bodies is: (i)
proportional to the product of the masses of the two bodies and (ii) it is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
228
 Ocean Currents

Fig. 10.9: Formation of the tidal bulge at the equator due to the attraction of moon.

This implies that the bodies with the greater mass and close to each other shall produce
a stronger attraction. Despite a smaller size, therefore, the moon has a two-fold higher
gravitational pull on the earth. This pull induces two bulges at the equator (Fig. 10.9),
and it produces an enormous wave (about the size of half of the circumference of the
earth) with low amplitude. To further understand this process, let us assume that the
earth is fully covered with water with no landmass. In such a scenario, water from the
poles will migrate to the equator to create a tidal bulge every 12 hrs due to gravitational
pull of the moon. This tidal wave then propagates around the earth. However, the
earth is not fully covered with water and it has continents which restrict free passage of
tides. We will describe the role of this obstruction in the later part of this section.
While the earth is rotating on its axis in 24 hours, the moon is also revolving around the
earth. The direction of revolving of the moon and the earth is the same. In order to
complete one lunar day, therefore, the earth has to move a bit more. The earth takes
24 hours plus 1/29.5 day or 24 h and 50 min. A lunar day is, therefore, longer than a
solar day. Because of this, every solar day the time of high and low tide has an increment
of 50 minutes.

Fig. 10.10: Celestial position of the sun and the moon during a spring tide.

10.4.1 Classification of Tides

Because the moon takes about 24 h 50 to revolve around the earth, theoretically there
shall be a 12h 25 min cyclic changes in the water level (one high water and one low
water) associated with the attraction of moon. Such a tidal cycle is called a diurnal
cycle. The term ebb-tide is used during low water, while the high water level is called 229
Hydrology as a flood-tide. If the earth was having no landmass, the bulge of water produced by
the moon (as explained earlier) would have diurnal changes at all the points of earth.
However, because of the obstruction in the passage of tidal wave by the continents,
there is a large variability in the tide cycle. Many regions have two low and high tides
every day. These tides are called semidiurnal.
Based on the amplitude of tides during a semidiurnal cycle, the tides are called
symmetrical or mixed (Fig. 10.11). If the amplitude of ebb and flood tidal phases is
same, the tides are classified as symmetrical. In a mixed tide, the ebb and flood phases
have different amplitude. The inequality in the tidal phases stems from the movement
of the moon in an elliptical circle. While revolving around the earth, the moon moves
between the Tropics of Cancer and the Tropics of Capricorn. When the moon is
located over the equator, the bulge also lies over the equator (Fig. 10.9). In this case,
the tidal phases are symmetrical. Such tides are also known as equatorial tides. The
location of the moon over the Tropic of the Capricorn (or over the Tropic of Cancer)
causes the tidal bulge to shift to the north or to the south of the equator. This generates
unequal ebb and flood phases. These tides are called tropic tides (mixed tides).

Fig. 10.11: Classification of tides

The position of the sun, the moon, and the earth also determines the amplitude of tide.
We have learned that the moon moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. We also
230 know that the earth also moves around the sun in an elliptical circle. During the revolution
of each of these bodies around the earth, there are two positions (termed as apogee Ocean Currents
and perigee). At the apogee, the moon is farthest from the earth. At perigee, the moon
is closest to the earth. It has been pointed out that the force of attraction between two
celestial bodies is proportional to their distance. Therefore, the tidal amplitude also
varies in response to the distance of the moon from the earth. The moon completes
one perigee-apogee-perigee cycle every 25.5 days.

Fig. 10.12: The celestial position of the sun and the moon during a neap tide.

Tidal amplitude also varies because of the position of sun, earth and moon. At the
new or the full moon, every fortnight the moon-sun and earth are aligned in one direction.
The combined force of the sun and the moon produces a strongest bulge in the direction
of the sun and the moon (Fig. 10.10). The tidal amplitude during this phase is maximum,
and it is termed as spring tide (highest high tide and lowest low tide). During the period
between the full moon and new moon, the sun is located at an angle and not in a
straight line with respect to the moon (Fig. 10.12). The tidal amplitude therefore reduces
during a lunar cycle. The gravitational pull is minimum when the sun and the moon are
at right angle to each other. At this time, the tidal phase is called as neap tide or
fortnightly tides (lowest low tide and lowest high tide).
The tidal waves have a complex pattern over the shelf. In response to the bathymetry
or physiography of the shelf and slope, tidal amplitude changes considerably. In the
section on the waves, it is learned that the passage of waves into shallow water enhances
their height. This principle also applies to the tides. Over the steeper shelf there is a
rapid amplification of tides.
We know that the length of the tidal wave is very large. We have also learned that tidal
waves oscillate over shelf. The width of a shelf plays an important role for the
amplification of tides. This process is very complex. However, one may remember
that it is because of a relation between the wave length of tides and the width of a shelf.
If the width is 1/4th of the wave length, the nodes of the tidal waves synchronize. This
process causes amplification of tides.
The tidal amplitude also enhances in shallow inland waters because of depth and width
factors. The propagation of tidal waves in the funnel shaped physiography is favourable
for inland amplification. It may be visualized that in a funnel shaped physiography
width of a water body reduces and the narrower region (towards land) has to
accommodate the same amount of water. The water level therefore increases with
inland propagation of tide. This phenomenon induces enormous amplification of tides.
You shall be surprised to note that in Gulf of Kachchh the tides are ~ 2.65 m at Okha.
231
Hydrology These amplify to 7.27 m at Navlakhi (located in the inner region of the Gulf). Due to
amplification tides, the inland water bodies become navigational during the flood tide.
Sailors around the world have used this knowledge to navigate the narrow inland
channels. The Hoogly region of the West Bengal is also one of such regions in the
India, which is navigational for several tens of km.
World over, tidal range in shallow regions shows a large spatiotemporal variability.
Based on the tidal range, the coastal regions have been divided into three broad
categories. The regions are termed as micro tidal (tidal range < than 2 m), mesotidal
(tidal amplitude 2-4 m) and macro tidal (> 4m). In India Gulf of Kachchh, the Gulf of
Khambhat and the Sunderbans are the macro tidal regions. Rest of the coast of the
India is mesotidal.
Check Your Progress 6
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the period of diurnal tides?
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10.5 AIR-SEA EXCHANGE

Air-water interface is the layer in which ocean and atmosphere interact. It is of the
paramount importance because at this interface the transfer of energy, heat, vapour,
gases and ions takes place between atmosphere and ocean. The characteristics of this
interface determine the quantum of gaseous flux, evaporation rate, and sinking of heat
in the ocean water or its advection from the ocean into the atmosphere. Table 2
describes the basic properties of seawater and atmospheric air.
Table 10.2: Density and specific heat in the ocean and in the atmosphere
Parameter Sea water Air
Density 1025 kg/m
3
3
1.2 kg/m
3
3

Specific heat 4.2´10 J/(kg K) 1´10 J/(kg K)

10.5.1 Air Sea Exchange

The parameters that are important and contribute to air-sea exchange are solar radiation,
air temperature, sea surface temperature, variations in the scalar winds, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, surface salinity and clouds cover. The role of these parameters
on air-sea exchange is described below:
10.5.1.1 Solar Radiation Absorption, Reflection and Scattering
The amount of solar radiation received on the earth differs. It depends on duration and
the angle of rays of the sun. The solar constant (S0) is the amount of solar radiation
received at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). It is 1378 W/m2 (range 1359-1384 W/
m2). All of this energy does not reach the earth. The absorption, reflection and back
232
reflection are the processes that regulate the solar budget of the earth. It is given in the Ocean Currents
Figure 10.13. This Figure suggests that out of 100 units received at TOA, 30% radiation
is reflected by back scattering (by the molecules of the gases ((6%), by clouds (20%)
and by the surfaces of the earth (4%)). The amount of reflection is highly variable and
uncertain because the cloud cover is seasonal and highly dynamic. The characteristics
of the surface also determine reflection. The trees have much-reduced albedo than the
ocean. Glaciers have very high albedo.

Albedo is the
measure of
reflection from a
surface

Fig. 10.13: Insolation budget of the Earth.

The incoming solar radiation is also absorbed before it reaches the surface of the
earth. It has been estimated that 19% of the insolation is absorbed (16% by the green
house gases (CO2, methane and water vapour) and 3% by clouds). Therefore, only ~
51% of the total solar insolation received at the TOA reaches the earth. It may be
noted here that this amount is not uniform over the globe. The green house gases play
a vital role. We all know that the concentration of green house gases is increasing in the
atmosphere because of anthropogenic activities, and there is an enhanced absorption
of solar insolation in the atmosphere. Seasonal cloud cover also influences the amount
of solar insolation over a region. In India, there is an intense cloud cover during the
SW monsoon. It reduces the influx of solar radiation during June-September. Figure
10.14 provides quantum the energy of the different systems over globe that take part
in air-sea exchange processes.

Fig. 10.14: Energy in the different systems of the earth 233

Hydrology 10.5.2 Infrared Radiation: Emission, Reflection and Absorption
The quantum of infrared radiation emitted from the earth is also shown in Figure 13. It
may be noted that 21% of the incoming radiation is emitted back to outer space by the
earth. About 15% of this outgoing radiation is absorbed by the green house gases
again. Other emission from the surface of the earth is emanation of sensible (7%) and
latent heat (23%). The sensible heat is more in the areas that have a high temperature.
In the ocean, the regions with high sea surface temperature emit more sensible heat.
Latent heat is regulated by the evaporation of the seawater. When strong cold or
warm winds blow over the sea, these exchange latent heat between the ocean and the
atmosphere.

The upper layer 10.5.3 Turbulent Heat Transfer

of the ocean with Even though the sun rays (shorter waves) can penetrate down to 1000 m (general
higher and depth of euphotic zone is 100 m) in the ocean, turbulence on the earth surface can
uniform circulate the heat in the ocean. Turbulent transfer of kinetic energy between atmosphere
temperature is and ocean may be carried out by tangential components (stress) and by normal
called as mix components (or normal pressure). Turbulence produced in the sea water causes vertical
layer. and lateral advection of heat. This process creates vertical stratification in the sea and
enhances the storage of the heat in the deeper sub-surfaces of the ocean. Higher is the
turbulence more is the vertical mixing of water mass.

10.5.4 Evaporation
Evaporation of seawater also consumes solar energy and it enhances transfer of latent
heat into the ocean. The equatorial regions of the earth always receive sunlight with no
seasonality, and it heats the ocean. The amount of evaporation and latent heat flux into
the atmosphere is, therefore, maximum in the equatorial region. The trade winds, which
are warm over the equator, pick up an enormous amount of vapour from the sea at the
air-sea interface. The poles are cold and have colder winds and sea surface temperature.
The amount of evaporation is, therefore, insubstantial in the polar and sub-polar regions.

10.5.5 Precipitation
The vapour exchanged at the air-sea interface condenses and precipitates. Higher sea
surface temperature (SST) of Tropical Ocean induces high evaporation and
precipitation. Rising air parcel over the equator carry latent heat from the ocean into
the atmosphere. Rising air undergoes adiabatic cooling, which causes heavy rainfall or
release of latent heat in the atmosphere. In the Bay of Bengal, it is found that the higher
SST breeds to low pressure/cyclone. The cyclones transfer a vast amount of latent
heat from the ocean into the atmosphere. The cyclone releases latent heat through
precipitation over the continents.

10.5.6 Buoyancy Flux at Sea Surface

The seasonal and differential heating and cooling of the sea surface is very important in
redistribution of energy within the ocean and its advection into the atmosphere. Cooling
or heating of sea surface, regulates density and buoyancy of seawater. Cooling increases
density of sea water and denser water sinks to a depth of ocean. This process aids in
vertical stratification of the ocean that absorbs heat from the atmosphere. Buoyant
water, however, have to store more heat. The localized buoyancy of the sea, therefore,
234 enhances the supply of vapour to the atmosphere.
Another process that contributes to the buoyancy is a large supply of fresh water from Ocean Currents
the rivers. The river water (density 1.0 kg/l) is lighter compared to sea water (density
1.025 kg/l). The fresh water also has much-reduced salinity. Lighter river water floats
over the dense seawater. In the Bay of Bengal, a sizeable amount of freshwater is
discharged by several perennial rivers. This reduces salinity of the bay by 7‰. The
layer of freshwater floats over the dense seawater and inhibits upwelling of cold water.
The surface waters of the bay therefore have higher sea surface temperature that
generates higher vapor flux from the sea into the atmosphere.

10.5.7 Ocean Surface Wave Generation and Decay

The ocean waves are another player in air-sea exchange. The winds that generate the
waves also transfer the wind stress. As described in the earlier section, winds carry the
energy. The circular movement of water leads to downward advection of heat. You
have learned that the length of the wave determines the depth of this circular moment
(half of the wave length). It implies that larger waves induce deeper mixing. Vertical
mixing increases the depth of the mixed layer or storage space within the upper layers
of the ocean. Propagation of the waves also moves kinetic energy from a deeper
region to the shore. The decay of waves also releases an enormous amount of kinetic
energy. All these processes aid in higher air-sea interaction.

10.6 ION EXCHANGE

The solar energy regulates ion exchange between air and sea. The exchange of the
ions of H and O is the most prominent. Ion exchange also carries out fractionation of
isotopes. Vapour has a higher amount of lighter isotopes compared to the seawater.
Similarly, the vapour also contains fewer salts. These processes have selectively enriched
ocean in salts and heavier isotopes.
The breaking of the waves also helps the exchange of salts between ocean and
atmosphere in the form of aerosols. We have learned that breaking of the waves
creates white caps. These caps have many bubbles which rise to the surface. These
bubbles produce a large flux of aerosols, which are sprayed into air. Production of
aerosols has also been reported in the deep sea during the cyclones/depressions. High
waves spray seawater that carries particles from sea to atmosphere. These aerosols
act as a nucleus around which the water particles condense in the air column.
Check Your Progress 7
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the role of waves on mixing of the ocean?
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10.7 GAS EXCHANGE AT SEA WATER INTERFACE

The transfer of gases between ocean and atmosphere takes place by the (i) difference 235
Hydrology in the concentration of the gases in air and in water and (ii) and their exchange rate (to
remove the disequilibrium in the concentration of the gases between these two
components). To understand the dissolution of gas in ocean, we should know the
concentration of gases in the atmosphere. It is given in Table 3.
Table 3: Gases in the Atmosphere
Gas Concentration by volume
Nitrogen 78.08%
Oxygen 20.95%
Argon 0.934%
CO 2 280+ ppm (currently it is 403 ppm)
Neon 18.18 ppm
Helium 5.24 ppm
CH4 2 ppm
N 2O 0.5 ppm
The air-sea gas exchange is also regulated by thermal diffusion and irreversible
thermodynamics. For sake of simplicity, we will learn the basic principles that regulate
the exchange of gases at the air-sea interface.
The dissolution of the gases in water depends on the partial pressure of a gas (as
regulated by the Bunsen Solubility Coefficient) as described in the following equation:
Aw= âA AA
Concentration of
CO2 has been Aw = Activity of a gas in the ocean water,
increasing in the
atmosphere post âA = Bunsen solubility coefficient,
1850. It is AA=Activity of the gas in the air
currently 403
ppm. From this equation it may be inferred that partial pressure of a gas in the atmosphere
and its concentration in the water shall be linearly related.
The gas that has a higher activity in the atmosphere (Table 3) will also have a higher
dissolution in seawater. The molecular diffusion of gas regulates the transfer of gases
from atmosphere into ocean.
Besides the partial pressure of the gas, the temperature of the water mass also determines
the solubility. Colder water has a higher dissolution of the gases. As the temperature of
seawater increases, it keeps a lesser amount of gases. In the global warming scenario,
the sea surface temperature is expected to increase. This will lead to a reduced
dissolution of gases. Some expert expects a massive degassing of the ocean because
of global warming. We must however remember that dissolution of gases in sea water
is also regulated by the salinity (because of interference of ionic strength with the
solute-solvent attraction).

10.8 OCEAN GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS

Oceanic motions are governed by the fundamental conservation principles of mass,
momentum, and energy, and are represented mathematically in the form of partial
differential equations, called the Navier-Stokes equations, comprising continuity
equation, equations of motion, and thermodynamic energy equation. These non-linear
236
equations are so complex that general analytical solutions are difficult or rather impossible Ocean Currents
to obtain, and one relies on numerical techniques to solve these equations. A computer
code that is employed to solve these equations numerically is usually referred to as the
Ocean General Circulation Model (OGCM).
The practice of ocean modeling has been exploding in line with the advent of In mathematics,
computational technologies. Observational shortage also led to gain momentum in discretization
ocean modeling. Space-borne measurements have global coverage with a time sampling concerns the
of a few days but are restricted to near-surface oceanic processes. Ships and buoy process of
observations are usually small. In such situations, numerical models provide a useful, transferring
global perspective of the oceanic processes. continuous
The present-day OGCM computes the state of the ocean using numerical functions, models,
approximations of fully non-linear stratified primitive equations, which are basically the and equations into
Navier-Stokes equations with approximations. This involves of the equations in space discrete
and time. The discretization in space is performed over a numerical grid called the counterparts. This
model grid, whose size is called the model resolution. The resolution of a model depends process is usually
on the process studied. The global (for the World Ocean) models use typically ~100- carried out as a
km grid size; while regional (particularly for a region, for e.g., the Indian Ocean or the first step toward
Arabian Sea) models have ~25 km or less grid size. The model time step depends on making them
its spatial resolution to ensure the stability of the numerical solution and also on the suitable for
process under consideration. Despite a very high resolution, some small-scale processes numerical
such as the turbulence cannot be well resolved because of our inadequate knowledge evaluation and
about them and are hence represented in the model using parameterizations, which are implementation on
basically empirical formulations derived from observations or theoretical relations. digital computers.
Numerical integration of the model equations is performed using time-stepping schemes.
There are several options, but the choice is made taking into account of several
constraints: the processes studied, numerical stability, the order of accuracy and the
computer time. Most commonly used is the leapfrog scheme, which is a centered finite
difference method, having a second order truncation error.
There are several inputs to an OGCM. First, the model requires ocean bathymetry Bathymetric map
(depth data) to be prescribed. The bathymetry incorporates information on the land- shows distribution
ocean boundary and the ocean bottom topography. As with any partial differential of depth over an
equations, the solutions of ocean model equations are got by prescribing the initial and area.
boundary conditions. Initial conditions are prescribed at the beginning of the simulation
and are derived either from observations or other (global) model simulations. Initial
conditions are the initial values of the oceanic parameters and could be for any data
(temperature, salinity, etc.) on the model grid, with some fields may be initialized to
zero values (for example, initial surface elevation or velocity field).
The boundary conditions for an OGCM are composed of kinematic conditions on the
normal velocity component and flux constraints for the momentum and tracers
(temperature, salinity). At the land boundaries, the normal component of the velocity
is zero. The tangential component of the velocity is also set to zero (no-slip condition),
although sometimes free-slip (no stress) and partial–slip (stress proportional to slip)
conditions are used. At the ocean surface, the vertical component of the velocity is set
to zero, and the sea level is calculated from the surface pressure. Additional constraints
on the momentum and tracer may also be imposed at the ocean surface. Open boundary
conditions are used when the model domain has open ocean ends. Though there is no
equivocal way of formulating the open boundary conditions, they are often specified in
237
Hydrology terms of the inflow or outward wave propagation, restoration of tracers to their
climatological values, or damping of ocean waves within the neighborhood of the open
boundary (often called sponge layer).
Most critical aspect of ocean modeling is the input from external forcing. For example,
for a stand-alone ocean model, the state of the atmosphere provides forcing to the
upper layer of the ocean. This atmospheric forcing includes ocean surface winds, heat
fluxes (short and long wave radiation, air temperature, specific humidity, etc.), and
fresh-water fluxes (precipitation, river runoff). A model may spin up with the specified
initial conditions and forcing fields to reach a steady (equilibrium) state. Several thousand
years of the simulation may be necessary to reach a true equilibrium state. However, a
few years of spin up would suffice depending on the context or process studied.
Another important aspect of modeling is the validation. The steady state solutions of
OGCM are validated with the observations. The model parameters are tuned so as to
get the most realistic simulations of the oceanic variability. The OGCMs are useful
both for the process studies that help to understand the mechanisms and for ocean
forecasting. The forecasting the ocean state, however, requires forecasted fields as
input. The present-day ocean models can go beyond physics and include biological
or biogeochemical components, which are represented by equations involving biological
sources and sinks. As with physical variables, appropriate initial and boundary conditions
are applied to the equations that simulate the biogeochemical processes. The main
aspects of OGCM are summarized below in Figure 15.

Fig. 15: Schematic of model development.

10.9 LET US SUM UP

Ocean water is constantly in motion in response to solar insolation, gravity, and winds.
The water and energy in the ocean are transmitted through ocean currents and waves.
The tectonic disturbances or slumping on the floor of the ocean generate a tsunami.
238 This is a very destructive wave.
Waves carry wind energy from the deep regions of the ocean to the shore. The breaking Ocean Currents
of wave releases wave energy. The waves generate littoral currents. The littoral currents
carry suspended particulate matter along the shore. Supply of these sediments is
essential for the stability of a coastline.
Tides are enormous waves generated by celestial bodies. The moon is the principal
force that regulates tidal amplitude over the globe. The interplay of solar and lunar
forcing plays an important role on tidal cycles and on its amplitude.
Air-sea interaction is an exchange of energy and material between atmosphere and
sea. The heat transfer between ocean and atmosphere regulates the temperature of
the globe.
General circulation models (GCM) are simulations that help to understand of dynamics
of ocean.

10.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
1972
William A. Anikouchine and Richard W. Sternberg: The World Ocean, an introduction
to oceanography. McGraw-Hill, New York 1974
Joseph Weisberg and Howard Parish: Introductory Oceanography. McGraw-Hill,
New York 1974
Keith Stowe: Ocean Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York 2nd Edition 1979
J. Michael McCormick and John V. Thiruvatakal: Elements of Oceanography. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia 2nd Edition 1981
John A. Black: Oceans and Coasts, an introduction to oceanography. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, Dubuque 1986
Paul R. Pinet: Oceanography, an introduction to the planet Oceanus. West Publishing
Company St. Paul 1992
Alison B. Duxbury and Alyn C. Duxbury: Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
6th Edition 1993
Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont California 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Introductory Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 7th edition
1994
David A. Ross: Introduction to Oceanography. Harper Collins New York 1995
Matthias Tomczak and Gunther Krause: Do Marine Scientists have a Scientific View
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995). 239
Hydrology Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 5th Edition
1996
Douglas A. Segar: Introduction to Ocean Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont
1998
Terminal Questions
1. What are ocean currents?
2. What is a gyre?
3. In what direction the wave moves water
4. What is the temperature of eastern boundary currents in the northern hemisphere.
5. What is an air-sea interaction?

10.11 ANSWER OF CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Because of the influence of Coriolis Force, north - south flow of currents is deflected
to the right in the northern hemisphere. The deflection of currents is to the left in the
southern hemisphere. This process forms a gyre in the basins of the ocean.
2. It shall be poleward or to the south.
3. The upwelling brings a large amount of nutrients into the euphotic zone of the
ocean. Nutrients are a basic requirement for photosynthesis of the primary
producers.
4. These currents flow from the sub-polar region to the equator. The SST of these
waters is very low because of a poor supply of heat from the solar radiation.
These currents therefore carry cold water from the poles to the equator.
5. At 250 m.
6. Southern side.
7. 12 hours 25 minutes.
8. The circular movement of the surface water by waves carries heat into the deeper
layers of ocean. The wave length determines wave-induced mixing. The depth is
half of the wave length in deeper regions of ocean.
Answers to Terminal Questions
1. Lateral or vertical advection of seawater is known as ocean currents.
2. Gyre is a clockwise or anticlockwise basin scale current system driven by the
thermal gradient between the equator and the pole.
3. In circular motion (with no horizontal movement).
4. These are cold currents.
5. Exchange of energy, water and other substance between ocean and atmosphere is
known as air-sea interaction.
240
 Hydrology
UNIT 11 HYDROLOGY
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Distribution of Water in the Crust
11.2.1 Surface Distribution
11.2.2 Subsurface Distribution
11.3 Hydrological Cycle
11.4 Genetic Types of Groundwater
11.5 Residence Time of Water
11.6 Types of Aquifers
11.7 Springs and their Tlassification
11.7.1 Classifications of Springs
11.7.1.1 Classification Based on Temperature:

11.7.1.2 Classification Based on Flow

11.7.1.3 Classification Vased on Geomorphologic Control

11.7.1.4 Classification Based on Source of Water

11.8 Let Us Sum Up

11.9 References and Suggested Readings
11.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

11.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is essential for life. Water exchange among different reservoirs of the earth is
known as hydrological cycle. The evaporation/transpiration of water into atmosphere
and its condensation are the most important processes which supply fresh water on
land. The storage of water in lakes, in the crust (as ground water) and in ice sheets is
the most important source of water that has sustained agriculture and other activities
vital for our survival.
The water in atmosphere has the shortest residence time. This reservoir has water in
all the forms, i.e., liquid, vapour and solid (ice). The water in the ocean has maximum
residence time.
Genetically, the water may be categories as exogenic and endogenic. The exogenic
water is contributed by an atmogenic source. Endogenic water is generated in deeper
layers by magmatogenic processes.
The aquifers are of two types. Confined aquifer is sandwiched between two impervious
beds. The unconfined aquifer has a permeable layer at the bottom.
Spring is a natural flow of water on the surface of the earth. There are several kinds of
springs. The deep springs have water of juvenile origin (contributed through
241
Hydrology magmatogenic processes). The shallow springs are fed from confined or unconfined
aquifers.

11.1 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit, you will be able:
• explain the distribution of water in different reservoirs of the Earth;
• describe the hydrological cycle;
• discuss the genetic classification of ground water;
• explain the residence time of water in the crust; and
• describe the type of aquifers and springs.

11.2 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN THE CRUST

Fresh water has Ocean stores ~ 96.5% of the globe. The evapotranspiration of the ocean (or enormous
1% salinity of water bodies) contributes vapour to the atmosphere. The condensation of vapour in
seawaters. the form of ice or rains supplies freshwater. The distribution of water on the globe is
shown schematically in the Figure 11.1. We may note it that out of 3.5% water present
on the land, only 2.5% is fresh water. Many of the large inland water bodies such as
the Caspian Sea (the largest land lake) or the Aral Sea are saline. Saline water comprises
0.9% of the water.

11.2.1 Surface Distribution

About 1.2% of This water is unevenly distributed over the globe. It is stored in rivers, atmosphere,
the total living animals, plants, swamps, marshes, soil moisture, lakes, ground ice and permafrost.
freshwater Glaciers and ice caps (at the poles and at mountains) are the major store house of
present on the fresh water (68.7%). The seasonal melting of these regulates runoff of most of the
globe occurs as major rivers of the world. A part of this water also preserves as ground water. Here,
surface water we shall remember that most of ground water is also fresh water, but it is not considered
(Fig. 11.1). as surface water.
Atmosphere is the Check Your Progress 1
only reservoir that
has all three Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
phases of water.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Which reservoir has maximum fresh water?
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242
 Hydrology

Fig. 11.1: Surface water distribution in the of the earth

11.2.2 Subsurface Distribution

We remember that the formation of water on the earth has been associated with
degassing at crust and mantle. It is an ongoing process. The water has long history to
be stored in the sub-surfaces of the earth. It becomes relevant, therefore, to evaluate
mode of occurrence of water in deeper sub-surfaces of the crust.

Fig. 11.2: Characteristics of unsaturated and saturated zones in the crust

The term “ground water” refers to the water present in the crust in all the physical
states in the sedimentary as well as in massive crystallized rocks. It is not part of
surface water as it occurs in the subsurface. Ground water stores about 1.7% of total
water of the globe. About 30.1% of freshwater on the earth occurs as groundwater.
About 23.4 million cubic kilometres (km3) water is stored as ground water. There
exists no estimation of the amount of water present as juvenile or sedimentogenic
water (you will learn the meaning of this term in later part of this unit) and its advection
pathways in the deeper subsurface of the crust.
The subsurface occurrence of ground water has been divided into two subclasses (as
schematically shown in Fig. 11.2). The upper zone is known as the zone of aeration. In 243
Hydrology this zone, the voids are partially filled with water and air. Below this zone, the zone of
saturation is present. In this zone, all voids are filled with water.
As schematically shown in Figure 11.3, zone of aeration has vadose water. This zone
has three sub-sections: (i) soil water zone, (ii) intermediate water zone and (iii) capillary
zone. The water that is retained in the soil is known as soil water. The thickness of the
soil water varies and is regulated by vegetation cover and soil type. The root system
determines the amount of water in the soil. This water may again we categories as (i)
hydroscopic, (ii) capillary and (iii) gravitational water.
(i) Hydroscopic water is mostly contributed by its absorption from the air. This is
found in the form of a thin film on soil particles and is regulated by environmental
parameters. The temperature and relative humidity are the two parameters that
control absorption of this water.
(ii) Capillary water is held by surface tension in the region that has atmospheric
(hydraulic) pressure < 1 atom. This water forms a continuous film, and it can be
used by the biosphere.
(iii) The gravitational water is also found in the aerated zone that has hydraulic pressure
< 1 atom. This water is different as it is not retained by capillary and hygroscopic
forces. It can be drained from the soil under the force of gravity and is contributed
into the deeper layers of the soil.
Intermediate water in some horizon occurs below capillary water. The distinction of
this water is not clear.
In the saturation zone of the crust, water is retained under hydraulic pressure, and it
lies between capillary zone and impermeable layer. The hydraulic pressure is always
more than one atom here. The vertical extent of saturation zone is shown schematically
in Figure 11.3. Please note that if there is no impermeable layer above the saturation
zone (or there is no capillary zone), the saturation zone shall lie between the water
table (pressure one atom) and the impermeable rock. You shall also remember that the
hydraulic pressure in the saturation zone determines the position of the water table. If
we ignore the capillary attraction in the upper surface of the saturation zone, the level
of the water (water table) shall lie at the layer that has one atom hydraulic pressure.

Fig. 11.3: Occurrence of water in the subsurface of the crust

According to the conditions of their occurrence, the sub-surface waters can be called
244 as free gravitational, solid state, vaporous, physically, or chemically bound, and in
super critical state. The free gravitational water is found in the pores, fractures, and in Hydrology
voids. We have learnt that this water percolates into the formation under pressure
gradient. It may be noted that any formation can be classified according to their ability
to store water. These may be called as water bearing, water permeable (loam sandy
clays) and water impermeable (compact rock with no fracture or clays). The details
characteristics of these shall be described under section entitled classification of the
aquifer in the later part of this unit.
We should consider all the waters as gravitational that flow in an aquifer by the gravity
in liquid form. We will learn later in this unit that water may exist in the vapour form
because of high temperature in many formations. The deep burial may also increase
the ambient temperature. In high temperature, the ground water gets evaporated and
exists in the vapour form. There are several other kinds of water that exist below the
impermeable layer of the aquifer in the crust. You will learn about these in details in the
classification of genetic water.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the role of atmospheric pressure in preserving water in the crust?
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11.3 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The exchange of water among different reservoirs of the globe is known as hydrological
cycles. The components of hydrological reservoirs are: (i) oceans (or other enormous
water bodies on the land), (ii) atmosphere, (iii) ground water, and (iv) runoff from land
(as schematically shown in Fig. 11.4). The insolation is the prime force that drives the
hydrological cycle. Heat supplied by the Sun regulates the evaporation of water bodies.
Water vapour is contributed into atmosphere by wind. Because of adiabatic expansion
of gases, air masses cools by vertical advection into atmosphere. This process leads
to condensation of water vapour around aerosols (formation of clouds). Water is
carried around the globe by winds till it gets precipitated as snow or rain. The
atmosphere is the only reservoir in

Fig. 11.4: Hydrological cycle 245

Hydrology which water is present as water, ice and vapour. The water that falls as snow preserves
as glaciers and ice caps. Rainwater is stored in lakes, swamps, rivers, etc. Rainwater
also gets stored in the sub-surfaces as ground water.
Runoff is the mechanism that transports the stored water on the land (from the area of
precipitation or storages) into ocean or large water bodies. Have you noticed that a
river carries water contributed from the rains, glaciers, or lakes for a long distance,
and it finally reaches the sea? During the cycle, some amount of runoff gets evaporated
in the tropical region and that contributes vapour to the atmosphere. The cyclic journey
of the water among the ocean - atmosphere - land - ocean or large inland water
bodies (like the Aral or the Caspian Sea) is known as water cycle or hydrological
cycle (shown schematically in Fig. 4).
Let us now examine quantitatively the amount of water exchanged among different
reservoirs. It has been estimated that about 1.2 m surface of the ocean gets evaporated
every year. This looks a small amount. However, we know that total volume of water
in the ocean is 3.61 x 1014 m2. If we want to know the amount of water vapour
contributed by the ocean, we shall multiply total water in the ocean (this figure) with
1.2 m (amount evaporated from the ocean). The total amount of evaporation then will
be 4.33x.1014 m3. If this entire water is precipitated over India, we shall have severe
flooding. You may recall the events of cloud burst or a heavy rainfall over Mumbai or
Chennai. We do not get the recurrence of such rainfall because most of the water
evaporated from the ocean precipitates over the ocean only.
We shall now introduce the concept of residence time to evaluate lock-in period of
water in different reservoirs of the earth. For a reservoir, the residence time of water is
determined as:

Students may note here that because of large annual scale variability, the residence
time of water is only an approximation.
The residence time of water in the ocean has been found to be 37,000 years. Despite
a considerable evaporation, the residence time of water in the ocean is large due to the
amount of water locked in the ocean.
The loss of water from the ocean is not uniform. It is related to the prevailing temperature
of the ocean. It also depends on the total precipitation over the oceans.
Local weather regulate the evaporation - precipitation (E/P) regime (Fig. 5). In the
tropics, evaporation is more compared to the polar regions. Tropical regions are
therefore more conducive for contributing vapour to the atmosphere (Fig. 5). The
polar regions have a low temperature, and therefore, these regions contribute less
vapour compared to the equatorial region through evaporation.
The evaporation-precipitation regime of the ocean is not the same. Even though the
solar flux regulates the evaporation regime, the properties of water are much different
because of thermal characteristics of sea waters. Seawater has a higher specific heat
than freshwater. Unlike the land, therefore, the ocean has capacity to store more solar
energy. Ocean also cools itself by advecting heat into atmosphere. Formation of cyclone
246 in the ocean is one such phenomenon. This process contributes an enormous amount
of vapour into the atmosphere in a very short time. A warm wind blowing over sea also Hydrology
absorbs heat from ocean. The sea surface temperature and wind characteristics are
therefore two important parameters that regulate the magnitude of evaporation from
the oceans.
We are aware that equatorial region of the ocean is always warmer than the polar El nino and La
regions. The Western Equatorial Region of the Pacific Ocean remains very warm nina events are
round the year and it is known as “Warm Pool” the hottest region of the world ocean. periodic events
This is the region which has El Nino phenomena. It contributes a large amount of during which there
vapour to the atmosphere and regulates the intensity of the Asian Summer Monsoon. are abnormal sea
Even though the atmosphere receives a large amount of water in the form of vapour, surface changes in
the residence time of water in the atmosphere is short (about ten days). The global the eastern region
wind system plays a vital role on supply and removal of water from the atmosphere. of the Equatorial
For example, trade winds (West-East Winds) are cool at the place of their origin. Pacific Ocean.
However, these winds become warmer as these moves towards the equator. Over
the ocean, these warm winds induce a large evaporation and the amount of vapour
in these winds increases during their journey from the tropics to the equator. At the
equator, the rapid rise of these moisture laden winds induces high precipitation.
Depending on the exchange cycle of vapour/precipitation between regions are classified Adiabatic cooling
as dominant evaporation or precipitation regions. Latitudinal variations in the E/P regime takes place when
are shown in (Fig. 11.5). We have learned earlier that the equatorial regions have high a parcel of air
evaporation. We also know that these regions have a high precipitation because of moves upward in
adiabatic cooling. This makes the equatorial region as a dominant precipitation over the atmosphere.
evaporation (P>>E) regime. A rapid adiabatic cooling (influence of orography) and
movement of cold air fronts in sub-polar regions induce a rapid condensation,
precipitation, or snowfall. Can you identify the specific region of India that has high
precipitation? Cherrapunji has extremely high precipitation

Fig. 11.5: Latitudinal variations in precipitation and evaporation regime

in the northern hemisphere.
247
Hydrology due to influence of the orography. Catastrophic cloud burst is another example of a
localised large condensation and precipitation of water associated with a sudden vertical
movement of air in the mountainous terrains like the Himalayas. The residence time of
water is much reduced in these regions.
In the earlier section, the amount of water in the surface of the earth has been described.
You find that the biosphere also has a considerable amount of (0.9%) water. We may
note here it that 10% vapours of the globe are contributed by the biosphere into the
atmosphere (through transpiration).
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is orography? Which region of India experiences orographic
precipitation?
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Water in rivers, ice caps, lakes and groundwater have variable residence time. The
residence time in the river depends on the rains in the catchment area. The geology of
the river basin is also important. For example, high gradient rivers have much shorter
residence time. Large rivers have longer residence time. The rivers with a thick alluvial
deposit also have an entrapment of water in their flood plains. These parameters are,
therefore, very important in governing the residence time of water in the fluvial cycle.
You find that the ice caps of the earth keep exorbitant amount of fresh water (~
69.4%). Have you wondered the reason thereof? It is because the polar regions have
a very low temperature. The input of solar energy to evaporate the water is also much
less in these regions. The prevalent P>>E is conducive for the growth of ice caps. The
water in the polar ice caps, therefore, has a large residence time. The Antarctica is
having the maximum amount of water in the form of ice and is known as the continent
of ice. The location of this region (at the South Pole) and the existence of circumpolar
current around the Antarctica have made it the most favourable region to store water
in the form of ice. The residence time of water in the Antarctica is several million years.
The water stored in the earth crust (ground water) also has a large residence time in
confined aquifers (in the porous rock sandwiched between impervious rock formations).
A favourable geological setting with a persistent recharge of a confined aquifer is
conducive for prolonged storage. The aquifers located very deep in the crust and the
thick aquifers in a vast alluvial plain (such as the Indo-Gangetic plain) also have a very
high residence time of ground water.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.

248
1. In which region the fresh water has maximum residence time. Hydrology

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11.4 GENETIC TYPES OF GROUNDWATER

We know that the degassing of the earth during an early stage of cooling has released
water and created hydrosphere over the globe. Some hydrologists such as V.I.
Vernadiski, therefore, thought water is a mineral. The genetic classification of the water
was therefore introduced in the hydrology. G.M. Karmenshki, was the first hydrologist
to classify the waters in 1947. The genetic classification of the waters is schematically
shown in Figure 6.
You may be reminded that there are two major sources of water in the crust. We
know that the downward percolation of water (precipitated from the atmosphere) is a
major source of groundwater. We are less familiar that some amount of water is also
contributed because of deep-seated processes that release water at the crust - mental
boundary (upward movement). This water is known as juvenile water. The amount of
water contributed from this process is tiny. However, the earth is receiving water from
this process for past several billions of years. It may be noted here that almost all the
water present on the globe has originated because of this process.
Based on these movements, genetic classification of water has been made. The terms The juvenile water
exogenic and endogenic are coined to classify these waters. The exogenic water forms due to
percolates downward into the crust. The endogenic water, however, percolates cooling of magma
upwards. at Mantle -crust
Based upon the mode of formation, waters have also been divided into four major boundary. The
types: age of oldest
sedimentary rocks
1. Infiltrogenic is 3.9 billion
years. The
2. Sedimentogenic
contribution of
3. Metamorphogenic juvenile water is
therefore the main
4. Magmatogenic source of all the
We may note here it that types 1 and 2 falls under exogenic category, while types 3 waters in all the
and 4 fall under endogenic category (Fig. 11.6). reservoirs.

1. Infiltrogenic Water
This water is mostly contributed from precipitation. You may see in Figure 4 that
percolating water moves down into the crust. Perhaps one is not aware that some
water also moves in the form of vapour within. Based on the processes of its contribution,
water in the crust is subdivided into (i) percolating and (ii) condensing waters (Fig.
11.6). The condensation of the vapour in the crust produces condensing water.
Depending upon the source, mode of its supply and salinity, infiltrogenic water may
also be subdivided into (i) meteoric and (ii) thalassogenic waters. Given below is a
detailed description of each of these waters: 249
Hydrology

Fig. 11.6: Genetic Classification of water.

(i) Meteoric Water

The origin of meteoric water is in the atmosphere. This water has an exceedingly small
salinity. This category of water is further divided into (i) atmogenic (ii) biogenic,
(iii) lithogenic and (iv) evaporation.
1. The atmogenic water is comprised the water that has been contributed from the
atmosphere. The rains and snow are the major contributors to this category of
water.
2. When the water of atmogenic origin falls on plants or on soil (that has humus) its
composition undergoes a change. This water is termed as biogenic water.
3. The filtration of water below the zone of aeration and a drastic modification in the
chemical composition of the water (addition of a considerable amount of carbonic
acid) is called the lithogenic stage. This water in the areas of high rainfall dissolves
most of the carbonate rocks and increases the fracture type permeability. In low
rainfall, an exorbitant amount of carbonate increases the salt content of soil.
4. The evaporation stage of the infiltrogenic water is common mostly in the arid
region, and this helps in increasing the salt contents in the water. Evaporation of
water from the pores of the soil has also been linked with the acidification of soil.
(ii) Thalassogenic water
The water of marine origin that is buried in the sediments during sedimentation is
known as thalassogenic water and it is saline. Some hydrologists classify this as
sedimentogenic water.
2. Sedimentogenic Water
Beside percolation, the water into crust is contributed when it is buried along with
sediments in a basin or in a lake. Hydrologists also call this fossil or relict water.
Based on the age of the formation and that of the waters in it, we can classify these as
250 syngenetic or epigenetic. In the syngenetic scenario, the age of water and the formation
is similar (or there is no contribution of water into the sedimentary formation after its Hydrology
formation). This water may be found in noticeably young sedimentary basins. The
epigenetic water is different. Here, the age of water is not like that of the formation. A
sizeable amount of this water is contributed subsequently through lateral or vertical
migration.
It is well known that the water moves laterally and vertically within the crust. Frequently,
there is a contribution of water into a formation because of exogenic or endogenic
processes. It may, therefore, be born in the mind that no water in the deep regions of
the crust is pure infiltrogenic or sedimentogenic. Most of the time, you will find a mixer
of these waters in a formation.
3. Metamorphogenic Waters
Metamorphogenic waters are deep-seated in the earth’s crust. The students of the The vertical
geology know that the burial of sediments in the crust produces metamorphic rocks. movement of
During the metamorphosism the rocks undergo chemical changes. An example is given water in the form
here. Please refer to the following reaction of conversion of kaolinite into sillimanite of vapour in a
that releases water during metamorphosis: volcanic plume is
Al4Si4O10(OH)8 = Al2O3 3SiO2+SiO2+H2O the most recent
juvenile water.
It therefore links this water is therefore with the burial of sedimentary formations. It
also forms because of hydration of the minerals in contact with lava. Crystallization of
minerals also liberates water into the crust. Dehydration of several minerals releases
water. An example may be found in gypsum-bearing rocks that releases water during
dehydration.
4. Magmatogenic Water
It is generated in the deeper region of the crust, It also forms in the mantle by the
Batholiths are a
interaction of the molecules of hydrogen and oxygen. This process has created the first
large
molecule of water on the earth. As showed by its name, it is linked to magma. The
emplacement of
source of such water may, therefore, be plutonic or because of volcanic process. The
magma in the
major source of this water is cooling of the earth and associated solidification of molten
deeper region of
magma. The water released during a volcanic eruption (as water vapour) also falls into
crust. During their
this category. Based on the preceding discussion, we may summarise that the
cooling, these
magmatogenic water may again be categorized as volcanic or transmagmatic (release
produce a large
of water in the crust or mantle).
amount of juvenile
Check Your Progress 5 water.

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the major source of water on the crust? Where shall one find recent
juvenile water on the earth?
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251
Hydrology
11.5 RESIDENCE TIME OF WATER
We have learnt that the age of water in any reservoir is regulated by the amount of
water/rate of supply or loss. It is therefore important for us to understand the magnitude
of water in each of the subsurface reservoirs. We have discussed the residence time of
water in atmosphere, ice caps, glaciers, rivers and in the ocean. We shall now discuss
the residence time of infiltrogenic water in the crust. At first glance, we find that the soil
water has least residence time (2 weeks to one year). Because capillary water is used
by the plants, its residence time is also noticeably short.
The residence time of atmogenic water in the lakes is highly variable. The lakes in the
tropical regions (E>>P) fill during the rainy season and get dried up during the summer.
The residence time of most of the medium size lakes is therefore very small. The lakes
of the higher altitude have twin sources of water supply. Water into these lakes is
contributed from the melting of ice and from the rains. The E<<P regime also helps a
longer storage of water in these lakes. Therefore, compared to the tropical region, the
lakes of the polar region have a much higher residence time of water.
We have already discussed the residence time of water in river systems. Even though
the amount of rainfall is one of the contributing factors in the fluvial flux, it is not controlling
parameter for the residence time of water in the rivers. For example, the SW continental
margin of India has orographic rains (rain fall 2800-4800 mm/year); the residence
time of water in the rivers of this region is very small. It is because most of the rivers in
this region are short and these have an extremely high gradient. We must understand
that that the residence time of water in the river is regulated by the magnitude of input,
E/P regime, the gradient of the basin, and the length of a river.
The ground water has highly variable residence time. Hydrologist estimates the residence
time by T1 (T1 is the average time elapsed between recharge and discharge of ground
water).The residence time of water in a reservoir is regulated by its recharge rate, size,
depth and withdrawal from it (time varies from 2 weeks to several hundred of kilo
years). In a large aquifer, water has much longer residence time, while for small isolated
aquifers (located close to the surface) it is short. Residence time is 25-230 kilo years
for deep-seated aquifers. The ground water in thick alluvial formation (in the catchment
area of the large rivers) also has a large residence time. You have already learned that
associated with continuous recharge over a prolonged period, alluvial aquifers have a
large residence time.
Sedimentogenic water also has a very large residence time. The water preserved in
the sedimentary rocks is tied in the minerals. Its extraction, therefore, takes place
during the process of metamorphism. The residence time of most of the sedimentogenic
waters is very large.
The residence time of metamorphogenic water is large. This water is liberated during
the metamorphic transformation, and it is generally buried in the deeper region of the
crust. Such water may be syngenetic or epigenetic depending upon the characteristics
of the formation.
The residence time of magmatogenic water appears to be very large as these are
mostly produced at the mantle and crust boundary. In the spreading centres of the
earth, the mantle plume carrying this water descends. This water may be syngenetic or
252 epigenetic. Syngenetic water has a large residence time.
Water carried in the volcanic eruptions is also magmatogenic waters. These waters, Hydrology
however, have smaller residence time compared to deep seated water because of
their rapid advection rate in the curst.
Check Your Progress 6
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the residence time of magmatogenic water?
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11.6 TYPES OF AQUIFERS

An aquifer is defined as an underground water-bearing formation. In the crust, four
types of aquifers are found.
1. Unconfined
2. Perched
3. Confined
4. Leaky
Even though there are four types of aquifers, we may classify these into two classes.
These are described below:
1. Unconfined Aquifer
As the name of this aquifer implies, this aquifer does not have any confining layer over The pressure
it and it is exposed to the atmosphere. The upper surface of this aquifer is a water head is important
table. The other synonym of this aquifer is phreatic aquifer (Fig. 11.7). parameters for
2. Perched aquifer is a special aquifer. It occurs within an unconfined aquifer. It is a hydrologist. It is
lens shaped aquifer that has an impervious layer at its bottom. The layer separates the pressure
perch aquifer and the porous media of mother unconfined aquifer (Fig. 11.7). It may gradient that
be made clear here, that even though this aquifer is within a porous medium, the regulates the
perches aquifer is an independent aquifer. water movement
in an aquifer.
2. Confined aquifer
This aquifer is also called pressure aquifer. The water in this aquifer is mainly contained
by the hydraulic pressure (because of the overburden of rocks). When these are
drilled, the water rises to the surface without pumping. Piezometric or potentiometric
surface (an imaginary level above the confined aquifer to which water can rise in a
pipe) is a most important boundary in the confined aquifer (Fig. 11.7). We know that
some wells overflow. This is because the potentiometric surface in the confined aquifer
is above the land surface. If this surface lies below the land, the water will not come to
the surface and one needs to put a well to exploit the water in such cases. In the
desert, the surface flow of water is an oasis is an example. The schematic diagram of
a confined aquifer is given in Figure 11.7. 253
Hydrology 3. Leaky Aquifer
This aquifer is a confined aquifer, but the bottom layer is not fully impervious. The
secondary structure may cause some movement of water out of it. The leaky aquifer
are important for deep burial of water into crust.

Fig. 11.7: Types of aquifers

We shall now described some terms that are related with aquifer:
A) AQUITARD
An aquitard has a considerable amount of water in a poorly permeable media. The
meagre permeability of aquitard does not prevent lateral or vertical movement of water
from this bed, though the flow rates are slow. One may consider these as leaky aquifers.
These do not yield suitable amount of water, but their storage capacity is good. The
sandy-clayey aquifers are an example of this type.
B) ACQUIFUGE
This type contains high porosity that can keep considerable water. The yield of this
formation is negligible because of poor hydraulic conductivity. Clay layers fall in this
category.
C) ACQUICLUDE
This is a formation that neither contains nor yields any water. Solid granite rocks with
no fracture belong to this type.
254
Check Your Progress 7 Hydrology

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What kinds of aquifers are found in the alluvial plain of a river?
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11.7 SPRINGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Spring is a natural formation in which water from the deeper subsurface flows on the When the water
surface of the earth creating a visible flow. The basic principle that governs this flow is of spring has high
the position of hydraulic head or pressure head in a confined aquifer and the elevation amount of
of land surface. For the formation of a spring, the water head shall lie above the land. minerals or gases,
The springs also form above the level of the unconfined aquifer if the water table it is considered as
intersects the ground. One must remember the water supplied by the capillary action is mineralized.
not spring. For being classified as spring, the water flow on the surface shall be regulated
by the pressures within an aquifer.
Artisan springs are formed due to pressure within a confined aquifer. They are also
called arising or ascending springs. The water in the spring may be deep-seated water
or shallow water. The shallow water is largely contributed by precipitation. Deep-
seated water has a complex origin, and it may be either magmatic or sedimentogenic.

11.7.1 Classifications of Springs

Springs have been classified based on discharge; the character of the hydraulic head
creating the discharge; geologic and geomorphologic structure controlling the discharge;
water quality and temperature. Their broad classification based upon these parameters
are given below:
11.7.1.1 The Classification Based on Temperature
Based on temperature springs have been divided into (i) warm spring and (ii) hot
spring. Warm spring has an average water temperature of 370 C in the cold climate but
the temperature of the warm spring shall be higher than that of ambient atmospheric
temperature. The classification of warm spring is therefore related to the prevailing
climate of a region. The temperature of hot water spring is more. Boiling Springs are
the spring in which the water temperature is close to a boiling temperature of water.
These springs are also called thermal springs. Cool springs have a very cold
temperature of water.
The temperature of the water in the spring may be because of several reasons. The
sandy bottom is one reason. When the water is extracted from these, the sand is agitated,
and it appears as boiled. Bubbling Spring (also called a boiling spring) are associated
with the emission of gas or vapour in the water. Bubbling also takes place when the
spring has a well define opening under considerable pressure. Geysers are hot springs
that emit stream and hot water. Normally their vents are in the pool of water. New
Zealand, Yellowstone Park, and Iceland are the most famous locations of geysers. 255
Hydrology 11.7.1.2 Classification Based on Flow
The springs may also be classified based on discharge. The spring that flows throughout
the year is called perennial. Intermittent or temporary springs are active during a specific
season. The springs flow reduces/stop during the warm season in the arid climate.
Periodic spring flows at full length for a specific period. The discharge/recharge of a
confined aquifer is a regulating mechanism of periodic springs.
Ebbing and flowing springs occur along the seashore. It is because of the density
difference between sea and fresh water in an aquifer. During the flood tide, sea water
prevents the seaward flow of freshwater. This increases pressure in an aquifer and
sustains higher water flow. During the ebb tide, the water level falls (reduction in the
pressure of aquifer), and the flow of spring reduces.
11.7.1.3 Classification Based on Geomorphologic Control
This classification is based on geomorphological features. It is classified as (i)
mound of basin springs:
(i) The mound and knoll spring are the geomorphological sub type of springs. In
the arid climate, we find spring at the top of the mound that has been built by the
wind.
(ii) Pool springs are large deep, and a basin like structures that have water filling.
11.7.1.4 Classification Based on Source of Water
(A) SPRING BECAUSE OF DEEP SEATED WATER
The water in these springs rises through the fracture developed in the crust, and these
fissures reach the surface of the earth. These springs are perennial, and their flow does
not vary. Depending upon their relation to the magmatic or tectonic processes, these
may be subdivided into (i) volcanic springs and (ii) fissure springs:
Volcanic springs are associated with present or past volcanic activities. The water of
these springs may be juvenile water (or the infiltrogenic water) that has encounter hot
volcanic material.
Fissure springs lie along the well-known tectonic lines that have many fractures. Faulting
is the major process that forms these springs (Fig. 11.8).

256 Fig. 11.8: Springs formed due to deep-seated water.

(B) SHALLOW WATER SPRING Hydrology

These springs are supported by the meteoritic water sustained by the hydrostatic head
of an aquifer. The source of these waters, therefore, occurs at a shallower depth. We
may classify these springs into four classes:
(i) Spring in porous rocks,
(ii) Spring in porous rock overlying the impervious rock
(iii) Spring in porous rock between impervious rocks
(iv) Spring in impervious rock
(i) SPRING IN THE POROUS MEDIA
1. The spring in the porous rock are formed when the water table reaches, or it is Intermontane
above the ground. In these springs gravity is regulating force. These have a gentle valley is a Basin,
flow. Most of the seeps fall in this category. We may subdivide these springs into that lies between
following four subclasses: mountain ranges
(a) Dimple springs are found at the depressions in a hill. The surface here dips steeper and it is partly
that the water table and springs are at the intercepts. filled with
alluvium.
(b) Valley spring forms due to an abrupt change in the slope between the edge of
flood plain and the bounding valley. The valley formation reduces the surface at
the location of the spring in such a manner that it reaches to the level of water
table.
(c) Channel spring is a depression in flood plain because of channel deepening process
and includes all side channels, abandoned channels, oxbow lakes, etc. Their
formation is regulated by the channel migration.

Fig. 11.9: Spring in the porous media.

(d) Border springs are formed when there is a change in the gradient of the central flat A cuesta is a hill
and alluvial slope (Fig. 11.9). Ground water in this type of spring is brought to the or ridge with a
surface by the change in the slope of upper surface of land. gentle slope on
one side, and a
(ii) SPRING IN POROUS ROCK OVERLYING IMPERVIOUS ROCKS steep slope on the
When a porous rock overlies the impervious bed, the water of porous rock migrates other.
to surface under gravity. Such springs are called contact spring. Based on the attitude
and surface at the contact (bedding), we can divide these into three general types: The
horizontal, the incline, and irregular. 257
Hydrology Horizontal impervious media is found in the horizontal springs. Three subclasses
exist in this category.
(a) GRAVITY SPRINGS
Over impervious bed, the porous material exists in the form of a mound. Water
moves here by gravity (along the contact line of porous and impervious bed.

Fig. 11.10: Spring in the porous media that has an impervious layer below.

(b) HARDPAN SPRING

These springs have a small underlying impervious bed that forces water to rise by
gravity in the porous media above the impervious bed. This applies to most of the
perched aquifers that occur well above the normal water table of a large porous
media. These are the spring that form by the rise of water in the perched water bodies
(Fig. 11.10.)

Fig. 11.11: Spring in the porous media underlain by a impervious rock.

(c) MESA SPRINGS

In mesa spring, the overlying material is hard, but it is porous, and it contains water.
This formation is shown in Figure 11.11. As water percolates down, it moves along the
line of contact between two formations.
In the incline category, the impervious bed has an incline angle. The water in the porous
media is above this inclined surface. Because of gravity, water migrates along the
incline surface and seeps at the contact of both the media at low side. Alike the horizontal,
the springs may be called as gravity spring, cuesta spring (named after the topographic
feature) and hardpan springs (like a perched aquifer found with a horizontal bed)
(iii) SPRING IN POROUS ROCK BETWEEN IMPERVIOUS ROCKS
258 These springs are also sustained by the porous media that lies between two impervious
layers. The essential condition in such aquifer is a specific structure or shape of the Hydrology
pervious bed. The water in these springs is contributed because of hydraulic pressure,
and most of these springs are artesian. We may divide the springs in such cases into
four classes (a) dip spring, (b) siphon artesian spring, (c) un-bedded artesian spring
and (d) fracture artesian springs.
(a) The artesian dip spring is found in the formation in which the pervious bed dips in
such a manner that the upper end of the media receives water (recharge of aquifer)
to sustain spring in the lower end. Sedimentary layered rocks and intertrappean
bed in the lava are the most suitable rock types of this kind of springs.
(b) In the folded structures, siphon artesian springs are located. As schematically shown
the porous media here is an inverted siphon, which gets recharged from the flanks.
The spring occurs on the low side of the structure (Fig. 11.12).
(c) Unbedded artesian springs are in the formations that have irregular bedding. The
mass of a porous medium in this structure is so located that it receives recharge at
the top end of the media and it sustains spring that is located on the lower side of
the unconsolidated deposits.
(d) In the fracture artesian springs, the porous media is located between the impervious
media, and it may not have sufficient dip to

Fig. 11.12: The spring in the porous media embedded in impervious rocks.

generate a gradient within the aquifer. However, the impervious rocks overlying the
porous media are fractured, and water flows/seeps through them. The pressure of Extrusion of lava is
water in these aquifers also helps further widening of the fractures. a process in which
the lava moves out
(iv) SPRING IN IMPERVIOUS ROCKS
due to an
Impervious layers are not watertight in genuine sense. The rocks may have secondary impervious upper
permeability or may have pore space of capillary or smaller size. In normal conditions, layer of lava that
the water flow under hydrostatic pressure is absent or insignificant in these rocks, and cools down rather
this situation cannot sustain a spring. However, the movement of water takes place if rapidly compared
the openings are vertical or horizontal. These are classified into (i) tubular and (ii) to the lava in the
fracture springs. subsurface.

(i) Tubular springs are a vertical spring in which water is supplied by vertical movement.
This group is further subdivided into three types.
259
Hydrology (a) Solution springs are in a region where the aquifer is expanded by the dissolution of
rocks by the circulating water. A favourable formation is needed for such springs.
Limestone, calcareous, sandstone, and salts are good formations to sustain this
type of springs (Fig. 11.13).

Fig. 11.13: Solution spring in the impervious rocks

(b) Lave tubular spring are in a volcanic formation where the caverns and tunnels are
formed through the process of igneous intrusion. Rapid cooling of lava at the
surface helps extrusion of lava that forms tube-like features which sustains the
flow of water.
(c) Fracture springs emerge from sheet-like or plate-like features. These occur in
joints, bedding plains, faults, columnar joints, etc. The intensity of water in these
springs is determined by the quantum of fractures. Fractured rocks have extremely
high potential.
Check Your Progress 8
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Where does one expect the occurrence of gravity spring?
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11.8 LET US SUM UP

Most of the water on the earth is saline. Ocean and enormous water bodies (that are
saline) contain over 96% water. During hydrological cycle, water from the ocean or
land bodies moves into the atmosphere. Condensation, precipitation and snow fall
from the atmosphere are the major sources of fresh water on the earth.
E/P regime determines the accumulation of water in different regions of the Earth.
Equator and poles have P>>E regime. The tropics have E>>P regime. The evaporation
in tropics and at the equator is the principal source of water into the atmosphere. Most
of the fresh water on the surface of the earth is stored as ice sheets and glaciers. This
water is like bank deposits of the earth. The earth gets water from the icesheets/
260 glaciers during an increase in the global temperature.
Genetic classification of water is complex. We classify waters based on their source. Hydrology
Water is also classified as infiltrogenic, sedimentogenic, metamorphogenic and
magmatogenic. Each one of these is contributed from a specific source.
The aquifers are of two types. The aquifers in the porous formations are known as
unconfined aquifer. The aquifers that are in a porous media sandwiched in the impervious
rocks are confined aquifers. The confined aquifers are the source of artisan wells.
The springs are found in various formations. The source of the water in the springs
may be shallow and deep. We classify the springs based on their temperature, flow,
topography, etc.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Which reservoir has maximum amount of water
2. What is a hydrological cycle?
3. In which reservoir of the earth the residence time of water is minimum?
4. What is the genetic classification of water?
5. What is a confined aquifer?
6. What are geysers?

11.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
1972
William A. Anikouchine and Richard W. Sternberg: The World Ocean, an introduction
to oceanography. McGraw-Hill, New York 1974
Joseph Weisberg and Howard Parish: Introductory Oceanography. McGraw-Hill,
New York 1974
Keith Stowe: Ocean Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York 2nd Edition 1979
J. Michael McCormick and John V. Thiruvatakal: Elements of Oceanography. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia 2nd Edition 1981
John A. Black: Oceans and Coasts, an introduction to oceanography. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, Dubuque 1986
Paul R. Pinet: Oceanography, an introduction to the planet Oceanus. West Publishing
Company St. Paul 1992
Alison B. Duxbury and Alyn C. Duxbury: Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
6th Edition 1993 261
Hydrology Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont California 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Introductory Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 7th edition
1994
David A. Ross: Introduction to Oceanography. Harper Collins New York 1995
Matthias Tomczak and Gunther Krause: Do Marine Scientists have a Scientific View
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995).
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 5th Edition
1996
Douglas A. Segar: Introduction to Ocean Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont
1998
ANSWERS TO THE TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Ocean has the maximum amount of water.
2. Exchange of water among the different reservoirs of the earth is termed as
hydrological cycle.
3 In the atmosphere water has minimum residence time.
4. The classification of water based on its origin is the genetic classification of water.
5. The porous aquifer that is sandwiched between two impervious layers is known
as a confined aquifer.
6. Geysers are hot springs in which an eruption of water is episodic.

11.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The ice caps and glaciers.
2. It determines the water table position in the unconfined aquifer and regulates the
upward movement of water.
3. Intense precipitation because of the sudden uplift of air parcels to a height along
the mountain is orography. In India, the SW continental margin and Meghalaya
experience orographic precipitation.
4. It is the polar region.
5. The magmatogenic processes are the main source of juvenile water. The volcanic
activities provide the recent juvenile water.
6. The residence time of magmatogenic water is highly variable. The water contributed
by the volcanogenic processes through volcanic eruption has tiny residence time.
The water that is entrapped in the deeper impervious formations of the crust has a
large residence time.
7. Unconfined and perched aquifers.
8. At the edge of a sand hill
262
 Hydrogeology
UNIT 12 HYDROGEOLOGY
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Geological control of Groundwater
12.2.1 Petrographic Control
12.2.2 Control of Porosity
12.2.3 Control of Permeability
12.2.4 Stratigraphic Control
12.3 Geomorphological Control
12.4 Lithological Control
12.5 Mode of Occurrence of Groundwater in Different Geological Terrains of India
12.5.1 The Archaen
12.5.2 Cuddapah Super Group
12.5.3 Vindhyan Super Group
12.5.4 Gondwana Super Group
12.5.5 Deccan Traps
12.6 The Tertiary Group (Age 65-1.64 Million Years)
12.7 Recent Super Group
12.8 Classification of Rocks with Reference to their Water-bearing Properties
12.8.1 Factors that Determine Water-bearing Capacity of Rocks
12.8.2 Water-bearing Capacity of Sedimentary, Metamorphic and Igneous Rocks
12.9 Darcy’s Law and Its Validity
12.9.1 Limitation of the Darcy Law
12.9.2 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
12.10 Groundwater Tracers
12.11 Let Us Sum Up
12.12 References and Suggested Further Readings
12.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

12.0 INTRODUCTION
The occurrence of ground water in the crust is controlled by porosity, permeability,
fractures, the location of the porous formation, and thickness of the formation. Water-
bearing capacity of the rocks depends upon their porosity and permeability. In the
consolidated impervious rocks, the secondary structures enhance their water-bearing
capacity. The water-bearing capacity of cemented sedimentary rocks also reduces.
The Archean rocks in the India are not very good aquifers as they comprise crystalline
rocks. The Cuddapah formation also has crystalline rocks, and their water yield is
low. The Vindhyan formation comprises of sedimentary rocks and these have a large
variability in their water-bearing capacity. Gondwana has high water bearing capacity.
263
Hydrology The Deccan traps store water in the fractures and in the inter-trappean beds. The local
water yield is good from these rocks. The tertiary sediments have good water-bearing
properties. The maximum water in the country is stored in the recent formation. Alluvial
sediments in the flood plains of most of the enormous rivers are a good reservoir of
water.
The Darcy law described flow of water in a pervious medium. The hydraulic gradient
and the length of medium determine the magnitude of water flow in an aquifer. This law
can only be applied to the laminar flow. Sandy aquifer has a higher hydraulic conductivity
than a clay aquifer.
Ground water tracers are techniques used in hydrology to determine movement of
water in the crust.

12.1 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you will be able to:
• describe the geological control on the groundwater;
• explain the water-bearing properties of Indian formations;
• discuss water-bearing properties of rocks;
• define Darcy’s Principle, it’s limitation, Reynolds number;
• explain hydraulic conductivity; and
• discuss ground water tracer.

12.2 GEOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

GROUNDWATER
The water present in the earth’s subsurface is termed as ground water. Most of the
groundwater moves into deeper sub-surfaces by percolation of atmogenic water.
Geological control regulates occurrence, movement, and storage of groundwater in
any formation. The petrography, stratigraphy, geomorphology, lithology, and thickness
of the formations are the most important parameters that exert geological control. In
the following sections we shall learn the role of each of the above geological parameters
on the occurrence of ground water in the crust:

12.2.1 Petrographic Control

Petrography refers to the studies of texture and mineralogical properties of rocks. It
deals with grain size, sorting, texture, porosity, and permeability of a formation. You
will learn the control of each of these petrographic parameters on the water bearing
capacity in the following sections:
(a) Grain Size
The grain size of the rocks refers to size distribution of grains in a rock. It determines
the porosity and permeability, and it controls the water bearing capacity of a formation.
We may describe a geological sample as fine, medium, or coarse grained. The grain
264 size alone is not a significant factor because the compacted coarser grained rocks
such as granite may have similar hydrological parameters as that of basalt that has Hydrogeology
much finer grain size. For hydrological prospecting of the sedimentary formation, grain
size plays a vital role. It may therefore be borne in mind that the control of grain size
must be studied along with several other parameters.
(b) Control of Sorting
Sorting refers to variations between grain size. A well-sorted material has a much
smaller range of grain size or has a uniform grain size. A poorly sorted material is a
mixer of many sizes. The sorting of a formation controls: (i) capability to store water
and (ii) its migration in an aquifer. Mode of transport, energy conditions, long distance
travel in turbulence, higher gradient of terrain are some factors which determine the
sorting of sediments.
(c) Control of Texture
The texture of a sample refers to size and shape and their relationship. It controls
permeability and porosity of an aquifer. A detailed description or estimation of the
sorting and texture may be found in almost every book of petrology, and therefore it is
not provided here. In hydrology, we study the texture of rock formations to estimate
storage capacity and hydraulic yield.

12.2.2 Control of Porosity

The porosity is the amount of pore in a formation. Porosity is mathematically explained
as:

——— 1

where Vh is the volume of voids and Vt represents the total volume of a sample.
In hydrology, porosity is determined from the following equation:
Porosity = (ñ particle - ñ bulk material)/( ñ particle - ñ fluid ) ——— 2
ñ = density
If the void space is filled with air, for evaluation of the hydrological potential (using the
porosity) the following formulae are used by hydrologists:

——— 3

Where the ñs is the bulk density, and ñp is the density of the particle. For an estimation
of the porosity bulk density (ñs) is determined. The density of the particle is assumed
to be 2.65 g/cm3. The porosity is then estimated from the Equation 3.
Porosity varies between 0 and 1. In the geological formations, it has a very wide range
(0.01 and 0.50). Igneous and metamorphic rocks have an exceptionally low porosity
(0.01). Unconsolidated or loose material like clays and lignite has an extremely high
porosity (~0.50).
Estimation of porosity is very important for understanding the hydrological conductivity.
If one compares two sedimentary aquifers (having the similar texture and sorting), the
aquifer that has a higher porosity will have a better hydrological conductivity. We also
265
Hydrology remember that for smaller grain size aquifer, the porosity is more but such aquifer has
a poor hydraulic conductivity. It may be kept in mind that between two aquifers, the
one with coarser grain has more hydrological conductivity, though it has less porosity.
The application of porosity in the hydrology, therefore, is always made along with
grain size, sorting, and other textural parameters.
There are two kinds of porosity in a formation. The primary porosity is acquired
during the formation while secondary porosity comes into existence after acquiring the
original porosity. The fracturing or chemical leaching after the formation of rock is an
example of secondary porosity. Cementation reduces porosity in sedimentary rocks.

Fig. 12.1: Illustration of grain size and sorting in an aquifer

Based on the size of the pores, the porosity may be classified into macro, meso and
micro subclasses. The meso porosity has pores greater than 50 nm. Meso porosity
refers to the pore size of 2-50 nm. The micro porous material has a pore size of less
than 2 nm. The size of pores determines the flow mechanism.

12.2.3 Control of Permeability

Permeability is the ability of the formation to have lateral or vertical advection of water.
A formation with a rapid movement of flow has higher permeability. The permeability
is determined in Darcy laboratory experiments. The magnitude of movement of fluid in
a medium is a proportionality constant, and it is got from viscosity, pressure gradient,
fluid flow velocity in darcy (10-12 m2; named after H. Darcy). The experiment shall be
described under the section Darcy’s law and its validity.
Permeability is more relevant for the movement of water from the surface into subsurface
or within an aquifer. The alluvial aquifers have much better permeability than a compact
aquifer. We may keep it in mind that an aquifer having 20% porosity and one darcy
permeability has much reduced hydraulic connectivity than the one which has 15%
porosity and three Darcy permeability.
266
12.2.4 Stratigraphic Control Hydrogeology

The stratigraphic setting of a geological formation refers to the chronological sequencing

of its units. It documents the depositional environment during a given era. For example,
the Archean formations in India (aged > 2500 million years) comprise mostly of granitic
rocks. These rocks have an extremely poor permeability.
The significance of stratigraphic control can also be seen in tertiary deposits. The
lignite deposition is a characteristic of Gondwana land. These are found in all the
formations of Gondwana world over. In India, these lignite deposits are found to have
a high yield of groundwater.
Similarly, the Deccan Basalt of Cretaceous age is also of significance in the Indian
context. It is having an average thickness of multi-layers of lava of about 2000 m. The
rocks of Deccan trap formation have a very poor yield because these are fine-grained
volcanic rocks that have very poor permeability. Water in this formation, like granite,
stores in the intertrappean beds, or in the fracture zones.
Stratigraphic control is also very important for the location of paleochannels and
paleolakes. Identification of these features from the environment of deposition and the
energy of the system during an era is useful to identify favorable locations of water-
bearing formations. For examples, the late Pleistocene has witnessed lowering of sea
level for several hundred meters. This has advanced the mouth of the rivers towards
the ocean. The increase in the sea level during the Holocene era has also migrated to
sea level landward. The change in the sedimentary environment due to the landward
shift of sea level has impacted the sediment supply. This has to lead to filling of channels
of several of the coastal rivers. It has also controlled extinction or shift of channels of
several of coastal rivers which were very good source of the ground water in the
coastal region.
In the mountains, many lakes have dried up or buried under sediments because of
retreat or advance of glaciers in the Pleistocene. For identification of these features,
stratigraphic control of an area needs to be studied. Understanding of stratigraphic
control is, therefore, essential for the students of hydrology.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What is stratigraphic control?
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2. Which stratigraphic formation is expected to have the least water?
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267
Hydrology 12.2.5 Control of Structures
In geology, “structure” refers to depositional features of a formation developed because
of burial or due to the tectonic force applied on it after their formation. The structures
may be classified as primary or secondary. We will examine the control of these
structures on hydrology in the following sections:
(a) Contol of Primary Structures
These structures are embedded in a formation during its formation. The sedimentary
rocks, for example, have bedding plane which is a depositional boundary between
two layers. These boundaries are considered very favourable for the movement of
fluid. The lithogenic structures also play an important role in the water storage or its
yield. The authigenic chemical precipitation may occupy the inter-grain space in the
rock. This reduces the grain space and permeability of the sedimentary rocks.
(b) Control of Secondary Structures
Tectonic structures are bending or fracture of rocks because of stress or strain applied
to them after the formation of a litho-unit. It is quite common in tectonically active
zones. For example, on a converging zone (in which two plates are moving towards
each other), the compression is prominent. This can be seen in the Himalayas. The
Indian Plate is colliding with the Asian Plate. Because of northward compression,
there are several large-scale thrusts in the Himalayas. These thrusts are several hundred
km long and can be identified using a satellite image. A large-scale faulting and folding
is a very prominent feature of such regions in the Himalayas. The deep faulting and
folding of rocks in the Himalayas has led to migration of deep-seated water into the
upper surface. The occurrence of several hot water springs in the Himalayas is a
testimony of secondary control.
The tectonics is different over divergent plates. At a divergent boundary, transform
faults are common. These tensional features are generally found on the oceanic plate.
However, the volcanic flow at a divergent boundary may give rise to large deposition
of lava.

12.3 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL CONTROL

Understanding the Hills, lakes, rivers, sand dunes, etc., are a geomorphological feature of a region and
processes that these exert a large control over the groundwater. Geomorphological studies are therefore
have controlled required to identify the water-bearing landform. For example, identification of a buried
the origin and channel of a river or a lake is very vital to understand the recharge points of
evolution of the unconsolidated sediments.
landform is In the granitic or basaltic terrain, the geomorphological features such as depression in
termed as the landform, or gradient of the hills regulate the water supply and its storage. The
geomorphology. geomorphological features also provide clues on the source of surface water. For
example, the geomorphological studies provide a regional or local gradient of the
catchment area of a river. This process leads to migration of channel of a river, flooding
of floodplains, and accumulation of a lot of sediments in a basin.
The Himalayan region has high mountains. Some of these mountains have high
precipitation. The high gradient in the Himalayas channelizes the water in the rivers
268 along the tectonic features. Because of the high gradient in the hilly terrain, these rivers
also carry a lot of sediments in river water. During the monsoon when there is a sizeable Hydrogeology
amount of rainfall in the Himalayas, or during the melting of ice, the riverine flow is very
large. A high supply of water and sediments from the high altitude of Himalayas are
carried downhill. When this discharge reaches the plain, the river channel widens, and
it has lower gradient. This leads to a reduction in the velocity of the rivers. This reduction
leads to deposition of sediments in the plains. You will find a large deposition of sand
in almost all the river basin of India. We are all familiar that during the flood channel
width increases. When the volume of the water in the channel is more than its carrying
capacity, it overflows the channel and deposits the sediments in the flood plains. Such
deposition over the millions of years has built a large fluvial plain along most of the
Indian Rivers. The thickness of loose unconsolidated sediments in the Gangetic plain is
several km. These unconsolidated, poorly sorted sediments act as good aquifer and
have preserved an enormous quantity of water. The water yield from these reservoirs
has met the ever-increasing water demand of entire northern India.
From the above example, it is evident that the geomorphological setting of an area has
tremendous control over migration and storage of water in various landforms.

12.4 LITHOLOGICAL CONTROL

Lithology is a preliminary study of physical properties and mineralogy of the rocks in a Lithology of any
formation as seen in the hand specimen. For example, the occurrence of basalt in any rock is the study
stratigraphic sequence can be identified by its colour, texture, and broad composition. of the physical
Vertical variations in the lithology are recorded, and these are terms as litho logs. properties in a
Cores are drilled to obtain lithology of a formation. rock sample.
Following properties of the rocks contribute to interpret lithological control: These include
colour,
1. Rock Type composition, and
The first examination in lithology is to identify the rocks. There are three major types of texture.
rocks, i.e., sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic.
The sedimentary rocks may be either silici-clastic or carbonate. These may also be
classified based on their size as a conglomerate, gravel, sand, silt or clayey, etc. This
classification is especially useful to identify a suitable water bearing formation.
The igneous rocks may be plutonic or basaltic. Plutonic rocks are coarse grain rocks
that are formed deep in the crust. The volcanic rocks are fine to very fine grained. The
flood basaltic flows are very fine grained.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the metamorphism of sedimentary or igneous rock.
Depending upon the depth of their formation, a rock may be slate, schist, and gneiss.
The rock type is very important for hydrological studies. We have learned that the
permeability and porosity are two parameters that determine the hydraulic characteristics
of an aquifer. We also know that permeability is low in granitic, basaltic, or metamorphic
rocks of higher order (gneiss). The mapping of the rocks that are averse to the water
storage is an essential tool for hydrological prospecting of an area.
2. Grain Size
We have already studied this under petrographic control. Your kind attention is however
drawn that in lithological studies this tool is used to classify a rock formation. From the 269
Hydrology lithological studies, a sedimentary rock may be quickly named as sandstone or mudstone
based on grain size. You have already learned that grain size these parameters are very
important to determine porosity and permeability of any formation or for hydraulic
conductivity.
3. Mineralogy
Preliminary identification of mineralogy is helpful for hydrological prospecting. For
sedimentary rocks, it is possible to identify dolomite or carbonate-bearing rocks using
dilute hydrochloric acid. Similarly, one can also identify metamorphic facies such as
slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss formation in the hand specimen. It is also possible to
identify felsic (light colour) rock rich in quartz and feldspar and mafic or ultramafic
rocks that have a low amount of quartz. Such information plays a very vital role in a
hydrological setting. For example, carbonate rocks are more prone to dissolution by
percolating water than the siliciclastic rocks. Similarly, the felsic rocks are more prone
to develop secondary permeability.
4. Colour
Colour of rock indicates the environment of deposition. In geology, we use the mussel
chart for such identification. It is a simple hand book that contains several samples of
colour. Each of the colour boxes has a specific number. The number is generally
recorded and used to decode the environment of deposition (reducing or oxidizing).
The environment of deposition also provides the intensity of weathering, specially the
chemical weathering. An intense chemical weathering regime normally is more prone
to dissolution and creation of voids.
5. Fabrics
The fabric is the plane along which the movement of fluid takes place. Understanding
fabrics of any formation is therefore useful for hydrological studies. In lithological studies,
the spatial and geometric configuration of elements is determined. For example, in any
sedimentary formation, the bedding is its fabric. In the igneous rock, the fabric
determines the flow. Planer or linear fabrics are characteristic of metamorphic rocks.
6. Texture
We have already studied this aspect under the petrography. This aspect is also covered
under lithology. Texture here provides sorting, grading, shape, and roundness of the
grains in a hand specimen. Usefulness of these parameters has already been described
in detail under section permeability and porosity.
7. Small-Scale Structures
Small scale structure such as ripple marks, cross bedding, mud-cracks; sole marks
are embedded in the sedimentary rocks during the process of their formation. These
marks are used to determine the environment in which the said rocks have deposited.
These provide a clue on the flow direction of river or presence of seashore. Such
information helps identification of geomorphic processes such as the direction of river
flow or shore processes. Small scale structures may not induce any control over the
water preservation or its yield, yet these contain information on the source and migration
of water within the formations.

270
8. Thickness Hydrogeology

The thickness of a formation is one of the important geological controls. The thickness
of the aquifer is directly related with a thickness of a formation. The thickness of a
geological formation signifies the magnitude and duration of the prevalence of
geomorphic or tectonic processes. For examples, the thickness of Deccan Basalt
determines the existence of an impervious layer over the curst in the Maharashtra and
Gujarat. Similarly, a large thickness of alluvial fan in the Indo-Gangetic plain (and the
quantity of water stored in it) is a testimony of the control of thickness on the hydrological
characteristics of a region.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 word
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
3. What is the role of tectonics on change of hydrological properties of a formation?
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4. What will be the role of a fracture zone on ground water yield?
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5. Why do we have hot water spring in the Himalayas?
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12.5 MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

IN DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL TERRAINS OF
INDIA
Kindly refer to the geological map of India prepared by the Geological Survey of India The Archaen are
(Fig. 12.2). A better copy of this map may be got from the website of the Geological the oldest rocks.
Survey of India (http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,
529486&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL). To simplify the distribution of major
super groups in India, the geological map of India ((http://www.civilsdaily.com/blog/
the-geological-structure-of-india/) (Fig. 12.3) may also be got.
From the above maps, it is evident that there are seven major geological formations in
India. Given below is their geological

271
Hydrology

Fig. 12.2: Geological setting of India (as prepared by the Geological Survey of India).

Fig. 12.3: The spatial occurrence of seven major geological formations of India

characteristics and water bearing capacity. It may be, however, remembered here that
because these were deposited over a large geological span, each subunit of these
formations has vast variations in lithology, tectonic setting, and geomorphology. These
formations are regional and therefore have a spatial inconsistency in their water-bearing
characteristics. The evaluation of water-bearing properties of each formation presented
in this unit is therefore general. For region specific evaluation of water-bearing properties
of these seven groups, an elaborate consideration of local lithological and tectonic
parameters of each subunit is needed.

12.5.1 The Archaen

These rocks occur in South-India, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
272 Orissa, and all along the East Coast of India (as the Eastern-Ghats; Figs 12.2-3).
These are the oldest formations (age > 2500 million years) and mostly have metamorphic Hydrogeology
rocks such as gneiss, schist and granite. Being made of metamorphic rocks, Archean
rocks have an extremely poor water-bearing characteristic. The water in these formations
is normally found in the fracture zone. However, these formations have experienced
prolonged weathering. Such processes generate secondary permeability in these rocks.
The water in these formations is therefore found in fractures or in the depressions that
are filled with weathered material. As per the hydrological map of India (sourer Central
Ground Water Board; Fig. 12.4), these formations have a yield of 1-5 litre /sec in the
hilly terrain.

12.5.2 Cuddapah Super Group Arenaceous are

sedimentary
The Proterozoic rocks (age 1600 million years) are composed of shale and quartzite rocks made of
in the alternate layers. These are found in Cuddapah district in Andhra Pradesh, sandy material.
Vidharbha, South-Maharashtra, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan (Figs. 2-3).
The formation is composed of arenaceous and argillaceous sequence with igneous
intrusions. The Cuddapah Super Group has conglomerate - quartzite, carbonate, and
shale facies. The water-bearing capacity of these rocks is low. The conglomerate has
better prospect. The mode of water occurrence in the Quartzite, carbonate, and shale
facies is mostly in the fractures or dissolution pits or along the bedding plane. As per
the hydrological map of India, the water yield in this super group is 1-5 litre/sec. As the
formation has witnessed tectonic activities in the eastern Cuddapah basin, subunits of
this region may have stored more water in the fracture zone (water yield 10 litre/sec).

Secondary
permeability is
acquired by rocks
after their
deposition.

Fig. 12.4: The Hydrological map of India (Source: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites)

12.5.3 Vindhyan Super Group

The Vindhyan are unmetamorphosed sedimentary deposits of the shallow marine
environment of the Proterozoic time. This group has largest and thickest sedimentary
successions of the world and comprises of calcareous, arenaceous, and argillaceous
sediments. The Vindhyan are found in Son-valley, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and in Telangana. These formations are intra cratonic and have thick
273
Hydrology sedimentary rocks. Sandstone, shale, and limestone are the major rocks of this super
group. The sandstone and limestone of this group have good water-bearing properties.
The mode of occurrence of water is along the bedding, dissolution pits, and fracture
zone. The shale formation, however, has poor water-bearing capacity. A large lithological
and geomorphological setting of this group makes it rather difficult to provide a
generalized estimation of water bearing properties of this group. It may, however, be
stated that in the hilly region these regions have good water storage. Please refer to
the hydrological map of CGWB for details (Fig. 12.4).

12.5.4 Gondwana Super Group

The Gondwana are developed in the peninsular region of India along the Damodar
and Son valley, in the upper Narmada, the Godavari valley and along the Mahanadi
valley. These are Pre-Cambrian rock though in some area these may fall in the Permian
and Triassic periods. These are shallow; elongated basin brought about by block
faulting. These sediments have been deposited in a trough, and they contain remains of
plants. The formation has sandstones, slates, and conglomerates. Coal or lignite bearing
sediments are common in Gondwana Super Group. The subunits of this super group
store a good amount of water in the secondary space generated because of chemical
or physical weathering. The coal-bearing strata have high porosity and store a
considerable amount of ground water. The water yield of these formations is highly
variable and is linked with the characters of lithology of a subunit.

12.5.5 Deccan Traps

The Deccan Traps are the largest volcanic features on Earth. These were deposited in
the post-Mesozoic era (~66 million years). These lava deposits are about 2,000 m
thick. The lava has multiple layers of solidified flood basalt. The water-bearing properties
of basaltic rocks are exceptionally low. However, the Deccan traps have deposited
intermittently and have several layers of sediments between the lava flows (intertrappean
beds). The intertrappean beds and fractured regions are a good reservoir of water in
the Deccan traps. The mode of occurrence of water in these rocks is storage in the
fracture zone or in the intertrappean beds. The water is also stored in the weathered
zone. Most of the Deccan trap in the Maharashtra lies in the regions that have very
high rainfall. These regions are known to store large meteoric water. The estimated
water yield is highly variable in the hilly terrain (1-25 litre/sec).

12.6 THE TERTIARY GROUP: (AGE 65-1.64

MILLION YEARS)
These formations are found in the NE of India and in the Himalayas. The marine
tertiary rocks of the NE and Shivalik group fall under this super group. One also finds
these formations in the costal belt of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Gujarat (refer to
Figs 2-3). The tertiary rocks are formed after the breakup of Gondwana land and
collision of Indian Plate with Asian Plate. These deposits have marine sediments and
reworked sediments derived from the intense weathering of the Himalayas. These
deposits have high deformation. The porosity and permeability of the Shivalik formation
are extremely high. These deposits, therefore, have an exceedingly high water-bearing
properties. Water yield is found to 25-40 litre/sec as per the hydrological map prepared
by CGWB.
274
 Hydrogeology
12.7 RECENT SUPER GROUP
These formations include Sutlej-Ganga-Brahmaputra plains and Karewa formations Recent super
of the Kashmir valley. Recent deposits are also found in the NE region of India and the group comprises
Gujarat. All the major rivers of the India also have recent deposits. These deposits of detritus that are
mostly comprise unconsolidated sediments reworked by the rivers. They have extremely deposited during
high porosity and sorting. Being in the catchment area of rivers, these formations have past 1.72 million
very high-water bearing capacity. The Indus (and its tributaries) and the Ganga and years
Brahmaputra Plains have very thick deposition of detritus. These have very high storage
of ground water in the form of unconfined or perched aquifer. The thickness of these
aquifers is also substantial. These deposits were found to have very high-water yield
> 40 litres/sec.
As mentioned earlier that Gujarat has a large deposition of recent sediments. These
are reworked by the rivers. However, barring the sediments in the floodplains of major
rivers such as Tapi and Narmada, Sabarmati, Aji, etc., most of the recent sediments
has much-reduced water yield. One may wonder the reason thereof. These sediments
are composed of a layer of clays and gypsum formed because of intense evaporation
in the arid climate of Gujarat. Clays have an extremely high porosity, but very poor
water yield. The layers of clay form an impermeable layer that inhibits deeper
percolation of water. The area, therefore, has several small perched aquifers. As a
result, the water-bearing capacity is much reduced.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
6. Identify the super group that has a high-water bearing capacity
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7. Why the recent formation of Gujarat has a low water bearing capacity?
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12.8 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS WITH Magmatic rocks

are formed by the
REFERENCE TO THEIR WATER-BEARING molten material. It
PROPERTIES is of intrusive or
eruptive type
The role of geology in the water storage in the crust has been studied in the earlier section.
It is well understood that the geology plays an important role in the precipitation of water, its
storage, movement and ultimately its supply back to water reservoirs. For hydrological
prospecting, besides a basic understanding of the geological control, it is also important to
understand the basic properties of medium (rocks or soil) that stores the water. 275
Hydrology 12.8.1 Factors that Determine Water-bearing Capacity of
Rocks
We have discussed the factors that regulated the water bearing capacity. We have
learned that the water-bearing properties of the rock primarily depend on two basic
parameters. The geological factors that influence porosity and permeability are therefore
useful and are described in details to explain their role in estimation of water bearing
capacity of a formation:
1. Process of Sedimentation
Sedimentation takes place by various morphodynamic agents. Sediments are liberated
through weathering. The liberation mechanism and the transportation of the material
regulate water-bearing characteristics of a formation. Water, gravity, and air are the
most important agents. The sediments deposited by air are very well sorted and have
high porosity. Pore space in the carbonated rocks is highly variable, and these rocks
have poor water-bearing capability. The chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks
also have poor water-bearing capacity. Water in these rocks stores in the dissolution
cavities. Carbonates are prone to have dissolution cavities.
2. Expansion of Gases
The lava and mud flows have gases. The escape of these gases causes the formation
of cavities by escaping bubbles. There rocks have low water bearing capacity in pumice
though it may have several connected voids.
3. Crystallization of Igneous Rock
The inter-crystalline space in the igneous rocks changes their water-bearing capacity. This
factor needs to be considered before assigning the water-bearing status to igneous rocks.
4. Mechanical Disruption
The mechanical forces on any rock may create the secondary structures that enhance
its water-bearing characteristics. It may be kept in mind that the classification of rocks
on lithological lines may not be accurate and it may need amendments depending upon
the tectonic feature of the region.
5. Chemical Action
A cemented
Dissolution by carbonic and organic acids increases space for water storage in an
conglomerate has
impervious medium. Most of the springs in carbonate rocks are because of the chemical
less water bearing
action of water.
capacity than that
of sandstone. 7. Cementation
Higher cementation reduces the water bearing capacity of the sedimentary rocks.
8. Sediment Compaction
Compaction of rock because of burial reduces the pore space, and it reduces water
bearing capacity.
9. Metamorphism
This process also reduced porosity and permeability. High temperature and pressure
276 reduce the water bearing capacity of rocks.
10. Weathering Hydrogeology

Weathering increase porosity. Physical weathering widens cracks and joints in a rock.
This increases secondary permeability, and it enhances water yield in the impervious
media.
Chemical weathering is also increasing water bearing capacity. The dissolution of
carbonate rocks by acid water induces dissolution pit and cavities and increases water
bearing capacity of impervious sedimentary rocks.
11. Biological Processes
Biological processes in the shallow region also influence the water bearing capacity of
the rocks. The roots of the plants create fractures in the rocks. The soil water is also
enhanced by the humus. The animal burrows also increase the water bearing capacity
of a formation.

12.8.2 Water-bearing Capacity of Sedimentary, Metamorphic

and Igneous Rocks
We have learned that the water-bearing properties of the rocks are inherited by their
mode of formation. We have also learned that there are three major rock groups. The
water-bearing capacity of each of these groups is described below:
1. Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary deposits are mostly porous if these are loose. The compacted sedimentary Water bearing
rocks may retain its porosity to some extent. However, a compact cemented rock is capacity of the
mostly impervious. The water-bearing capacity of cemented and indurated rocks is sedimentary rocks
exceptionally low. Because most of the sedimentary rocks are impervious, and depends on its
compactness is highly variable, it is not possible to estimate their generalized water- grain size,
bearing capacity. It may be, however, borne in mind that water bearing capacity of each porosity chemical
unit of sedimentary unconsolidated deposited depends upon grain size, porosity, and precipitation
permeability. The compact rocks are mostly impervious. Permeability is the major factor
that determines the water yield of these formations. Grain size and other textural properties,
however, have minor effect. For instance, if the grain size of sandstone is coarse (and it
is well sorted), it has good storage capacity but an extremely poor yield. In fine-grained
sandstone, the water baring capacity is good, but the yield of water is very poor. Claystone
has very high porosity but is having very poor water yield (Table 12.1).
2. Igneous Rocks
It is well known that the magmatic rocks are compact. These rocks are impervious. Pyroclastic rocks
Therefore, granitic and basaltic rocks are classified as a poor source of water. However, are sedimentary
because of weathering and joints in these rocks, these rock types develop fractures deposits derived
and secondary structures. These processes enhance their water bearing capacity. from the volcanic
3. Metamorphic Rocks activities. These
rocks have high
The metamorphic rocks are derived mostly from sedimentary rocks. The characteristics water bearing
of these rocks are related to the parent rock material and metamorphism. In the early capacity.
stage of metamorphism, such as slate, the material is porous, though it may have very
little water bearing capacity. Schist and gneiss are much more complex and have poor
water-bearing capacity.
277
Hydrology A rough estimate of porosity, water bearing capacity and their estimated yield is given
in the Table 12.1
Table 12.1: Water-bearing capacity of unconsolidated sediments and rocks.
Material Porosity Water-bearing capacity Water yield
Gravel Coarse 38 High High
Gravel Medium 32 High High
Gravel Fine 34 High High
Sand (coarse) 39 Very high Very high
Sand (medium) 39 Very high Very High
Sand (fine) 43 Very high High
Silt 46 High - moderate Medium
Clay 42 high Very low
Sandstone 33 Moderate - Low Low
Fine-grained
Sand stone 37 Moderate Moderate
Medium grained
Limestone 30 Moderate Low-moderate
Dolomite 28 Moderate Moderate
Dune Sand 45 Very high Very high
Peat 95 Very high Very high
Shale 6 Low Very low
Schist 38 low low
Siltstone 35 low low
Claystone 43 Very low Very low
Basalt 17 Low Moderate
Gabbroweathered 43 low Low
Granite 45 Low Low
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
8. What is the porosity of clays and claystone?
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9. Why water yield of clays and claystone is low?
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Viscosity is the
property of a fluid .....................................................................................................................
to resist the flow
over a surface. 12.9 DARCY’S LAW AND ITS VALIDITY
278 Originally, Darcy formulated this law to estimate the pressure loss due to viscosity.
The definition of various types of viscosity (absolute, dynamic, and kinematic) may be Hydrogeology
found in any of the mathematical books.
Darcy’s low helps hydrologists to estimate water flow in a porous medium. This law
states that for one-dimensional water flow in saturated media, flow is proportional
to head loss and inversely proportional to the length of the media. Please note here
that for this estimation, a porous sand media was used in a horizontal position.
The Darcy law states that Äp (the pressure loss) in any flow (Q) is proportional to
the length L of media by the following relation:
Äp = ë (L / A) (ñ v2 / 2) (1)
where
Äp = pressure loss (units P; please note this is a unit of pressure)
ë = Darcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
L= length of material (duct or pipe in this experiment) expressed in meters (m)
v = velocity (m/s) measured as volumetric volume flow (Q)/unit cross section
A = hydraulic diameter expressed in meters (m)
ñ = density (kg/m3).

Fig. 12.5: Schematic explanation of the terms used in Darcy’s law.

For laminar flow, the equation may be written as:

Where
µ = dynamic viscosity
Q= volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and it is equal to area (A) multiply by velocity (v)
The terminology used in the equations are shown in Fig. 12.5.

12.9.1 Limitation of the Darcy Law

As clear from the above equation, it is clear that the stipulation of the formulation of the
law of Darcy is for a specific condition. We know that the equation has been derived 279
Hydrology for the laminar flow. One must, therefore, remember that the equation of Darcy is valid
only for fully developed, steady state and incompressible flow. It may be borne in the
mind that the equation is not valid in the transient or turbulent flow.
Because the equation of Darcy applies to the laminar flow, we shall also learn to
determine the Reynolds Number, which is used to determine the nature of flow.
Reynolds number for our understanding is a proportionality coefficient, and it is derived
from the following relation:
Re = (ñ u2) / (ì u / L)
=ñuL/ì
=uL/í
where
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ñ = density (kg/m3)
u = velocity based on the actual cross section area of the duct or pipe (m/s)
ì = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)
L = characteristic length (m)
í = ì / ñ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
The estimated value of the Reynolds Number for the laminar flow is Re < 2300. The
flow is deemed transient - when it is 2300 < Re < 4000. The flow become turbulent if
Re is > 4000
We have stated at the beginning of this section that the law of Darcy is applicable only
for saturated medium. We have learned that the pressure gradient in an important
parameter in the above equation. For estimation of hydraulic gradient, pressure
component in a submerged stratum is derived by:
H=Hp+ Hh
where Hp is the pressure head because of submergence. It has a value of 0 at the
surface of water table, and it increases with the depth.
Hg is the gravitational head which is a vertical position of point above the reference
point
It must be borne in mind that in practice laminar flow exists only for viscous fluids like
crude oil, fuel oil, and oils. The application of Darcy law is therefore valid for small pipes
or grain diameter with a very small velocity for one-dimension flow. It must also be kept
in mind that these flows are regulated by the viscosity, even though the velocity is regulated
by kinematic viscosity (viscosity/density). The applicability of the Darcy’s law to estimate
Q in an aquifer, therefore, loses relevance in a flow that has exceptionally large velocity.

12.9.2 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity (K) of any system describes its efficiency to transmit water
through the pore spaces of a formation when it is subjected to a hydraulic gradient. In
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a simple language, it is the ability with which the pores of a saturated media permit Hydrogeology
water movement. It is a ratio of velocity to the hydraulic gradient within a porous
medium. If you examine the formulation of Darcy, you can infer that hydraulic
conductivity (K) is a proportionality constant that defines a liner relation between J
(water flow magnitude) and slope of the line or hydraulic gradient. If the density and
viscosity is a constant, we can derive following equation:
K=J/i
where

where Q is water flow, and A is the area of cross-section

i= hydraulic gradient within an area.
We may derive hydraulic potential by the following relation:

Where net change in water potential between point a and b (See Fig. 12.5). I is
the distance between the point a-b (or L in Fig. 12.5)
K for our purpose may be expressed on a volume basis and it has units of m/s

Fig. 12.6: Schematic depiction of estimation of hydraulic conductivities in aquifers.

It may be borne in the mind that flux represents the quantity of water moving though a
porous saturated medium and it shall be proportionate to the hydraulic gradient. What
is the significance of such observation?
Let us examine two aquifers with different lithology. One aquifer has sandy material
while other has clayey material. It is presumed that the hydraulic gradient is same for
both the aquifers. However, the water yield is more in the sandy media than in the clay
media because of hydraulic conductivity because of higher discharge (Q) in the sandy
medium.
From this example, you must have understood that the hydraulic conductivity is
proportionality constant between flux and hydraulic gradient in a unidirectional flow
(Fig. 12.6). K determines the ability of soil to transmit water under a given hydraulic 281
Hydrology gradient. In hydrology, K for different media such as sand, silt, and clay has been
estimated.
We may conclude it that hydraulic conductivity is a useful tool to estimate flux of water
from an aquifer.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 word
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
10. What are the limitations of Darcy’s law?
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12.10 GROUNDWATER TRACERS

We have learned that ground water moves horizontally and vertically. It is very important
for the hydrologist to estimate dispersion, direction, and rate of ground water flow.
The ground water tracers are employed to understand and test the movement of water
within or inter-aquifer. It is expected that a tracer shall be readily available, be capable
of determining quantitatively the movement of water, safe, and shall not react with the
natural water. Some studies also must determine the age of water to recognize the
source and water dynamics in a basin.
In the modern era, several industrial dyes are available that are used as ground water
tracers. Sodium fluorescein is one such dye is in use for quite some time. The
improvement in the measurement of isotopes has increased use of natural isotopes as
groundwater tracers. CO60, Rb86, H3, C14 isotopes are used to determine age and
migration of groundwater in the crust. The study of isotopic concentration is used as a
fingerprint of specific water, and it provides source and migration pathways of a water
body. Such studies have also been useful to determine depletion rate of groundwater
in an aquifer. The age of water can also be determined by this tool.
Application of isotopic tools is a branch and it needs a special knowledge of advance
chemistry. For further details on the use of isotopic tracers, students are advised to
refer to a textbook of isotope chemistry. It is also advised that students shall familiarise
themselves with dedicated instruments such as mass ratio spectrometers that are used
to measure isotopic variations.

12.11 LET US SUM UP

The occurrence of ground water in the crust is controlled by several factors such as
porosity, permeability, fracture, the location of the porous formation, and thickness of
the formation.
The older Archean formations (mostly in the peninsular India) rocks are crystalline and
these are impervious. However, physical, and chemical weathering has developed a
secondary permeability in these rocks.
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The water-bearing capacity of the rocks depends upon their porosity and permeability. Hydrogeology
In the consolidated impervious rocks, the secondary structures enhance their water-
bearing capacity. The water-bearing capacity of cemented sedimentary rocks also
reduces.
Most of the formations of India have poor water-bearing capacity. Vindhyan and
Tertiary rocks have better water bearing capacity than the Cuddapah and Archaeans.
The water-bearing capacity of tertiary rocks is good. The recent sediments have
exceptionally good water-bearing capacity.
From the low of Darcy, one can estimate the hydraulic head in an aquifer. However,
such studies are valid only for laminar flow. Sandy aquifer has a higher hydraulic
conductivity than the clayey aquifer.
Ground water tracers are used to estimate magnitude and path of water movement in
crust.
Terminal Questions:
1. What is the geological control on water in the crust?
2. What is the role of porosity on ground water yield?
3. Which formation of India has the best water-bearing capacity?
4. What are the rock Archaean rocks? What is their water-bearing capacity?
5. What are limitations of Darcy’s law?
6. What is hydraulic conductivity?

12.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
M. Grant Gross. 1972. Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs.
William A. Anikouchine and Richard W. Sternberg: The World Ocean, an introduction
to oceanography. McGraw-Hill, New York 1974
Joseph Weisberg and Howard Parish: Introductory Oceanography. McGraw-Hill,
New York 1974
Keith Stowe: Ocean Science. John Wiley and Sons, New York 2nd Edition 1979
J. Michael McCormick and John V. Thiruvatakal: Elements of Oceanography. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia 2nd Edition 1981
John A. Black: Oceans and Coasts, an introduction to oceanography. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, Dubuque 1986
Paul R. Pinet: Oceanography, an introduction to the planet Oceanus. West Publishing
Company St. Paul 1992
Alison B. Duxbury and Alyn C. Duxbury: Fundamentals of Oceanography. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, Dubuque 1993
283
Hydrology Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 4th Edition
1993
M. Grant Gross: Oceanography, a view of the earth. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs
6th Edition 1993
Tom Garrison: Oceanography, an Invitation to Marine Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont California 1993
Harold V. Thurman: Introductory Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 7th edition
1994
David A. Ross: Introduction to Oceanography. Harper Collins New York 1995
Matthias Tomczak and Gunther Krause: Do Marine Scientists have a Scientific View
of the Earth? Oceanography 8, 11-16 (1995).
Harold V. Thurman: Essentials of Oceanography. Macmillan, New York 5th Edition
1996
Douglas A. Segar: Introduction to Ocean Sciences. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont
1998

12.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Stratigraphy determines the litho units of a formation. These are vital for identification
of water bearing formation depending on the prevailing depositional environment
in a stratigraphic era. For example, if we know that the formation is Gondwana,
one may expect lignite bearing rocks that have high porosity and permeability.
2. Igneous Archean formations (without fractures) are expected to have poor water-
bearing properties.
3. The tectonic setting of a region determines the occurrence of folds, faults, and
fractures in the formations. These structures determine its water-bearing capacity.
4. Fracture zone enhances ground water storage and its yield. Many fracture springs
are found in the fracture zone.
6. RECENT
5. Because the magmatogenic processes contribute deep water into the surface in a
tectonically active zone. The magmatogenic waters are hot.
7. In Gujarat, the alluvial sediments have an exorbitant amount of clays. Clays have
extremely high permeability but bad water yield.
8. The porosity of clays and claystone is extremely high (42 and 43 respectively).
9. These have very poor water permeability, and hence they have a poor yield.
10. It is applicable only for laminar flow.
Answers to terminal questions
1. Geological control comprehends the role of geological parameters on water-bearing
properties of the rocks.
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2. Porosity is the amount of pore space in a rock. Though it plays a vital role in the Hydrogeology
water bearing capacity, the permeability is more relevant for water yield of an
aquifer.
3. Recent alluvial formations have the highest water bearing capacity.
4. Granitic rocks are most abundant in Archean formations. They have poor water-
bearing capacity.
5. It is applicable only in laminar flow with a small velocity of water discharge. A flow
that has Reynolds number > 2300 is not covered under this law.
5. Hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer is its efficiency to transmit water through the
pore spaces of a formation.

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