UNIT-II: NATURAL RESOURCES

CO 2: Understand the need for Conservation of Scarce Natural Resource (K2)

Contents: Natural Resources: Introduction, Classification. Water Resources; Availability, sources and Quality
Aspects, Water Borne and Water Induced Diseases, Fluoride and Arsenic Problems in Drinking Water. Mineral
Resources; Material Cycles; Carbon, Nitrogen and Sulfur cycles. Energy Resources; Conventional and Non-
Conventional Sources of Energy. Forest Resources; Availability, Depletion of Forests, Environment impact of
forest depletion on society.

Natural Resources
Nature provides life support materials or resources for plant, animal, and human sustenance on Earth. These
are referred to as Natural Resources. Water, air, soil, forests, minerals, crops, etc. are the typical examples of
natural resources.
Natural resources are classified into following types:

Classification Basis Type of Resource Examples

Biotic Resources Forests, animals, fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
Origin
Abiotic Resources Minerals (gold, silver, copper), water, air, soil

Solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, biomass,

Renewable Resources geothermal energy, tidal energy, freshwater, forests,
wildlife
Renewability
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), minerals (gold,
Non-renewable Resources
silver, copper, iron), nuclear fuels (uranium, thorium)

Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal

Availability Perpetual Resources
energy

Non-perpetual Resources Freshwater, forests, fish stocks, soil fertility

Major natural resources

(i) Water Resources (ii) Mineral resources (iii) Energy resources (iv) Forest resources

Threats Responsible for the Destruction of Natural Resources

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 1. Population growth has increased human demand for food, water, and land putting pressure on natural
resources.
2. Overuse and mismanagement of land leads to soil erosion and loss of fertility.
3. Poor agricultural practices have degraded soil and water resources.
4. Pollution has damaged all natural resources.
Availability of water
Water covers approximately 97% of the earth's surface but we have a very limited supply of usable water. The
water is available to us in the following forms:
1. Saltwater (mainly in oceans)- 97.50% (Not directly usable for most human needs without
desalination.
2. Freshwater- 2.50% (used for domestic, agriculture, and industrial use). It is available in three forms:
-Glaciers and Ice Caps (Freshwater locked in glaciers and ice caps) - 1.74% of total water and 68.7% of
freshwater.
- Groundwater (water stored underground) -0.66% of total water and 30.1% of freshwater.
- Surface Water (easily accessible freshwater)- 0.03% of total water and 1.2% of freshwater.
• Lakes- 0.007% of total water and 20.9% of surface water.
• Rivers are flowing bodies of freshwater- 0.0001% of total water and 0.49% of surface water.
• Swamps and Marshes or wetland areas- 0.0008% of total water and 2.6% of surface water.
• Soil Moisture, frozen ground (permafrost), and within biological organisms - Less than 0.01%
Hydrological Cycle
Solar energy drives the water cycle by evaporating water from various water resources on earth’s surface. Water
is returned back to earth as rain or snow, passes through living organisms, and eventually returns to the oceans
to maintain a balanced hydrological cycle.
Evaporation and Transpiration Loss-~70% of annual rainfall
Stream Flow~30% of annual rainfall
Human Water Consumption from Stream Flow -~26% of stream flow (8% for irrigation, 2% for domestic
use, 4% for industries, and 12% for electrical utilities).

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 Fig. Hydrological cycle
Global water crisis and importance of Water conservation
Water is a vital and finite natural resource essential for life, health, and the environment. According to the
United Nations, by 2025, half of the world’s population could face water scarcity resulting in global water
crisis. We must conserve water because of the following reasons:
1. Limited Availability with uneven distribution: About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by water out of
which only 2.5% is freshwater. A major portion is in glaciers and ice caps, leaving less than 1% of the total
water accessible for human use. Further, freshwater resources are unevenly distributed across the planet. Some
regions have abundant water supplies, while others face severe water scarcity, making conservation critical in
water-stressed areas.
2. Increasing Demand: The global population continues to increase, leading to higher demand for freshwater
for domestic, agriculture, and industrial use. It causes additional pressure on available water resources.
3. Climate Change: Climate change causing altering rainfall patterns, melting of glaciers and rise in sea level
leads to more frequent and severe droughts in some areas and flooding in others. These changes disrupt the
regular water supply and availability.
4. Water Pollution: Pollution from domestic, agricultural, and industrial activities has contaminated rivers,
lakes, and groundwater, reducing the quality and availability of freshwater for use.
5. Cost Savings: Conserving water reduces the need for expensive infrastructure projects, such as dams,
reservoirs, and water treatment techniques, saving money.
Over exploitation of Water Resources
• Groundwater depletion: The over pumping of groundwater has resulted in depletion of griundwater.
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 • Lowering of the Water Table. Excessive pumping can lower the groundwater table, and cause wells
to no longer be able to reach groundwater.
• Increased Costs. As the water table lowers, the water must be pumped farther to reach the surface,
using more energy. In extreme cases, using such a well can be cost prohibitive.
• Reduced Surface Water Supplies. Groundwater and surface water are connected. When groundwater
is overused, the lakes, streams, and rivers connected to groundwater can also have their supply
diminished.
• Land Subsidence. Land subsidence occurs when there is a loss of support below ground. This is most
often caused by human activities, mainly from the overuse of groundwater, when the soil collapses,
compacts, and drops.
• Water Quality Concerns. Excessive pumping in coastal areas can cause saltwater to move inland and
upward, resulting in saltwater contamination of the water supply.
Sustainable use of water resources
The management and utilization of water in a way that meets current needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. This involves following ways that will help in conservation of Water:

1. Water Recycling and Reuse: Treat and reuse wastewater for non-potable applications including
irrigation and industrial activities.
2. Water-Efficient Appliances: Using low-flow fixtures, faucets, and toilets to save water in homes and
businesses.
3. Leak Detection and Repair: Detect and repair leaks in water distribution systems.
4. Rainwater harvesting: Collection and storage of rainwater from rooftops and surfaces for use in
irrigation, flushing toilets, and other non-potable applications.
5. Desalination: Conversion of seawater into fresh water using technologies such as reverse osmosis.
6. Watershed management: Protecting and restoring natural watershed areas to improve water quality
and availability through erosion control and the preservation of natural water filtering processes.
7. Drip irrigation: Delivering water directly to plant roots using dripline through pipes, decreasing
evaporation and runoff when compared to standard irrigation methods.
8. Drought-Resistant Crops: Use genetically modified or hybrid crops that require less water.
9. Permeable Pavements: Installing permeable pavements in urban areas for recharging groundwater.
10. Watering schedule: Adjust watering schedules based on real-time weather data and soil conditions to
minimize water waste.

WATER BORNE AND WATER INDUCED DISEASES

Water Borne Diseases:
Waterborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms that are transmitted directly when contaminated
fresh water is consumed. Contaminated fresh water used in food preparation can be a source of food borne
disease due to the consumption of the same microorganisms. Protozoa, viruses, and bacteria, many of which
are intestinal parasites, can cause waterborne disease.
Table: Some water borne diseases
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 Disease Pathogen Symptoms

Cholera Vibrio cholerae (bacterium) Severe diarrhea, dehydration

Typhoid Fever Salmonella typhi (bacterium) Fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea

Shigella species (bacteria) or Diarrhea with blood and mucus,

Dysentery
Entamoeba histolytica (protozoan) abdominal pain

Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia (protozoan) Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea

Water Induced Diseases:

Water induced diseases are any illness caused by any parasites or insects that represents the vectors of different
diseases those spend a part of their life-cycle in water when water serves as habitat or breeding ground for
intermediate host.
Table: Some water induced diseases

Disease Pathogen/Vector Transmission Symptoms

Schistosoma species Contact with freshwater Itching, rash, abdominal

Schistosomiasis
(parasites) where snails live pain, fever

Drinking water
Guinea Worm Dracunculus medinensis
contaminated with water Painful ulcers, fever, rash
Disease (Medina worm)
fleas

Plasmodium species Mosquitoes breeding in Fever, chills, flu-like

Malaria
(parasites) stagnant water symptoms

High fever, severe

Mosquitoes breeding in
Dengue Fever Dengue virus headache, pain behind the
stagnant water
eyes

Mosquitoes breeding in Fever, severe joint pain,

Chikungunya Chikungunya virus
stagnant water rash

FLUORIDE PROBLEM IN DRINKING WATER

Importance of fluoride:
Fluoride helps preserve tooth enamel, therefore preventing cavities from developing. It can also strengthen the
enamel, so helping to prevent early cavities.
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Regular fluoride use—by drinking fluoridated water or by using dental products including fluoride—can
significantly lower the frequency of cavities.
Fluoride requirement:
To prevent tooth decay, drinking water must contain some fluoride. Hence, fluoride is purposefully added to
public drinking water supplies where natural fluoride levels are low. The optimal level for preventing tooth
decay is between 0.7 and 1.2 mg/L.
Fluoride pollution in water:
Fluoride may enter the public water system through natural sources as well as anthropogenic activities:
1. Industries: Waste from the chemical, phosphate, and aluminum industries as well as from other
sectors.
2. Mining Operations: Minerals and ores including fluoride can discharge fluoride into water supplies.
3. Agricultural Runoff: Fluoride-containing fertilizers and pesticides can contaminate surface and
groundwater.
4. Defluoridation Residues: Products resulting from fluoride defluoridation operations in water treatment
plants.
5. Natural Sources: Groundwater can be contaminated by high fluoride content in some geological
formations.
The presence of calcium limits the concentration of fluoride in water. Fluoride concentrations have been found
to be high in aquifers that are low in calcium but high in fluoride-containing minerals.
Fluoride pollution-related health issues:
Fluoride exposure can cause dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis.
1. Dental Fluorosis is a cosmetic disorder due to an excessive intake of fluoride, resulting in the staining
or mottling of dental enamel.
2. Skeletal Fluorosis is a condition that impacts the bones and joints, resulting in discomfort, rigidity, and
possible structural abnormalities.
Control and Prevention of Fluoride Pollution:
Defluorination of drinking water: Removal of excess fluoride from water can be done using bone charcoal.
The Nalgonda process, developed and adopted by the National Environmental Engineering Institute (NEERI),
can be used at the community and household levels. In this process, aluminum sulfate and lime are used to
convert fluoride into flocculants which can be easily removed.
ARSENIC PROBLEM IN DRINKING WATER
Sources of arsenic pollution
1. Natural sources: Arsenic is a toxic substance that is naturally present in seafoods and soil, particularly
in areas with arsenic-rich rocks or minerals. Arsenic from soil and air can dissolve in water, contaminating
groundwater and surface water.

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2. Food and drinking water: Eating food cooked with arsenic contaminated water or drinking this water is
another source.
3. Industry: Arsenic is used in the production of glass, pigments, textiles, paper, metal adhesives, wood
preservatives, and ammunition.
4. Agriculture: Arsenic-based pesticides and fertilizers, like lead arsenate and monosodium methyl
arsonate, can contaminate soil and water.
5. Tobacco smoking: When tobacco plants were sprayed with lead arsenate pesticide, the risk of enhanced
arsenic exposure was substantially higher.
Health Consequences
1. Acute consequences: Vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea are the immediate symptoms of acute
arsenic poisoning.
2. Long-term consequences: Long-term exposure to high quantities of inorganic arsenic (for example,
through drinking water and food) frequently causes pigmentation changes, skin lesions, and hard patches on
the palms and soles of the feet (hyperkeratosis).
Control and prevention
1. The most critical step in impacted populations is to prevent further arsenic exposure by providing a safe
water supply for drinking, food preparation, and crop irrigation.
2. Substitute low-arsenic, microbiologically safe sources like rainwater and treated surface water for high-
arsenic sources like groundwater.
3. Distinguish between sources of high and low arsenic by marking wells, hand-pumps etc. with red mark.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals are inorganic, crystalline solids that occur naturally and have a specific chemical composition and
physical properties. There are thousands of minerals found in various parts of the world. However, most of the
rocks we see on a daily basis are made up of a few common minerals such as quartz, feldspar, biotite, dolomite,
calcite, laterite, and more. These minerals, in turn, are made up of elements such as silicon, oxygen, iron,
magnesium, calcium, aluminium, and so on.
Use of minerals
Use of mineral resources is an integral part and one of the key premises of development worldwide. With rapid
increase in population and a more rapid increase in society’s development needs, the requirements for minerals
have grown and diversified manifold. Extraction of minerals is carried out through mining. Minerals are
extracted from beneath the surface, processed, and used for different purposes. Mineral resources, however, are
exhaustible and finite, which means excessive use may affect their availability in the future.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL AND NATURAL CYCLES
Living things in an ecosystem are constantly interacting with their non-living surroundings, which include the
earth's atmosphere, water, and soil (geo-). The elements and compounds necessary for life are continuously
cycled from the environment to living organisms and back again as part of a system known as a natural or

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biogeochemical cycle. All of Earth's life-supporting processes and regulating natural cycles are maintained by
this delicate equilibrium.
THE CARBON CYCLE

Fig. Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is a hugely important chemical cycle because it involves carbon, the fundamental element of
biological chemistry. Carbon dioxide is exchanged between the atmosphere, biosphere, and oceans to sustain
the cycle in three forms:
1. Gaseous Carbon Cycle: Carbon dioxide exchange takes place between the atmosphere and other carbon
reservoirs, including emissions from fossil fuels, deforestation, and natural processes like volcanic eruptions.
This is absorbed by plants and converted to oxygen which is inhaled by animals and human beings and carbon
dioxide is again released.
2. Sedimentary Carbon Cycle: Carbon is stored in geological formations, such as limestone and coal, and
can be released back into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions and weathering processes.
The global carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon throughout Earth's systems—across the atmosphere,
oceans, land, and geological formations. It includes the following factors:
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(i) emissions from fossil fuels
(ii) emissions from deforestation and changes in land use
(iii) emission from respiration and decomposition
(iv) conversion into sedimentary rocks
(v) uptake in the oceans
(vi) uptake by plants (photosynthesis).
The global carbon cycle plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's climate by controlling CO₂ levels.
SULPHUR CYCLE

The sulfur cycle is the process by which sulfur moves through the environment, including the air, water, soil,
and living organisms.

Fig. Sulphur cycle

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It has following steps:

1. Deposition: Sulfur enters the atmosphere as sulfur dioxide (SO₂) from natural sources like volcanic
eruptions and human activities such as burning fossil fuels.
2. Assimilation: Sulfur in the atmosphere can return to the earth as acid rain (sulfuric acid), where it is
absorbed by plants in the form of sulfate (SO₄²⁻) and used to make proteins.
3. Decompoistion: When plants and animals die, decomposers break down their remains, releasing
sulfur back into the soil as sulfate.
4. Oxidation: In oxygen-poor conditions, bacteria convert sulfate into hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), which
can form metal sulfides in the soil.
5. Reduction: In oxygen-rich environments, sulfur bacteria convert hydrogen sulfide back into sulfate,
completing the cycle.

Sulfur is a critical element for all living organisms, as it is a key component of amino acids (like cysteine and
methionine) and vitamins (like biotin and thiamine). The sulfur cycle plays a role in regulating the acidity of soils
and water bodies, which in turn affects the availability of nutrients and the health of ecosystems.

NITROGEN CYCLE
Biological processes throughout the biosphere can't function without nitrogen and its compounds. The nitrogen
cycle is maintained by a continuous exchange of nitrogen between ecosystems. Nitrogen organic compounds
include the proteins made by plant and animal metabolism.

Fig. Nitrogen cycle

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The nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen moves through the atmosphere, soil, and living organisms. The
main steps are:

1. Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen gas (N₂) in the atmosphere is fixed by certain bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium in
root nodules of legumes) or by lightning. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
(NH₃) or related compounds like ammonium (NH₄⁺).
2. Nitrification: Ammonia is converted to nitrite (NO₂⁻) by nitrifying bacteria (e.g., Nitrosomonas). Nitrite
is then converted to nitrate (NO₃⁻) by other nitrifying bacteria (e.g., Nitrobacter).
3. Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrates and ammonium from the soil and use them to build proteins and
other nitrogen-containing compounds.
4. Consumption: Animals eat plants and use the nitrogen in their bodies to build proteins and other
molecules.
5. Ammonification (Decomposition): When plants and animals die or excrete waste, decomposers break
down the nitrogen compounds, releasing ammonia back into the soil.
6. Denitrification: In anaerobic conditions, denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas
(N₂), which is released into the atmosphere.

Exploitation of Mineral Resources

Exploitation of mineral refers to the use of mineral resources for economic growth. Consequences of
Exploitation of Mineral Resources are:
• Deforestation and desertification
• Extinction of species
• Rapid depletion of high-grade minerals
• Forced migration
• Wastage of upper soil layer and vegetation
• Soil erosion and oil depletion
• Greenhouse gas increase
• Environmental pollution
Conservation of minerals
Conservation of minerals can be done by the following methods:
• Reducing wastage in the mining process
• Metal recycling using scrap metals
• Use of renewable alternatives
• The sustainable and planned use of mineral resources
• Use of advanced technology to allow utilization of low-rate ores at minimum cost
• Mineral resources can also be conserved through recycling.
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• Training miners can also help in the conservation of minerals.
FOREST RESOURCES
Forests are important renewable resources. Forest varies in composition and diversity and can contribute
substantially to the economic development of any country. Plants along with trees cover large areas, produce
variety of products and provide food for living organisms, and also important to save the environment.
Uses of forests: Economical uses and ecological uses
Economical uses: Forest provides food, medicine and other products needed for tribal people and play a vital
role in the life and economy of tribes living in the forest. The main uses are:
1. Wood for fuel
2. Timber Production for construction, furniture, and infrastructure, as well as raw materials for paper
and packaging industries.
3. Non-Timber Products like resins, oils, and medicinal plants used in pharmaceuticals and traditional
medicine.
4. Attracts tourists for ecotourism activities like hiking and wildlife viewing, and offers spaces for
recreational activities.
5. Creates jobs in logging, forest management, and conservation, supporting local economies.
Ecological uses: The ecological uses of forests surpass economical uses due to their fundamental and broad
impact on the environment and overall well-being:
1. Oxygen availability: Trees release oxygen through the photosynthesis.
2. Soil Erosion Control: The roots of trees hold soil and prevent soil erosion maintaining soil fertility.
3. Biodiversity protection: Forests are a habitat and food source for a wide range of biological species,
supporting biodiversity.
4. Water Cycle Regulation: Forests regulate global water cycles by influencing rainfall and help in
maintaining groundwater levels.
5. Climate Regulation: Trees absorb carbon dioxide, reducing greenhouse gas concentrations and prevent
climate change.
6. Pollution Reduction: Trees absorb air pollutants and improve air quality.
7. Microclimate control: Trees provide shade and cooling, reducing temperature.
8. Noise control: Dense tree canopies absorb and deflect sound waves, reducing noise pollution.
Impact on Forest Resources
Over exploitation of forests: The excessive and unsustainable use of forest resources has resulted in
DEFORESTATION. Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests due to clearing or removal of forests,
either by logging, fire, or conversion to another land use like urban development or agriculture.
Causes of deforestation

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 1. Shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation: It is an agricultural practice where farmers clear a piece of
forest land, cultivate crops for a few years, and then move to a new area once the soil fertility decreases.
If this area is left for a long time, the forest recovery can be ensured with special techniques. But, without
this measure, there is permanent damage to the are.
2. Commercial logging: It is a important deforestation agent. It may not be the primary cause but
definitely it acts as secondary cause, because new logging lots permits shifting cultivation and fuel wood
gatherers access to new logged areas.
3. Need for fuel wood: Increased population has led to increasing demand for fuel wood which is also
acting as an important deforestation agent, particularly in dry forest.
4. Expansion for agribusiness: With the addition of cash crops such as oil palm, rubber, fruits and
ornamental plants, there is stress to expand the area for agribusiness products which results in
deforestation.
5. Mining: Mining and other associated activities remove vegetation along with underlying soil mantle,
which results in destruction of topography and landscape in the area. Large scale deforestation has been
reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminating mining.
6. Development projects and growing need for food: The growing demand for electricity, irrigation,
construction, mining, etc. has lead to destruction of forest. Increased population needs more food which
has compelled for increasing area under agriculture crops compelling for deforestation.
7. Raw materials for industrial use: Forest provides raw material for industry and it has exerted
tremendous pressure on forest. Increasing demand for plywood for backing has exerted pressure on
cutting of other species such as fir to be used as backing material for apple in J&K and tea in northeast
states.
Major Effects of Deforestation
Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and living beings. Major causes of
deforestation are
• Soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
• Decrease of rain fall due to affect of hydrological cycle
• Expansion of deserts
• Climate change and depletion of water table
• Loss of biodiversity, flora and fauna
• Environmental changes and disturbance in forest ecosystems
Remediation of Deforestation
1. Reforestation: Planting new trees in areas where forests have been degraded or cleared.
2. Afforestation: Establishing new forests in areas where none existed before.
3. Sustainable Forest Management: Managing forests to maintain their health and productivity while
minimizing harm to the environment.
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4. Conservation: Protecting and preserving existing forests and their biodiversity.
CASE STUDIES
Chipko Movement
The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan is a social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian
methods of satyagraha and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from being
felled. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand,with
growing awareness towards rapid deforestation. The landmark event in this struggle took place on March 26,
1974, when a group of peasant women in Reni village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India,
acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest rights that were threatened by the
contractor system of the state Forest Department. Their actions inspired hundreds of such actions at the
grassroots level throughout the region. By the 1980s the movement had spread throughout India and led to
formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far
reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work, generate motion or force, or undergo transformations. It can
take various forms such as thermal energy, electrical energy, mechanical energy, or chemical energy. An energy
resource is a natural or human-made source of energy that can be harnessed and used to produce power or heat
for various applications.
Table: Classification of energy resources

Criteria Category Definition Examples

Solar Energy, Wind

Energy sources that can be
Energy, Hydropower,
Renewable naturally replenished over a short
Biomass, Geothermal
period.
Energy
Based on Origin
Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil,
Energy sources that are finite or
Non-Renewable Natural Gas), Nuclear
take a long time to replenish.
Energy (Uranium)

Traditional energy sources that

Coal, Oil, Natural Gas,
Conventional have been widely used and
Hydropower
developed over time.
Based on
Use/Development
Emerging or alternative energy Solar Energy, Wind
Non-
sources that are less commonly Energy, Geothermal
Conventional
used or newer in development. Energy, Biofuels

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Conventional Energy Resources:
COAL
During the carboniferous period, coal was formed in hot, damp regions of the earth 255-350 million years ago.
The ancient plants along the banks of rivers and swamps were buried after death in the soil and gradually
converted into peat and coal over millions of years due to heat and pressure. India has about 5% of the world's
coal, and Indian coal has a low heat capacity. Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrauli, and Godavari valley are
major coal fields in India. Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra
are India's coal states. Anthracite coal is only found in J&K.
Advantages:
1. Coal energy is cost-friendly because it is cheaper and affordable than other fuel sources.
2. The coal is easily burned and therefore used for cooking in many rural areas.
3. The energy released by coal is high, such that old trains used steam engines.
4. It is a reliable source of energy.
Disadvantages:
1. The burning of coal produces a high amount of carbon dioxide, which leads to global warming.
2. The coal energy cannot be reused, that means it is non-renewable.
3. The extensive use of coal is causing its depletion very rapidly.
4. The mining of coal also harms the ecosystem, and workers extracting coal also faces severe occupational
hazards.
PETROLEUM
Petroleum is formed from the remains of ancient sea animals buried under sediments. Over millions of years,
heat and pressure convert these residues into kerogen, which then degrades into crude oil and natural gas. The
oil migrates through porous rock until it is caught by non-permeable strata, establishing reservoirs where iis
extracted.
Exploration of oil resources, drilling of wells, production, storage, and transportation of crude oil, refining of
crude oil, storage, and transportation of product are the basic steps in harnessing energy from petroleum. In
India, oil fields can be found in Digboi (Assam), Gujarat Plains, and Bombay High, as well as offshore areas
along the deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Mahanadi.
Advantages
1. It can be extracted easily.
2. It has high density.
3. It can be extracted at a low cost.
4. It can easily be transported.
5. It is readily available with good infrastructure for transport and use.

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6. It has broad areas for application.
7. It is a crucial element in industries.
8. It can power up almost all types of vehicles.
9. It can support constant power use.
10. It is a powerful source of energy.
Disadvantages
1. Its resources are limited.
2. It contributes to environmental pollution.
3. It produces hazardous substances.
4. It is a non-renewable form of energy.
5. Its transport can cause oil spills.
NATURAL GAS
It is primarily made up of methane (95%) with trace amounts of propane and ethane. It is a type of fossil fuel.
Natural gas deposits are commonly found alongside oil deposits because they are formed by the decomposing
remains of dead animals and plants buried beneath the earth. Natural gas is the most environmentally friendly
fossil fuel. It is easily transported via pipelines. It has a high calorific value of around 50 kJ/g and burns cleanly.
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): It is being used as an alternative to gasoline and diesel for vehicle
transportation. Delhi has completely switched to CNG, with buses and auto-rickshaws using this new fuel. The
use of compressed natural gas has significantly reduced vehicular pollution in the city.
• SNG (Synthetic Natural Gas): It is a carbon monoxide and hydrogen mixture. It serves as a bridge between a
fossil fuel and substituted natural gas. Gasification is used to convert low-grade coal into synthetic gas, which
is then catalytically converted to methane.
Advantages of Natural Gas
• Natural Gas is Environmentally Clean
• It is Economical
• It is Convenient
• Natural Gas is Safe to Use
• It is Available Abundantly
• It is More Efficient:
• Natural Gas is Easy to Deliver
Disadvantages of Natural Gas
• Limited Quantities

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• Natural Gas is Highly Combustible
• Natural Gas is a Non-Renewable Source of Energy
• Natural Gas Emits Carbon Dioxide
• Long Processing Process
• Leakage

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear energy has a high destructive power, as evidenced by nuclear weapons. Nuclear energy can also be
used to generate commercial energy. Nuclear energy can be produced through two types of reactions:
Nuclear fission: This is a nuclear change in which the nucleus of certain isotopes with large mass numbers
is split into lighter nuclei by neutron bombardment, releasing a large amount of energy through a chain
reaction
92U235 + 0n1 →36Kr92 + 56Ba141 + 3 0n1 + Energy
Nuclear chain reactions are used in nuclear reactors. To control the rate of fission, only one neutron released is
allowed to strike for the purpose of splitting another nucleus. In nuclear reactors, uranium-235 nuclei are most
commonly used.
Nuclear fusion: This process involves forcing two isotopes of a light element together at extremely high
temperatures (1 billion degrees Celsius) until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus, releasing enormous
energy in the process. The process is difficult to start, but it produces more energy than nuclear fission.
1H + 1H3 → 2He4 + 0n1 + Energy
2

At 1 billion degrees Celsius, two hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms may fuse to form the nucleus of Helium,
releasing a massive amount of energy. A nuclear fusion reaction can also occur at 100 million degrees Celsius
between one Hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) and one Hydrogen-3 (Tritium) nucleus, producing a Helium-4 nucleus,
one neutron, and a massive amount of energy.
Nuclear energy has enormous potential, but any leakage from the reactor could result in catastrophic nuclear
pollution, such as the Chernobyl nuclear disaster (1986). The disposal of nuclear waste is also a major issue.
Nuclear power in India is still in its early stages. Power plants in India are of the Pressurised Heavy Water
Reactor (PHWR) variety. Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil
Nadu), Narora (U.P.), Kakrapar (Gujarat), Kaiga (Karnataka), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), and Kudankulum
(Tamil Nadu) are the nuclear power plants.
Advantages:
• Carbon-free electricity
• Small land footprint
• High power output

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• Reliable energy source
Disadvantages:
• Uranium is technically non-renewable
• Very high upfront costs
• Nuclear waste
• Malfunctions can be catastrophic
WOOD
Wood is a significant renewable natural resource. Wood, paper, cellophane, rayon, plywood, plastic, particle
board, turpentine, methanol, and other important products are produced. The value of a tree and its services to
man and the environment should be made known to the general public.
In India, 76% of the population lives in villages, and almost all of them cook with wood. This is the primary
cause of widespread deforestation in rural areas: we lose approximately 1.3 million hectares of forest each year.
Deforestation contributes to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. As a
result, for the sake of the country's overall welfare, it is critical to reduce deforestation by implementing large-
scale afforestation resources to meet domestic fuel needs.
Advantages of Wood
• Availability.
• Low cost.
• Environmentally friendly.
• Sustainability. Wood is a sustainable source of energy because each tree that is cut down can be
replaced.
Disadvantages of Wood
• Inconvenience
• Environmental concerns
• Low benefits in terms of lowering carbon emissions. T

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES:

SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is obtained by capturing sunlight using various technologies. Solar panels (photovoltaic cells)
convert sunlight directly into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Solar thermal systems use mirrors or
lenses to concentrate sunlight, heating a fluid to produce steam that drives turbines for electricity generation.
The efficiency of light-to-electricity conversion is only 18 percent, and it is costly at current prices. Solar energy
can be utilised in two ways: (1) as solar heat and (2) as solar electricity. The former allows one to boil water or

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dehydrate food grains. As a result, numerous devices, such as solar cookers (for cooking), solar dryers (for
drying grains), solar water heaters (for heating water), and solar distillation (for purifying water), have been
developed.
Advantages:
• It is a renewable resource and will not deplete
• Solar power generation releases no by-products
• It is free of cost and can be very efficiently used for heating and lighting
• Solar power generation is quiet, absolutely clean and pollution free
Disadvantages:
• Solar power stations are very expensive to built
• Solar power does not produce energy when sun is not shining
• Night time and cloudy days limit the amount of energy produced
BIOGAS
Biogas is produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic materials, such as agricultural waste, food scraps,
or manure, by microorganisms in an oxygen-free environment. The process generates a mixture of gases,
primarily methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), which can be used for cooking, heating, and electricity
generation. The remaining material, known as digestate, can be used as a nutrient-rich fertilizer.
Advantages of Biogas
• Non-polluting: Biogas burns without smoke; hence no harmful gas such as CO 2, CO, NO2, and SO2 are
evolved.
• Reduces Landfills: The slurry produced after the production of biogas is used as manure in fields. The
method of disposal is safe and efficient and hence no space is wasted in the form of landfills.
• Cheaper technology: Biogas plants require very little installation cost and become self-sufficient in a
span of 3-4 months.
• Generates employment: Work opportunity for thousands of people is created, especially in rural areas.
• Renewable source of energy: It is considered as a renewable source of energy because the production is
dependent on the generation of waste which is an endless process.
Disadvantages of Biogas
• Not efficient enough on a large scale: Since it is difficult to enhance the efficiency of biogas, it is not
economically viable to use biogas on a large scale.
• Contains impurities: It contains many impurities that are difficult to control even after purification
rounds. Biogas when compressed, to be used as fuel, proves to be highly corrosive to the container
• Unstable and hazardous: When methane comes in contact with oxygen, it reacts violently to produce
carbon dioxide. The highly inflammable nature of methane makes it prone to explosions
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BIOFUEL
Biofuels are derived from biological materials and used as alternatives to fossil fuels. They are produced from
organic substances like plants, algae, or waste. Common types include:
• Bioethanol: Made from fermenting sugars in crops like corn or sugarcane, used as a gasoline additive.
• Biodiesel: Produced from vegetable oils or animal fats through transesterification, used in diesel
engines.
• Biogas: Generated from the anaerobic digestion of organic waste, used for heating or electricity.
Advantages
• Promotes a healthier population.
• It helps in maintaining a cleaner environment.
• There is no emission of hazardous gases, such as Carbon monoxide and sulphur oxides.
• Using biofuels rather than fossil fuels, there is the only emission of non-toxic materials, which reduces
the risk of cancer and breathing problems in human beings.
• Biofuels are friendly to the environment because they reduce the risk of global warming.
Disadvantages of Biofuel:
• It affects the food supply and crop rotation cycle.
• Cost of labour and it requires huge space for storage.
• More water consumption, especially in dry climates.
• Growing biomass for biofuel production increases the demand for agricultural land.
HYDROGEN
When hydrogen burns in air, it combines with oxygen to form water and releases 150 kilojoules of energy per
gramme. Due to its extremely high calorific value, hydrogen makes for an excellent fuel. Furthermore, it is non-
polluting and simple to produce.
• Hydrogen can be produced through thermal dissociation, photolysis, or electrolysis of water.
• Steam Methane Reforming is also used to extracting hydrogen from natural gas.
Advantages:
• It is a renewable and clean energy source
• It is non-toxic
• It is more efficient than other forms of energy
• Used for powering space ships
Disadvantages:
• Production of hydrogen is expensive
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 • Difficulty in handling, storing and transportation of hydrogen.
• Its low availability in pure form
• Requirement of energy for the production of Hydrogen
WIND ENERGY
Wind energy is harnessed by converting the kinetic energy of wind into electrical power using wind turbines.
It is an effective source of energy in areas where the velocity of wind flow is high. Wind energy harnesses the
power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. The rotation of turbine blades is converted into
electrical current by means of an electrical generator. Wind towers are built together in wind farms. They can
be also built off-shore. According to the Indian Meteorological Department, the average annual wind speed in
a number of locations in peninsular India, as well as along the coastlines of Gujarat, the Western Ghats, and
portions of central India, is 6.5 metres per second. Such speeds are available for six to seven months per year.
Advantages:
• No pollution (a clean form of energy)
• Source of power generation
• Free of cost
• It is a renewable source of energy
Disadvantages
• Wind power is intermittent. Consistent wind is needed for continuous power generation. If wind speed
decreases, the turbine lingers and less electricity is generated.
• Large wind farms can have a negative effect on the scenery.
• They sometimes create noise disturbances and cannot be used near residential areas.
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
Hydroelectric energy is generated by using the kinetic energy of flowing or falling water to produce electricity.
Water is stored in a reservoir behind a dam, creating potential energy. When water is released, it flows through
turbines, causing them to spin. The spinning turbines drive generators that convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Water can be stored in dams. Nowadays, ocean water is also used. Here it is known as tidal energy. Tidal energy
is generated by capturing the movement of ocean tides. This is done using tidal turbines, which spin with tidal
currents, or by building barrages or lagoons that use the difference in water levels to produce electricity. In
India, the most likely locations for tidal energy exploration are the Gulf of Kutch, Cambay, and Sunderbans, as
well as the vicinity of the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadeep islands. To facilitate power transmission to the
islands, the sites should be 20 to 30 kilometres from the coast.
Advantages:
• It depends on the natural water flow and is renewable.
• Compared to fossil fuels, it doesn't produce as many greenhouse gases.
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 • It is reliable and gives a steady and manageable flow of electricity, especially when big dams are used.
• In addition to making energy, it can be used for water supply, storm control, and farming.
• Hydroelectric plants last a long time and don't cost much to run after they are built.
Disadvantages:
• Dams can harm aquatic environments, the movement of fish, and wildlife in the area.
• Large lakes can flood large areas, forcing people and animals to move.
• Building dams and other structures can be very costly.
• Changes in water flow caused by droughts or changes in the seasons can have an effect on the
production of energy.
• If a dam fails or breaks, it can cause huge amounts of damage and floods.

GEOTHERMAL POWER
The earth's core is a major source of geothermal energy, which has been exploited in numerous developed
nations. Geothermal literally means “earth heat”. Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present
underneath the Earth. Hot rocks under the ground will heat the water to produce steam. When holes are drilled
in the region, the steam that shoots up is purified and is used to drive turbines, which power electric generators.
Geothermal power is well-established in several countries, particularly in regions with significant volcanic
activity or tectonic movement. Major producers include the United States, Iceland, Philippines, and New
Zealand. India has significant geothermal potential, particularly in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and parts of the northeastern region. However, the exploitation of geothermal energy is
still in its early stages.
Advantages:
• It does not produce any harmful by-products
• Geothermal plant is self– sufficient (energy wise)
• They are small and has little effect on landscape
• Cost is less
Disadvantages:
• If constructed incorrectly, it produces pollutants
• Improper drilling into the earth can release hazardous minerals and gases
• It is suitable only to particular region and cannot be harnessed everywhere
• The areas where this energy is harnessed are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Setting up of geothermal power stations requires huge installation cost

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