Calculus- Limits

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SUBSIDIARY MATHEMATICS
(MAT103)

Calculus I 1 / 67
 Outline

1 Limits
Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines
A Graphical Approach to Limits
Basic Limit Laws
Limits and Continuity
Algebraic Evaluation of Limits
Trigonometric Limits
Limits at Infinity
Intermediate Value Theorem

Calculus I 2 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Subsection 1

Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Calculus I 3 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Average Velocity
An object moving on a straight line is at position s(t) at time t;
Then in the time interval [t0 , t1 ] it has moved from position s(t0 ) to
position s(t1 ) having a displacement (or net change in position)
∆s = s(t1 ) − s(t0 );

Its average velocity in [t0 , t1 ] is given by

∆s s(t1 ) − s(t0 )
vavg [t0 , t1 ] = = .
∆t t1 − t0
Example: If an object is at position s(t) = 5t 2 miles from the origin
at time t in hours, what is vavg [1, 5]?

s(5) − s(1) 5 · 52 − 5 · 12
vavg [1, 5] = = = 30mph.
5−1 4

Calculus I 4 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Instantaneous Velocity

An object moving on a straight line is at position s(t) at time t;

To estimate the instantaneous velocity of the object at t0 , we
consider a very short time interval [t0 , t1 ] and compute vavg [t0 , t1 ];
If [t0 , t1 ] is very short, then the change in velocity might be negligible
and so a good approximation of the instantaneous velocity at t0 ;
Thus v (t0 ) |{z} ∼ ∆s
= ∆t ;
∆t small
Example: Estimate the instantaneous velocity v (1) of the object
whose position function is s(t) = 5t 2 miles from the origin at time t
in hours.
s(1.01) − s(1) 5 · (1.01)2 − 5 · 12
v (1) ∼= = = 10.05mph.
1.01 − 1 0.01

Calculus I 5 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Another Example of a Rate of Change

Suppose that the length of the side of a melting cube as function of
1
time is given by s(t) = t+2 inches at t minutes since the start of the
melting process. What is the average change in the volume of the ice
cube from t = 0 to t = 3 minutes?

The volume V (t) in cubic inches as a function of time t in minutes is

1 3
given by V (t) = s(t)3 = ( t+2 ) .
Therefore
 
∆V V (3) − V (0) ( 1 )3 − ( 12 )3
[0, 3] = = 5
∆t avg 3−0 3
1 1 8 125
− −
= 125 8 = 1000 1000 = − 3000 117 3
in /min.
3 3
Calculus I 6 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Instantaneous Rate of Change of Volume

In the previous example, to estimate the instantaneous rate of change

of the volume of the ice cube at t = 1, we may consider the average
rate of change between t = 1 minute and t = 1.01 minute:
   
∆V ∼ ∆V
|t=1 = [1, 1.01]
∆t ∆t avg

V (1.01) − V (1)
=
1.01 − 1
1 3
( 3.01 ) − ( 31 )3
=
0.01
∼
= − 0.037in3 /min.

Calculus I 7 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Slope of a Secant Line

Consider the graph of y = f (x) and two points on the graph
(x0 , f (x0 )) and (x1 , f (x1 ));

The line passing through these two points is called the secant line to
y = f (x) through x0 and x1 ;
Its slope is equal to
f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
mf [x0 , x1 ] = .
x1 − x0

Calculus I 8 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

An Example
1
Example: Find an equation for the secant line to f (x) = 1+x 2
through x0 = 1 and x1 = 2;

We have f (2) − f (1) 1

−1 3
mf [1, 2] = = 5 2 = − .
2−1 2−1 10
Therefore y − 12 = − 10
3
(x − 1) is the point-slope form of the equation
of the secant line.
Calculus I 9 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Slope of a Tangent Line

To approximate the slope mf (x0 ) of the tangent line to the graph of
y = f (x) at x0 we use a process similar to that approximating the
instantaneous rate of change by using the average rate of change for
points x0 , x1 very close to each other;

Therefore, we have
∼ f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
mf (x0 ) |{z}
= mf [x0 , x1 ] = .
x1 − x0
∆x small

Calculus I 10 / 67
 Limits Limits, Rates of Change and Tangent Lines

Approximating the Slope of a Tangent Line

Let us approximate the slope to y = x 2 at x = 1 using the process
outlined in the previous slide;

We have
f (1.01) − f (1) (1.01)2 − 12
mf (1) ∼
= mf [1, 1.01] = = = 2.01.
1.01 − 1 0.01

Calculus I 11 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Subsection 2

A Graphical Approach to Limits

Calculus I 12 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Definition of Limit

Suppose that f (x) is defined in an open interval containing a number

c, but not necessarily c itself;
The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is equal to L if f (x) has value
arbitrarily close to L when x assumes values sufficiently close (but not
equal) to c.
In this case, we write
lim f (x) = L.
x→c

An alternative terminology is that f (x) approaches or converges to

L as x approaches c.

Calculus I 13 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Two Easy Examples

Draw the graph of f (x) = 3 and find graphically the limit
limx→c f (x).
Draw the graph of g (x) = 12 x + 4 and find graphically limx→2 f (x).

We have limx→c 3 = 3 and limx→2 ( 21 x + 4) = 5.

Calculus I 14 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Two Easy Rules

Draw the graph of f (x) = k (a constant) and find graphically the

limit limx→c k.
Draw the graph of g (x) = x and find graphically limx→c x.

We have limx→c k = k and limx→c x = c.

Calculus I 15 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Two More Complicated Examples

Draw the graph of f (x) = √x−9 and find graphically the limit
x−3
limx→9 f (x).

x 2 , if x ≤ 1
Draw the graph of g (x) = and find
−x 2 + 2x + 3, if x > 1
graphically limx→1 f (x).

We have limx→c √x−9

x−3
= 6 and limx→1 g (x) does not exist since g (x)
does not approach a single number when x approaches 1.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 16 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Two Additional Examples

e x −1
Draw the graph of f (x) = x and find graphically the limit
limx→0 f (x).
Draw the graph of g (x) = sin πx and find graphically limx→0 g (x).

x
We have limx→0 e x−1 = 1 and limx→0 sin πx does not exist since the
values of g (x) = sin πx oscillate between −1 and 1 as x approaches 0.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 17 / 67

 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Definition of Side-Limits
Suppose that f (x) is defined in an open interval containing a number
c, but not necessarily c itself;
The right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches c (from the right) is
equal to L if f (x) has value arbitrarily close to L when x approaches
sufficiently close (but is not equal) to c from the right hand side.
In this case, we write lim+ f (x) = L.
x→c
The left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches c (from the left) is
equal to L if f (x) has value arbitrarily close to L when x approaches
sufficiently close (but is not equal) to c from the left hand side.
In this case, we write lim f (x) = L.
x→c −
The limits we saw before are “two sided limits”; It is the case that
lim f (x) = L if and only if lim+ f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L, i.e., a
x→c x→c x→c −
function has limit L as x approaches c if and only if the left and right
hand side limits as x approaches c exist and are equal.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 18 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Two Examples

x 2, if x ≤ 1
Draw the graph of f (x) = 2 and find
−x + 2x + 3, if x > 1
graphically limx→1− f (x) and
 limx→1+ f3(x).
−(x + 2) + 2, if x < −1
Draw the graph of g (x) = and find
−x 2 + 1, if x > −1
graphically limx→−1− g (x) and limx→−1+ g (x).

limx→1− f (x) = 1, limx→1+ f (x) = 4, so limx→1 f (x) DNE, and

limx→−1− g (x) = 1, limx→−1+ g (x) = 0, so limx→−1 g (x) DNE.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 19 / 67
 Limits A Graphical Approach to Limits

Examples of Limits Involving Infinity

1
Draw the graph of f (x) = x−2 and find graphically limx→2− f (x) and
limx→2+ f (x).
Draw the graph of g (x) = ln x and find graphically limx→0+ g (x) and
limx→+∞ g (x).

limx→2− f (x) = − ∞, limx→2+ f (x) = + ∞, and

limx→0+ g (x) = − ∞, limx→+∞ g (x) = + ∞.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 20 / 67
 Limits Basic Limit Laws

Subsection 3

Basic Limit Laws

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 21 / 67

 Limits Basic Limit Laws

Theorem (Basic Limit Laws)

Suppose that lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist. Then
x→c x→c
Sum Law: lim (f (x) + g (x)) = lim f (x) + lim g (x);
x→c x→c x→c
Constant Factor Law: lim kf (x) = k lim f (x);
x→c x→c
Product Law: lim f (x)g (x) = ( lim f (x))( lim g (x));
x→c x→c x→c
limf (x)
Quotient Law: If lim g (x) 6= 0, then lim gf (x)
(x) =
x→c
;
x→c x→c limg (x)
x→c

Power and Root Law: For p, q integers, with q 6= 0,

lim [f (x)]p/q = ( lim f (x))p/q , under the assumption that
x→c x→c
p
lim f (x) ≥ 0 if q is even and lim f (x) 6= 0 if q < 0.
x→c x→c
In particular, for n a positive integer,
lim [f (x)]n = ( lim f (x))n ;
x→c qx→c
p
lim n f (x) = n lim f (x);
x→c x→c

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 22 / 67

 Limits Basic Limit Laws

Examples of Calculating Limits I

Compute lim x 3 ;
x→2
We apply the power rule:

lim (x 3 ) = ( lim x)3 = 23 = 8.

x→2 x→2

Compute lim (−2x 3 + 7x − 5);

x→−1
We apply the sum rule, the constant factor and the power rules:

lim (−2x 3 + 7x − 5) = lim (−2x 3 ) + lim (7x) − lim 5

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= − 2 lim (x 3 ) + 7 lim x − lim 5
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= − 2 · (−1)3 + 7(−1) − 5
= − 10.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 23 / 67

 Limits Basic Limit Laws

Examples of Calculating Limits II

Compute lim x+30
2x 4
;
x→2
We apply the quotient rule:

x + 30 lim (x + 30) 2 + 30
x→2
lim = = = 1.
x→2 2x 4 lim (2x 4 ) 2 · 24
x→2

Compute lim (x −1/4 (x + 5)1/3 );

x→3
We apply the product and the power rules:
√
lim (x −1/4 (x + 5)1/3 ) = ( lim x −1/4 )( lim 3 x + 5)
x→3 x→3 x→3
q
= (( lim x)−1/4 ( 3 lim x + 5)
x→3√ x→3
= 3−1/4 3 8
2
= √4 .
3

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 24 / 67

 Limits Basic Limit Laws

Treacherous Applications of the Laws

We must take the hypotheses of the Basic Limit Laws into account
when applying the rules;
For instance, if f (x) = x and g (x) = x −1 , then

lim f (x)g (x) = lim xx −1 = lim 1 = 1,

x→0 x→0 x→0

but, if we tried to apply the product rule, we would be stuck:

lim f (x)g (x) = ( lim x)( lim x −1 ),

x→0 x→0 x→0

The last limit on the right does not exist since lim+ x −1 = +∞ and
x→0
lim x −1 = −∞.
x→0−

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 25 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Subsection 4

Limits and Continuity

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 26 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Continuity at a Point

A function f (x) defined on an open interval containing x = c is

continuous at x = c if

lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

If either the limit does not exist, or exists but is not equal to f (c),
then f has a discontinuity or is discontinuous at x = c.
Not that the limit above exists if and only if lim f (x) = lim f (x);
x→c − x→c +
Therefore, the condition for continuity is equivalent to

lim f (x) = f (c) = lim+ f (x).

x→c − x→c

Example: Let f (x) = k a constant. Recall that limx→c k = k. Also

f (c) = k. Therefore, f (x) = k is continuous at all x = c.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 27 / 67
 Limits Limits and Continuity

Some Additional Examples

Consider f (x) = x n , where n is a natural number. Then
limx→c x n = (limx→c x)n = c n . Also f (c) = c n . Therefore, f (x) = x n
is continuous at all x = c.
Consider f (x) = x 5 + 7x − 12. Applying some of the Limit Laws, we
get
limx→c (x 5 + 7x − 12) = (limx→c x)5 + 7(limx→c x) − limx→c 12
= c 5 + 7c − 12
= f (c).
Therefore f (x) is continuous at x = c.
2 +5
Consider also f (x) = xx+3 . Applying some of the Limit Laws, we get
x 2 +5 limx→2 (x 2 +5) (limx→2 x)2 +limx→2 5
limx→2 x+3 = limx→2 (x+3) = limx→2 x+limx→2 3
22 +5
= 2+3 = f (2).

Thus f (x) is continuous at x = 2.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 28 / 67
 Limits Limits and Continuity

Types of Discontinuities

Recall f (x) is continuous at x = c if

lim f (x) = f (c) = lim+ f (x).

x→c − x→c

If lim f (x) exists but is not equal to f (c), then f (x) has a removable
x→c
discontinuity at x = c;
If lim f (x) 6= lim f (x) (in this case, of course, lim f (x) does not
x→c − x→c + x→c
exist), then f has a jump discontinuity at x = c;
If either lim f (x) or lim+ f (x) is infinite, then f has an infinite
x→c − x→c
discontinuity at x = c.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 29 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Removable Discontinuity

Consider the piece-wise defined function

 x+1
 e , if x < −1
f (x) = 2, if x = −1

−x 2 + 2, if x > −1

We have limx→−1− f (x) = 1 and limx→−1+ f (x) = 1, whence

limx→−1 f (x) = 1. But f (−1) = 2. So limx→−1 f (x) exists, but it
does not equal f (−1). This shows that f (x) has a removable
discontinuity at x = −1.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 30 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Jump Discontinuity

Consider the piece-wise defined function


x + 1, if x < 1
f (x) = 2
−x + 2x, if x ≥ 1

We have limx→1− f (x) = 2 and limx→1+ f (x) = 1, whence

limx→−1 f (x) = DNE. So the side limits of f (x) as x approaches 1
exist, but they are not equal. This shows that f (x) has a jump
discontinuity at x = 1.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 31 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Infinite Discontinuity

Consider the piece-wise defined function

 1
x 2 −2x+2
, if x < 1
f (x) = 1
x−1 , if x > 1

We have limx→1− f (x) = 1 and limx→1+ f (x) = + ∞, Thus, at least

one of the side limits as x approaches 1 is ±∞. This shows that f (x)
has an infinite discontinuity at x = 1.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 32 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

One-Sided Continuity
A function f (x) is called
left-continuous at x = c if lim f (x) = f (c);
x→c −
right-continuous at x = c if lim+ f (x) = f (c);
x→c
Example: Consider the function

−x 2 − 2x, if x < 0
f (x) = 1
x+1 , if x ≥ 0

We have limx→0− f (x) = 0 and limx→0+ f (x) = 1. Moreover,

f (0) = 1. Therefore f (x) is right-continuous at x = 0, but not left
continuous at x = 0.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 33 / 67
 Limits Limits and Continuity

One More Example

Consider the piece-wise defined function

 sin x
 x , if x < 0
f (x) = 1, if x = 0

ln x, if x > 0

We have limx→0− f (x) = 1 and limx→0+ f (x) = − ∞, Moreover,

f (0) = 1. Therefore, f (x) is left-continuous at x = 0, but not
right-continuous at x = 0.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 34 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Basic Continuity Laws

Theorem (Basic Laws of Continuity)

If f (x) and g (x) are continuous at x = c, then the following functions are
also continuous at x = c:
(i) f (x) ± g (x) (iii) f (x)g (x)
f (x)
(ii) kf (x) (iv) g (x) , if g (c) 6= 0.

For instance, knowing that f (x) = x and g (x) = k are continuous

functions at all real numbers, the previous rules allow us to conclude
that
any polynomial function P(x) is continuous at all real numbers;
P(x)
any rational function Q(x) is continuous at all values in its domain.
Example: f (x) = 3x 4 − 2x 3 + 8x is continuous at all real numbers.
g (x) = xx+3
2 −1 is continuous at all numbers x 6= ±1.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 35 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Continuity of Roots, Trig, Exp and Log Functions

Theorem (Continuity of Various Functions)

√
f (x) = n x is continuous on its domain;
f (x) = sin x and g (x) = cos x are continuous at all real numbers;
f (x) = b x is continuous at all real numbers (0 < b 6= 1);
f (x) = logb x is continuous at all x > 0 (0 < b 6= 1);

Based on this theorem and the theorem on quotients, we may

sin x
conclude, for example, that tan x = is continuous at all points
cos
π
x
in its domain, i.e., at all x 6= (2k + 1) 2 , k ∈ Z.
1
We can also conclude that csc x = is continuous at all points in
sin x
its domain, i.e., at all x 6= kπ, k ∈ Z.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 36 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Continuity of Inverse Functions

Theorem (Continuity of Inverse Functions)
If f (x) is continuous on an interval I with range R, then if f −1 (x) exists,
then f −1 (x) is continuous with domain R.

For instance f (x) = sin x is continuous on [− π2 , π2 ] with range [−1, 1]

and has an inverse; So, f −1 (x) = sin−1 x is continuous on [−1, 1].
Similarly g (x) = tan x is continuous on (− π2 , π2 ) with range R and
has an inverse; Therefore g −1 (x) = tan−1 x is continuous on R.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 37 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Continuity of Composite Functions

Theorem (Continuity of Composite Functions)
If g (x) is continuous at the point x = c and f (x) is continuous at the
point x = g (c), then the function F (x) = f (g (x)) is continuous at x = c.
For instance, the function g (x) = x 2 + 9 is continuous at all real
numbers, since it is a polynomial function; Moreover, the function
√
f (x) = 3 x is continuous at all real numbers√ as a root function;
Therefore, the function F (x) = f (g (x)) = 3 x 2 + 9 is also a
continuous function, as the composite of two continuous functions.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 38 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Substitution Method: Using Continuity to Evaluate Limits

Recall that f (x) is continuous at x = c if

lim f (x) = f (c).

x→c

Suppose that you know that f (x) is continuous at x = c and want to

compute limx→c f (x).
Then, because of the definition of continuity, to find limx→c f (x), you
may compute, instead, f (c).
This is called the substitution property (or method) for evaluating
limits of continuous functions.

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 39 / 67

 Limits Limits and Continuity

Examples of Using the Substitution Method

Example: Let us evaluate the limit limx→ π3 sin x.

Since f (x) is continuous (by the basic theorem on trig functions) at
all x ∈ R, we may use the substitution property:
√
π 3
limπ sin x = sin = .
x→ 3 3 2

3 x
Example: Let us evaluate the limit limx→−1 √x+5 .
Since f (x) is continuous (as a ratio of an exponential over a root
function, both of which are continuous in their domain), we may use
the substitution property:

3x 3−1 1
lim √ =√ = .
x→−1 x +5 −1 + 5 6

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 40 / 67

 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

Subsection 5

Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

Calculus I 41 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

Indeterminate Forms

The following are Indeterminate Forms:

0
0
x 2 − 4x + 3
Example: lim
x→3 x 2 + x − 12
∞
∞
tan x
Example: limπ
x→ 2 sec x
∞·0
1
Example: lim ( · (x − 2)2 )
x→2 2x − 4
∞−∞
1 2
Example: lim ( − 2 )
x→1 x −1 x −1

Calculus I 42 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

0
The Indeterminate Form : Factor and Cancel
0
To lift the indeterminacy, we transform algebraically, cancel and,
finally, use the substitution property;
x 2 − 4x + 3
Example: Compute lim 2 ;
x→3 x + x − 12
We have
x 2 − 4x + 3 (x − 1)(x − 3)
lim = lim
x→3 x 2 + x − 12 x→3 (x + 4)(x − 3)
x −1
= lim
x→3 x + 4
3−1
=
3+4
2
= .
7

Calculus I 43 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

0
The Indeterminate Form : Another Example
0

To lift the indeterminacy, we transform algebraically, cancel and,

finally, use the substitution property;
x −7
Example: Compute lim 2 ;
x→7 x − 49
We have
x −7 x −7
lim 2 = lim
x→7 x − 49 x→7 (x + 7)(x − 7)
1
= lim
x→7 x + 7
1
=
7+7
1
= .
14

Calculus I 44 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

∞
The Indeterminate Form
∞

To lift the indeterminacy, we transform algebraically, cancel and,

finally, use the substitution property;
tan x
Example: Compute limπ ;
x→ 2 sec x
We have
sin x
tan x
limπ = limπ cos1 x
x→ 2 sec x x→ 2
cos x
= lim sin x
x→ π2

= sin π2
= 1.

Calculus I 45 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

0
The Indeterminate Form : Multiply by Conjugate
0
To lift the indeterminacy, we transform algebraically, cancel and,
finally, use the substitution property;
√
x −2
Example: Compute lim ;
x→4 x − 4
We have
√ √ √
x −2 ( x − 2)( x + 2)
lim = lim √
x→4 x − 4 x→4 (x − 4)( x + 2)
x −4
= lim √
x→4 (x − 4)( x + 2)
1
= lim √
x→4 x + 2
1 1
= √ = .
4+2 4

Calculus I 46 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

0
The Indeterminate Form : Multiply by Conjugate
0

To lift the indeterminacy, we transform algebraically, cancel and,

finally, use the substitution property;
x −7
Example: Compute lim √ ;
x→7 x + 9 − 4

√
x −7 (x − 7)( x + 9 + 4)
lim √ = lim √ √
x→7 x + 9 − 4 x→7 ( x + 9 − 4)( x + 9 + 4)
√
(x − 7)( x + 9 + 4)
= lim
x→7 x +√9 − 16
(x − 7)( x + 9 + 4) √
= lim = lim ( x + 9 + 4)
x→7
√ x −7 x→7
= 7 + 9 + 4 = 8.

Calculus I 47 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞

To lift the indeterminacy, we transform algebraically, cancel and,

finally, use the substitution property;
1 4
Example: Compute lim ( − 2 );
x→2 x − 2 x −4

1 4 x +2 4
lim ( − ) = lim ( − )
x→2 x − 2 x2 − 4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) (x − 2)(x + 2)
x +2−4
= lim
x→2 (x + 2)(x − 2)
x −2
= lim
x→2 (x + 2)(x − 2)
1 1 1
= lim = = .
x→2 x + 2 2+2 4

Calculus I 48 / 67
 Limits Algebraic Evaluation of Limits

Forms c0 , with c 6= 0 are Infinite but not Indeterminate

x2 − x + 5 7
lim is of the form ;
x→2 x −2 0
These forms are not indeterminate, but rather they suggest that the
side-limits as x → 2 are infinite;
If x → 2− , then x < 2, whence
x − 2 < 0. Thus,
x2 − x + 5 7
limx→2− (= ( − )) =
x −2 0
− ∞;
If x → 2+ , then x > 2, whence
x − 2 > 0. Thus,
x2 − x + 5 7
limx→2+ (= ( + )) =
x −2 0
∞;

Calculus I 49 / 67
 Limits Trigonometric Limits

Subsection 6

Trigonometric Limits

Calculus I 50 / 67
 Limits Trigonometric Limits

The Squeeze Theorem

The Squeeze Theorem

Assume that for x 6= c in some open interval containing c,
ℓ(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ u(x) and lim ℓ(x) = lim u(x) = L.
x→c x→c
Then limx→c f (x) exists and limx→c f (x) = L.

Example: We show limx→0 (x sin x1 ) = 0.

Note that −|x| ≤ x sin x1 ≤ |x|;

Note, also that
limx→0 (−|x|) = limx→0 |x| = 0;
Therefore, by Squeeze,
limx→0 (x sin x1 ) = 0.

Calculus I 51 / 67
 Limits Trigonometric Limits

An Important Squeeze Identity

Theorem
For all θ 6= 0, with − π2 < θ < π2 , we have

sin θ
cos θ ≤ ≤ 1.
θ

Calculus I 52 / 67
 Limits Trigonometric Limits

Important Trigonometric Limits

Important Trigonometric Limits
We have
sin θ 1 − cos θ
lim = 1 and lim = 0.
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ

Note that the first limit above follows by the Squeeze Theorem using
the Squeeze Identity of the previous slide;
For the second one, we have
1−cos θ (1−cos θ)(1+cos θ)
limθ→0 θ = limθ→0 θ(1+cos θ)
1−cos2 θ
= limθ→0 θ(1+cos θ)
sin2 θ
= limθ→0 θ(1+cos θ)
= limθ→0 ( sinθ θ · 1+cos
sin θ
θ)
sin θ sin θ
= limθ→0 θ · limθ→0 1+cos θ
0
= 1 · 1+1 = 0.

Calculus I 53 / 67
 Limits Trigonometric Limits

Evaluation of Limits by a Change of Variable

Compute the limit lim sinθ4θ ;
θ→0
We have
sin 4θ
limθ→0 θ = limθ→0 4 sin
4θ
4θ

= 4 limθ→0 sin4θ4θ
x=4θ
= 4 limx→0 sinx x
= 4 · 1 = 4.
Compute the limit lim sin 7θ
sin 3θ ;
θ→0
We have

sin 7θ 7θ sin7θ7θ 7
sin 7θ
limθ→0 sin 3θ = limθ→0 3θ sin3θ3θ
= limθ→0 3
7θ
sin 3θ
3θ
sin 7θ sin x
7 limθ→0 x=7θ 7 limx→0
= 3 limθ→0
7θ
sin 3θ = x
sin y
3θ y =3θ 3 limy→0 y
71
= 31 = 37 .

Calculus I 54 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Subsection 7

Limits at Infinity

Calculus I 55 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Limits at Infinity

Limit of f (x) as x → ±∞
We write lim f (x) = L if f (x) gets closer and closer to L as x → ∞,
x→∞
i.e., as x increases without bound;
We write lim f (x) = L if f (x) gets closer and closer to L as
x→−∞
x → −∞, i.e., as x decreases without bound;
In either case, the line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of
y = f (x).

Horizontal asymptotes describe the asymptotic behavior of f (x), i.e.,

the behavior of the graph as we move way out to the left or to the
right.

Calculus I 56 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Example of Limits at Infinity

Consider the function f (x)

whose graph is given on the
right:
We have

lim f (x) = 1
x→−∞

and

lim f (x) = 2.
x→∞

Thus, both y = 1 and y = 2 are horizontal asymptotes of y = f (x).

Calculus I 57 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Powers of x

Theorem
Assume n > 0. Then we have
1
lim x n = ∞ and lim x −n = lim = 0.
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x n

For n > 0 an integer,


∞, if n is even 1
lim x n = and lim x −n = lim = 0.
x→−∞ −∞, if n is odd x→−∞ x→−∞ x n

Example: limx→∞ (3 − 4x −3 + 5x −5 ) =
limx→∞ 3 − 4 limx→∞ x −3 + 5 limx→∞ x −5 = 3 − 4 · 0 + 5 · 0 = 3.

Calculus I 58 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Example
20x 2 − 3x
Calculate lim .
x→±∞ 3x 5 − 4x 2 + 5
We follow the method of dividing numerator and denominator by the
highest power x 5 :
20x 2 −3x
2 −3x x5
limx→±∞ 3x20x
5 −4x 2 +5 = limx→±∞ 3x 5 −4x 2 +5
x5
20x 2
x5
− 3x5
= limx→±∞ 3x 5 4x 2 x 5
x5
− x5 + x5
20 3
3 − 4
= limx→±∞ x 4 x 5
3 − x3 + x5
limx→±∞ 20 x3
− limx→±∞ x34
=
limx→±∞ 3 − limx→±∞ x43 + limx→±∞ x55
0−0
= 3−0+0 = 0.

Calculus I 59 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

Theorem
If an , bm 6= 0, then it is the case that

an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a0 an
lim m m−1
= lim x n−m .
x→±∞ bm x + bm−1 x + · · · + b0 bm x→±∞
Example:
3x 4 −7x+9
limx→∞ 7x 4 −4
= 37 limx→∞ x 0 = 37 ;
3
limx→∞ 3x7x−7x+9
4 −4 = 37 limx→∞ x −1 = 37 limx→∞ x1 = 0;
8
limx→−∞ 3x7x−7x+9
3 −4 = 73 limx→−∞ x 5 = − ∞;
7
limx→−∞ 3x7x−7x+9
3 −4 = 73 limx→−∞ x 4 = ∞;

Calculus I 60 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

Two More Examples

3x 7/2 + 7x −1/2
Compute the limit lim ;
x→∞ x 2 − x 1/2
We have
3x 7/2 + 7x −1/2 (x −2 )(3x 7/2 + 7x −1/2 )
limx→∞ = limx→∞
x 2 − x 1/2 (x −2 )(x 2 − x 1/2 )
3x 3/2 + 7x −5/2
= limx→∞
1 − x −3/2
limx→∞ 3x 3/2 + limx→∞ 7x −5/2
=
limx→∞ 1 − limx→∞ x −3/2
∞
= 1 = ∞.
x2
Compute the limit lim √ ;
x→∞ x 3 + 1
We have
2 x −3/2 2 x 1/2
limx→∞ √x = limx→∞ √x = limx→∞ √
x 3 +1 x −3/2 x 3 +1 x −3 (x 3 +1)
x 1/2
= limx→∞ √1+x −3
=∞ 1 = ∞.

Calculus I 61 / 67
 Limits Limits at Infinity

One More Example

12x + 25
Calculate the limits at infinity of f (x) = √ ;
16x 2+ 100x + 500
We have 25
12x+25 12x(1+ 12x )
limx→−∞ √
16x 2 +100x+500
= limx→−∞ q
100
16x 2 (1+ 16x + 5002 )
16x
25
12x(1+ 12x )
= limx→−∞ q
−4x 1+ 16x + 5002
100
16x
25
1+ 12x
= − 3 limx→−∞ q 100 500
1+ 16x +
16x 2
= − 3;
25
12x+25 12x(1+ 12x )
limx→∞ √
16x 2 +100x+500
= limx→∞ q
500
100
16x 2 (1+ 16x +)
16x 2
25
12x(1+ 12x )
= lim x→∞ q
100
4x 1+ 16x + 5002
16x
25
1+ 12x
= 3 lim x→∞ q 100
= 3.
1+ 16x + 5002
16x

Calculus I 62 / 67
 Limits Intermediate Value Theorem

Subsection 8

Intermediate Value Theorem

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 63 / 67

 Limits Intermediate Value Theorem

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Intermediate Value Theorem
If f (x) is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and f (a) 6= f (b), then for
every value M between f (a) and f (b), there exists at least one value
c ∈ (a, b), such that f (c) = M.

Example: Show that

sin x = 18 has at least one
solution.
Consider f (x) = sin x in
the closed interval [0, π2 ].
We have
f (0) = 0 < 18 < 1 = f ( π2 ).
Thus, by the Intermediate
Value Theorem,
there exists c ∈ (0, π2 ), such that f (c) = 18 , i.e., sin c = 18 . This c is a
solution of the equation sin x = 18 ;.
Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 64 / 67
 Limits Intermediate Value Theorem

Existence of Zeros
Existence of Zeros
If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and if f (a) and f (b) are nonzero and have
opposite signs, then f (x) has a zero in (a, b).

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 65 / 67

 Limits Intermediate Value Theorem

Applying the Existence of Zeros Theorem

Show that the equation 2x + 3x = 4x has at least one zero.

Consider f (x) = 2x + 3x − 4x in the
closed interval [1, 2].
We have f (1) = 1 > 0, whereas
f (2) = − 3 < 0.
Thus, by the Existence of Zeros The-
orem, there exists c ∈ (1, 2), such
that f (c) = 0, i.e., 2c + 3c − 4c = 0.
But, then, c satisfies 2c + 3c = 4c ,
i.e., it is a zero of 2x + 3x = 4x .

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 66 / 67

 Limits Intermediate Value Theorem

The Bisection Method

Find an interval of length 14 in [1, 2] containing a root of the equation
x 7 + 3x − 10 = 0;
Consider the function f (x) = x 7 + 3x − 10 in [1, 2].
Since f (1) = − 6 < 0 and f (2) = 112 > 0, by the Existence of Zeros
Theorem, it has a root in (1, 2).

Since f (1) = − 6 < 0 and f ( 32 ) = 11.586 > 0, it has a root in the

interval (1, 32 ).

Finally, since f ( 54 ) = − 1.482 < 0 and f ( 32 ) = 11.586 > 0, the root is

in the interval ( 54 , 32 ), which has length 14 .

Department of Mathematics (UCC) Calculus I January 2025 67 / 67