Part 1

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
Particles in the atom
• a) identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of
their relative charges and relative masses
• b) deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and
electrons in electric fields
• c) describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom
• d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present
in both atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers and
charge
 Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
The nucleus of the atom

• a) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei

in terms of proton number and nucleon number
• b) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of
neutrons present
• c) recognise and use the symbolism x yA for isotopes, where x is the
nucleon number and y is the proton number
 Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
Electrons: energy levels, atomic orbitals, ionization energy, electron
affinity
• a) describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for
the principal quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals
• b) describe and sketch the shapes of s and p orbitals
• c) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton
number and charge, using the convention 1s22s22p6 , etc.
• d) (i) explain and use the term ionisation energy
(ii) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements
(iii) explain the trends in ionisation energies across a Period and down a
Group of the Periodic Table e) deduce the electronic configurations of
elements from successive
ionisation energy data
• f) interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the
position of that element within the Periodic Table
Atomic structure
Electron

Neutron
Nucleus &
Proton
The sub-atomic particles

Protons, neutrons and electrons

relative mass relative charge

proton 1 +1
neutron 1 0
electron 1/1836 -1
Behaviour in Electric and Magnetic Fields
• Protons (positively charged) and electrons
(negatively charged) are deflected by both
electric and magnetic fields, but in opposite
directions. Neutrons (uncharged) are not
deflected at all.
 Protons are deflected towards the negative
potential.
 Electrons are deflected towards the positive
potential.
• The size of the deflection depends on the
relative masses of the particles. The
lighter particles are deflected more than
the heavier ones.
Electrons are lighter than protons and
so,are deflected more than protons.
n
p
e

- +
The nucleus
• The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and
contains the protons and neutrons. Protons and
neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.
• Virtually all the mass of the atom is concentrated
in the nucleus, because the electrons weigh so
little.
 Working out the numbers of protons and
neutrons:
No of protons = ATOMIC NUMBER of the atom
• The atomic number is also given the more
descriptive name of proton number.
• No of protons + no of neutrons = MASS
NUMBER of the atom
• The mass number is also called the nucleon
number.
• This information can be given simply in the form:

• How many protons and neutrons has this atom

got?
• The atomic number counts the number of
protons (9); the mass number counts protons +
neutrons (19). If there are 9 protons, there must
be 10 neutrons for the total to add up to 19.
Isotopes

• The number of neutrons in an atom can vary within small limits. For
example, there are three kinds of carbon atom 12C, 13C and 14C.
They all have the same number of protons, but the number of
neutrons varies.

Protons neutrons mass number

carbon-12 6 6 12
carbon-13 6 7 13
carbon-14 6 8 14

• These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes. The fact that
they have varying numbers of neutrons makes no difference
whatsoever to the chemical reactions of the carbon.

• Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers. They have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
The electrons

Working out the number of electrons:

• Atoms are electrically neutral, and the
positiveness of the protons is balanced by the
negativeness of the electrons. It follows that in a
neutral atom:
• no of electrons = no of protons
• So, if an oxygen atom (atomic number = 8) has
8 protons, it must also have 8 electrons; if a
chlorine atom (atomic number = 17) has 17
protons, it must also have 17 electrons.
May/June 2005
May/June 2005
Part 2
The arrangement of the electrons

• The electrons are found at considerable

distances from the nucleus in a series of levels
called energy levels.
• Each energy level can only hold a certain
number of electrons. The first level (nearest the
nucleus) will only hold 2 electrons, the second
holds 8, and the third also seems to be full when
it has 8 electrons.
• These levels can be thought of as getting
progressively further from the nucleus. Electrons
will always go into the lowest possible energy
level (nearest the nucleus) - provided there is
space
• To work out the electronic arrangement of an
atom
• Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table
- making sure that you choose the right number
if two numbers are given. The atomic number
will always be the smaller one.
• This tells you the number of protons, and hence
the number of electrons.
• Arrange the electrons in levels, always filling up
an inner level before you go to an outer one.
• e.g. to find the electronic arrangement
in chlorine
• The Periodic Table gives you the atomic
number of 17.
• Therefore there are 17 protons and 17
electrons.
• The arrangement of the electrons will be 2,
8, 7 (i.e. 2 in the first level, 8 in the
second, and 7 in the third).
Electronic configuration of atoms
Rules:
• Each orbital can hold a maximum of two
electrons
• Electrons always go into empty orbital with
the lowest energy
• 2 electrons will go into 2 different orbitala
of the same energy, rather than into same
orbital
• Electrons have spin. An elecltron can spin
in two different directions
• The electronic arrangements of the first 20
elements
Electronic Configurations
1. Electrons are arranged around the nucleus of an
atom, in shells.
2. The shells are numbered 1,2,3, etc (starting
from the nucleus).
3. These numbers are known as principal quantum
numbers.
4. Each shell consists of a number of subshells,
labeled s,p,d or f.
5. The number of subshells in each shell equals
the shell number
 Shapes of orbitals
• Hydrogen's electron - the 1s orbital

• The 2s orbital p orbital

IONISATION ENERGY
Defining first ionisation energy
• Definition
 The first ionisation energy is the amount of energy
required to remove one electron from one mole of
gaseous atoms to produce 1 mole of gaseous ions each
with a charge of 1+.
• This is more easily seen in symbol terms.

• It is the energy needed to carry out this change per mole

of X.
• Ionisation energies normally have positive values since
energy is absorbed in removing electron.
• The state symbols - (g) - are essential. When
you are talking about ionisation energies,
everything must be present in the gas state.
• Ionisation energies are measured in kJ mol-1
(kilojoules per mole).
• The successive ionisation energies of an
element increase with the removal of each
electron because the remaining electrons are
attracted more strongly by the constant positive
charge on the nucleus.
Factors affecting ionisation energies

1. The charge on the nucleus.

• The more protons there are in the nucleus, the more positively
charged the nucleus is, and the more strongly electrons are
attracted to it.

2. The distance of the electron from the nucleus.

• Attraction falls off very rapidly with distance. An electron close to
the nucleus will be much more strongly attracted than one further
away.

3. Screening (shielding) effect of inner electrons

• The outermost electron is shielded from the attraction of the
nucleus by the repelling effect of the inner electrons. As shielding
increases, the attraction of the positive nucleus for the negative
electron decreases and less energy is required to remove an
electron and the ionisation energy decreases.
Down a group
• Ionisation energy decreases down a group due
to increasing atomic size and increasing
shielding effect.
 Down a group, the atomic radius increases due
to the increasing number of shells of electrons.

 The outer electrons are, therefore, further from

the nucleus and are better shielded by the inner
shells of electrons. They become less strongly
attracted by the positive nucleus and so, less
energy is required to remove the electron.
• Across a period
• Ionisation energy increases across a
period due to increasing nuclear charge
and decreasing atomic radius.
• The outer electrons, therefore, become
increasingly more strongly attracted by the
positive nucleus and so, more energy is
required to remove an electron.
• Why the drop between groups 2 and 3
(Be-B and Mg-Al)?
i. Be 1s22s2 1st I.E. = 900 kJ mol-1
B 1s22s22p1 1st I.E. = 799 kJ mol-1

ii. Mg 1s22s22p63s2 1st I.E. = 736 kJ mol-1

Al 1s22s22p63s23p1 1st I.E. = 577 kJ mol-1
• Why the drop between groups 15 and
16 (N-O and P-S)?
• Using ionisation energies to work out which
group an element is in
• This big jump between two successive ionisation
energies is typical of suddenly breaking in to an
inner level. You can use this to work out which
group of the Periodic Table an element is in from
its successive ionisation energies.
• Magnesium (1s22s22p63s2) is in group 2 of the
Periodic Table and has successive ionisation
energies:
Here the big jump occurs after the second ionisation energy. It
means that there are 2 electrons which are relatively easy to remove
(the 3s2 electrons), while the third one is much more difficult
(because it comes from an inner level - closer to the nucleus and
with less screening).
• Silicon (1s22s22p63s23px13py1) is in group 14 of
the Periodic Table and has successive ionisation
energies:

Here the big jump comes after the fourth electron has been removed.
The first 4 electrons are coming from the 3-level orbitals; the fifth from
the 2-level.
Another example:
• Decide which group an atom is in if it has successive
ionisation energies:

• The ionisation energies are going up one or two

thousand at a time for the first five. Then there is a huge
jump of about 15000. There are 5 relatively easy
electrons - so the element is in group 15.