IB Physics HL Topic A.

5: Relativity Notes

February 20, 2025

1. Introduction to Relativity
Overview: Relativity is a cornerstone of modern physics that redefines how we understand
motion, space, and time, particularly at speeds approaching the speed of light (c = 3.0 ×
108 m/s). This section addresses the guiding question “How does special relativity change
our understanding of motion compared to Galilean relativity?” Galilean relativity, rooted in
Newton’s laws, assumes absolute time and simple velocity addition, making it suitable for
everyday low-speed scenarios. In contrast, special relativity, introduced by Albert Einstein in
1905, revolutionizes this understanding by asserting two key postulates: the laws of physics
are the same in all inertial reference frames, and the speed of light in a vacuum is constant
for all observers, regardless of their motion or the source’s motion. These principles lead to
counterintuitive effects like time dilation, length contraction, and the relativity of simultaneity,
fundamentally altering our perception of motion from the intuitive Galilean framework to a
relativistic one that holds true at high speeds.
Context from Muon Decay Experiments: Muon decay experiments provide compelling
experimental evidence for time dilation and length contraction, key predictions of special rel-
ativity that distinguish it from Galilean relativity. Muons are unstable subatomic particles
with a short lifetime in their rest frame (e.g., 1.56 µs as in Question 8). When produced
high in Earth’s atmosphere by cosmic rays and traveling at near-light speeds (e.g., 0.866c or
0.995c), they reach the ground in greater numbers than expected under classical physics. Ac-
cording to Galilean relativity, with absolute time, most muons would decay before reaching
detectors due to their short lifetime. However, special relativity’s time dilation (∆t = γ∆t0 ,
p
where γ = 1/ 1 − v 2 /c2 ) extends their lifetime in the ground frame, and length contraction
(L = L0 /γ) shortens the atmospheric distance in their frame, allowing more to survive. This
evidence underscores how special relativity changes our motion understanding, supporting its
predictions over Galilean assumptions.

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Explanation:

• Galilean Relativity: In the Galilean framework, time is absolute across all inertial
frames (t′ = t), meaning clocks tick identically regardless of motion. Positions transform
linearly based on relative velocity (x′ = x − vt), and velocities add simply (u′ = u − v).
For instance, if a train moves at 10 m/s and a passenger walks forward at 5 m/s, a
ground observer sees 15 m/s—a straightforward addition that works for everyday speeds.
However, this leads to issues at high velocities; for light at c = 3.0 × 108 m/s from a source
moving at 0.5c, Galilean relativity predicts 1.5c (c + v), exceeding c, which contradicts
experimental observations and Maxwell’s electromagnetism predicting a constant c.

• Special Relativity: Special relativity’s first postulate, “the laws of physics are the
same in all inertial reference frames,” extends Galilean invariance to all physics, including
electromagnetism. The second postulate, “the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for
all observers,” fixes c at 3.0 × 108 m/s, regardless of frame motion. This necessitates the
Lorentz transformations (e.g., x′ = γ(x−vt), t′ = γ(t−vx/c2 )), where γ adjusts space and
time to maintain c’s constancy. Consequently, time dilates (∆t = γ∆t0 ), lengths contract
(L = L0 /γ), and simultaneity becomes relative, shifting motion from Galilean absolute
time and additive velocities to a unified space–time framework capped at c (Guiding
Question 2).

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Examples:

1. Light Speed Consistency (Question 24) Question: A rocket moving with speed v
relative to the ground emits a flash of light in the backward direction. An observer in
the rocket measures the speed of the flash of light to be c. State the speed of the flash of
light according to an observer on the ground using (a) Galilean relativity, (b) Maxwell’s
theory of electromagnetism, (c) Einstein’s theory of relativity. Answer:
(a) c - v
(b) c
(c) c

Explanation: In Galilean relativity, the ground observer subtracts the rocket’s speed v
from c, expecting c − v, which could be less than c if v is significant (e.g., 0.5c gives 0.5c).
This assumes absolute time and linear velocity addition. Maxwell’s theory of electromag-
netism predicts c regardless of the source’s motion, hinting at an invariant speed. Special
relativity confirms that the speed remains c for all inertial observers, rejecting Galilean
addition and illustrating a key shift: light speed is absolute, not frame-dependent, fun-
damentally changing motion understanding from additive to invariant (Guiding Question
2).

2. Muon Decay Evidence (Question 8) Question: A muon is an unstable particle with

a half-life of 1.56 µs as measured in the muon’s rest frame. Muons are produced in a
laboratory and are all directed at a speed 0.866c towards a muon detector. The gamma
factor (γ) for this speed is 2.00. The detector, according to observers in the laboratory,
is a distance D from the muon source. (a) According to laboratory observers number of
muons detected / number of muons produced = 1/2. Calculate D. Answer:
(a) T_1 = 2.00 * 1.56 * 10^-6 = 3.12 * 10^-6 s D = 3.12 * 10^-6 * 0.866 * 3 * 10^8 = 811 m

Explanation: In the muon’s rest frame (S’), the half-life is 1.56 µs (proper time, ∆t0 ).
In the lab frame (S), moving at 0.866c, γ = 2.00, so the dilated half-life is T1 = γ∆t0 =
2.00∗1.56∗10−6 = 3.12∗10−6 s. At 0.866c, muons travel D = v ∗T1 = 0.866∗3∗108 ∗3.12∗
10−6 = 811 m before half decay. Without relativity, with absolute time as in Galilean
relativity (t = 1.56 µs), D = 0.866 ∗ 3 ∗ 108 ∗ 1.56 ∗ 10−6 = 405 m, and far fewer muons
would reach 811 m. Special relativity’s extended lifetime changes the motion outcome,
allowing more muons to survive, unlike Galilean predictions.

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3. Similar Example: Cosmic Ray Particle Question: A cosmic ray particle with a rest
frame half-life of 2.0 µs travels at 0.95c toward Earth from 10 km altitude. Calculate
the distance traveled before half decay in the ground frame using Galilean and special
relativity. Answer:
Galilean: t = 2.0 * 10^-6 s, D = 0.95 * 3 * 10^8 * 2.0 * 10^-6 = 570 m. Special relativity: gamma = 1/sqrt(1 -
0.95^2) ~= 3.2, T = 3.2 * 2.0 * 10^-6 = 6.4 * 10^-6 s, D = 0.95 * 3 * 10^8 * 6.4 * 10^-6 = 1824 m

Explanation: Galilean relativity uses absolute time, predicting a short travel distance of
570 m, implying rapid decay over 10 km ( 17 half-lives, fraction 10−5 ). Special relativity
dilates time (T = γ∆t0 ), tripling the lifetime to 6.4 µs and distance to 1824 m ( 3.2 half-
lives, fraction 0.11), showing how relativistic motion extends reach compared to Galilean
expectations, aligning with observed muon survival rates.

Key Takeaways:

• Special relativity transforms motion understanding from Galilean absolute time and addi-
tive velocities to frame-invariant laws and constant light speed, validated by experiments
like muon decay.

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2. Reference Frames
Definition: A reference frame is defined as a coordinate system or a system of clocks and
measures providing time and position relative to an observer. In physics, it serves as the
framework for assigning spatial coordinates (x, y, z) and time (t) to events. An inertial reference
frame is one that is non-accelerating, meaning it maintains a constant velocity (including zero)
and is not subject to unbalanced forces, where Newton’s first law of motion applies.
Explanation:

• Inertial vs. Non-Inertial Frames: Inertial reference frames are essential in both
Galilean and special relativity because Newton’s laws of motion are the same in all in-
ertial reference frames without the need for fictitious forces like centrifugal force. This
consistency is known as Galilean relativity. For example, a stationary laboratory or a
spaceship moving at constant speed is an inertial frame, while an accelerating car is non-
inertial. The IB syllabus specifies that “an inertial reference frame is non-accelerating,”
highlighting its role as a stable backdrop for analyzing motion. In contrast, non-inertial
frames introduce complexities requiring additional force terms, which are beyond this
topic’s scope.

• Relativity Context: Observers in different inertial reference frames describe events

differently in terms of space and time, addressing the guiding question “How do observers
in different reference frames describe events in terms of space and time?” In Galilean
relativity, time is absolute (t′ = t), so all observers share the same time coordinate, but
positions shift based on relative velocity (x′ = x − vt). Special relativity, however, adjusts
both space and time via Lorentz transformations, reflecting its postulates that physical
laws and the speed of light are invariant across inertial frames.

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Detailed Conceptual Breakdown:

• Observer’s Perspective: Each observer uses their own inertial frame to measure events.
For instance, an observer on the ground (frame S) sees a moving train (frame S’) at speed
v, and their measurements of an event—like a muon passing—differ due to relative motion.
This difference is foundational to understanding relativity’s evolution from Galilean to
special frameworks.

• Newton’s Laws in Inertial Frames: In any inertial frame, an object at rest stays
at rest, and an object in motion continues at constant velocity unless acted upon by a
net force. This principle, “Newton’s laws of motion are the same in all inertial reference
frames,” underpins Galilean relativity and is assumed in special relativity until high speeds
necessitate adjustments. For example, a ball rolling on a train moving at constant speed
behaves the same as on the ground, but special relativity adds relativistic effects at near-
light speeds.

Examples:

1. Example 1: Forces in Different Frames (Question 1) Question: Two muons are

moving parallel to each other with the same velocity relative to the ground. In the frame
of reference in which the muons are at rest, the force between them is a repulsive electric
force. (a) In the frame of reference of the ground: (i) Explain why there is an additional
magnetic force between the muons. (ii) Explain whether the electric or the magnetic force
has the greater magnitude. Answers:
(a) (i) a moving muon creates a magnetic field at the position of the other muon
(a) (ii) the net force must be repulsive in all frames hence the electric force is greater than the magnetic
force

Explanation: In the ground’s inertial frame (S), the muons move at high speed, generat-
ing magnetic fields due to their motion, adding a magnetic force to the electric repulsion
observed in the muons’ rest frame (S’), another inertial frame. The electric force domi-
nates, ensuring the net force remains repulsive across frames, showing how observers in
different inertial frames describe forces differently due to relative motion.

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2. Example 2: Proton in a Magnetic Field (Question 6) Question: A proton is
moving in a region of magnetic field of strength B. The speed of the proton relative to
the magnetic field is v. In the reference frame in which the magnetic field is at rest, the
proton experiences an initial magnetic force evB upwards. (a) Outline why there can be
no magnetic force on the proton in the proton’s rest frame. (b) Discuss the nature of the
force in the proton’s rest frame. Answers:
(a) in the proton rest frame the speed of the proton is zero so force is zero
(b) the proton sees an electric field experiences electric force upward force

Explanation: The lab frame (S), where the magnetic field is fixed, is inertial and observes
a magnetic force due to the proton’s motion. The proton’s rest frame (S’), also inertial,
has zero velocity relative to itself, so no magnetic force exists—only an electric force
from the transformed field. This illustrates how inertial frames perceive forces differently
(Guiding Question 1).

3. Similar Example: Electron Near a Wire Question: An electron moves at 0.5c paral-
lel to a current-carrying wire in the lab frame. Define the lab frame and describe the force
observed. Answer: The lab frame is a coordinate system providing time and position
relative to a stationary observer. In this frame, the electron’s motion creates a magnetic
field, so the observer sees a magnetic force, whereas in the electron’s rest frame, it expe-
riences an electric force due to length-contracted ions in the wire. Explanation: Adapted
from Question 74, this shows the lab (S) as an inertial frame observing magnetic effects
from motion, while the electron’s inertial frame (S’) sees an electric force, reinforcing
frame-dependent event descriptions.

Key Takeaways:

• A reference frame is a coordinate system for measuring events, and inertial frames are
non-accelerating where Newton’s laws hold.

• Observers in different inertial frames describe events (e.g., forces) differently due to rela-
tive motion, a concept bridging Galilean and special relativity.

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3. Galilean Relativity
Definition: Galilean relativity states that Newton’s laws of motion are the same in all inertial
reference frames, assuming absolute time (t′ = t) and a simple transformation of position
(x′ = x − vt). It leads to the velocity addition equation u′ = u − v, where velocities combine
linearly relative to frame motion.
Explanation:

• Newton’s Laws Consistency: In Galilean relativity, inertial frames share the same
physical laws, so a ball dropped on a moving train falls straight down relative to the
train, just as on the ground. This invariance, “Newton’s laws of motion are the same in all
inertial reference frames,” is the foundation, but it assumes time is universal, unlike special
relativity’s adjustments. For example, a pendulum swings identically on a stationary
platform or a ship moving at constant speed, reflecting consistent physics across frames.

• Transformations and Velocity Addition: The position transformation x′ = x − vt

adjusts an event’s location based on frame velocity v, with time unchanged (t′ = t).
Velocity addition follows as u′ = u − v, where u is an object’s speed in one frame, and
v is the relative frame speed. This works for low speeds but fails near c, as seen in light
speed examples, prompting special relativity’s overhaul (Guiding Question 2).

Detailed Conceptual Breakdown:

• Absolute Time: All observers measure time identically, so a clock ticking on a moving
ship matches one on shore. This simplicity contrasts with special relativity’s time dilation,
where moving clocks slow relative to stationary ones.

• Linear Motion: For a car at 20 m/s on a train moving at 30 m/s, a ground observer
sees 50 m/s (u′ = u − v = 50 − 0). This additive rule breaks down at relativistic speeds,
where special relativity caps speeds at c via u′ = (u − v)/(1 − uv/c2 ).

• Limitations: Galilean relativity predicts light speeds like c + v (e.g., 1.5c if v = 0.5c),
contradicting Maxwell’s theory (c is constant) and experiments (e.g., Michelson-Morley,
Question 72). This limitation highlights why special relativity replaces it for high-speed
motion.

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Examples:

1. Light Speed in Galilean Relativity (Question 24) Question: A rocket moving with
speed v relative to the ground emits a flash of light in the backward direction. An observer
in the rocket measures the speed of the flash of light to be c. State the speed of the flash
of light according to an observer on the ground using (a) Galilean relativity. Answer:
(a) c - v

Explanation: In the rocket’s frame (S’), light moves at c backward. The ground frame
(S) moves at v relative to S’. Galilean relativity subtracts the rocket’s speed v from c,
giving c − v, assuming absolute time and linear addition. If v = 0.5c, this predicts 0.5c,
unlike special relativity’s constant c, showing Galilean’s inadequacy at high speeds.

2. Beam of Light in a Box (Question 35) Question: The diagram shows the axes for
two inertial reference frames. Frame S represents the ground and frame S’ is a box that
moves to the right relative to S with speed v. When the origins of the two frames coincide
all clocks show zero. At that instant a beam of light of speed c is emitted from the left
wall of the box towards the right wall. The box has proper length L. Consider the event
E = light arrives at the right wall of the box. Using Galilean relativity, (b) (i) Explain
why the time coordinate of E in frame S is t = L/c. (ii) Hence show that the space
coordinate of E in frame S is x = L + vL/c. Answers:
(b) (i) in frame S light travels at speed c relative to the origin distance traveled is L so time taken is L/c
(b) (ii) in frame S box moves at speed v for time L/c distance moved by right wall is vL/c so total distance
from origin is L + vL/c

Explanation: In S’ (box), light travels L at c, taking L/c. In Galilean relativity, time is

absolute (t′ = t = L/c), but S sees the box move at v for L/c, shifting the right wall by
vL/c. Thus, x = L + vL/c, showing position adjusts linearly while time remains constant,
a hallmark of Galilean transformations.

3. Similar Example: Ball on a Moving Train Question: A train moves at 20 m/s

relative to the ground (frame S). A passenger throws a ball forward at 10 m/s relative
to the train (frame S’). Calculate the ball’s speed according to a ground observer using
Galilean relativity. Answer:
u’ = u - v = 10 - (-20) = 30 m/s (v is -20 m/s as S’ moves forward relative to S)

Explanation: In S’, the ball’s speed u = 10 m/s. S moves opposite at -20 m/s relative to
S’ (train’s speed relative to ground is +20 m/s, so v = −20 m/s in u′ = u − v). Galilean
addition gives 30 m/s, illustrating simple velocity combination in inertial frames with
absolute time, effective at low speeds but not near c.

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Key Takeaways:

• Galilean relativity ensures Newton’s laws are consistent across inertial frames with abso-
lute time and linear position/velocity adjustments.

• It’s effective for low speeds but fails at high speeds where light’s behavior deviates, setting
the stage for special relativity’s corrections.

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4. Special Relativity Postulates
Definition: Special relativity is grounded in two fundamental postulates. The first postulate
states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, meaning the rules
governing physical phenomena (e.g., Newton’s laws, electromagnetism) hold identically regard-
less of constant velocity. The second postulate asserts that the speed of light in a vacuum is
the same for all observers in inertial reference frames, regardless of the motion of the source or
the observer, fixed at c = 3.0 × 108 m/s.
Explanation:

• First Postulate – Principle of Relativity: This postulate extends Galilean relativity’s

idea that Newton’s laws are consistent across inertial frames to encompass all physical
laws, including Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetism. An inertial frame, as defined
earlier, is non-accelerating, where Newton’s first law applies. For example, whether an
observer is on a stationary platform or a spaceship moving at constant speed, the outcome
of a physics experiment (e.g., measuring a pendulum’s period) remains the same. This
universality ensures no inertial frame is privileged, a cornerstone bridging classical and
relativistic physics.

• Second Postulate – Constancy of Light Speed: Unlike Galilean relativity’s addi-

tive velocity rule (u′ = u − v), which allows speeds to exceed c (e.g., light at c + v),
this postulate declares c as an invariant constant. This was revolutionary, contradict-
ing everyday intuition but aligning with Maxwell’s prediction that light’s speed depends
only on fundamental constants (ϵ0 , µ0 ), not source or observer motion. Experiments
like Michelson-Morley (Question 72) confirmed this by showing no change in light speed
with Earth’s motion, necessitating special relativity’s framework over Galilean’s (Guiding
Question 2).

• Implications: Together, these postulates reshape motion understanding. If light speed

is constant, space and time must adjust—leading to Lorentz transformations and effects
like time dilation and length contraction—unlike Galilean relativity’s absolute time. This
addresses “How do observers in different reference frames describe events in terms of space
and time?” by introducing a unified space–time where measurements vary relativistically.

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Examples:

1. Light Speed Across Frames (Question 24) Question: A rocket moving with speed
v relative to the ground emits a flash of light in the backward direction. An observer in
the rocket measures the speed of the flash of light to be c. State the speed of the flash
of light according to an observer on the ground using (c) Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Answer:
(c) c

Explanation: In the rocket’s inertial frame (S’), light moves at c. The ground frame
(S) moves at v relative to S’. The second postulate states that the speed of light in a
vacuum is the same for all observers in inertial reference frames, so the ground observer
also measures c, not c − v as in Galilean relativity. This invariance underpins special
relativity’s departure from classical motion.

2. Relativity of Forces (Question 20) Question: One of the two postulates of special
relativity states that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers in inertial
reference frames. State the other postulate of special relativity. Answer:
(a) laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames

Explanation: This question highlights the first postulate directly from the mark scheme.
In a lab frame (S), a charged particle experiences a magnetic force, but in its rest frame
(S’), it’s electric (Question 20(b)). Both frames are inertial, and the laws (e.g., force
existence) remain consistent, though their form changes due to motion, illustrating the
first postulate’s universality across inertial frames.

3. Similar Example: Light from a Moving Star Question: A star moves at 0.3c toward
Earth. It emits light at c relative to itself. What speed does an Earth observer measure
for this light according to special relativity? Answer:
The speed of light remains c for the Earth observer, as the second postulate ensures that the speed of light in
a vacuum is the same for all observers in inertial reference frames, regardless of the star’s motion

Explanation: Adapted from Question 55, this reinforces that c is invariant. In Galilean
relativity, it’d be c + 0.3c = 1.3c, but special relativity’s postulate holds it at c, requiring
space–time adjustments via Lorentz transformations.

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Key Takeaways:

• The first postulate ensures physical laws’ consistency across inertial frames, extending
Galilean relativity to all physics.

• The second postulate fixes light speed at c, driving special relativity’s space–time trans-
formations, a radical shift from Galilean motion.

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5. Lorentz Transformations
Definition: The Lorentz transformation equations describe how coordinates of an event trans-
form between two inertial reference frames moving at constant velocity v relative to each other
in special relativity. They are given by:

• x′ = γ(x − vt)

• t′ = γ t − vx


c2

where γ = √ 1
is the Lorentz factor, c is the speed of light (3.0 × 108 m/s), x and t are
1−v 2 /c2
space and time in frame S, and x′ and t′ are in frame S’. These lead to the relativistic velocity
addition equation: u′ = u−v
1−uv/c2
, where u is an object’s velocity in S, and u′ is in S’.
Explanation:

• Purpose: Unlike Galilean transformations (x′ = x − vt, t′ = t), Lorentz transformations

adjust both space and time to maintain the postulates of special relativity: laws are
the same in all inertial frames, and light speed is constant. They replace absolute time
with a relativistic space–time, addressing “How do observers in different reference frames
describe events in terms of space and time?”

• Lorentz Factor (γ): γ = 1/ 1 − v 2 /c2 scales transformations, growing large as v nears

p

c (e.g., γ = 2 at v = 0.866c). When v << c, γ ≈ 1, approximating Galilean results, but

at high speeds, it drives relativistic effects.

• Velocity Addition: The equation u′ = u−v

1−uv/c2
ensures speeds never exceed c, unlike
Galilean u′ = u − v. For example, two objects at 0.8c relative to a frame don’t yield 1.6c
but a value < c, preserving the light speed limit (Guiding Question 2).

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Examples:

1. Lorentz Transformation of an Event (Question 7) Question: The diagram shows

the axes of a coordinate system S at rest relative to the Earth. Earth is at the origin
of S. x′ and ct′ are the coordinates of a reference frame S’ in which a spacecraft is at
rest. When the origins of the two sets of axes coincide, all clocks in the frames show
zero. (b) (i) An event has coordinates x = 0 and ct = 0.60 ly in S. Show, using a Lorentz
transformation, that the time coordinate of this event in S’ is ct′ = 1.00 ly. Answer:
(b) (i) gamma = 1.67 OR 5/3 OR 1/sqrt(1 - 0.8^2) ct’ = gamma (ct - v x / c) = 5/3 * (0.60 + 0) = 1.00 ly

Explanation: S’ moves at 0.8c (from Question 7(a)). For x = 0, ct = 0.60 ly in S,

√
γ = 1/ 1 − 0.82 = 5/3. Using t′ = γ(t − vx/c2 ), t = 0.60/c, v = 0.8c, x = 0: t′ =
5/3 ∗ (0.60/c − 0) = 0.60/c ∗ 5/3, ct′ = c ∗ t′ = 0.60 ∗ 5/3 = 1.00 ly. This shows time
adjusts between frames, unlike Galilean t′ = t.

2. Relativistic Velocity Addition (Question 12) Question: A spaceship is travelling at

0.80c, away from Earth. It launches a probe away from Earth, at 0.50c relative to the
spaceship. (c) Calculate the speed of the probe in terms of c, relative to Earth. Answer:
(c) u = (0.5c + 0.8c) / (1 + (0.5c * 0.8c) / c^2) u = 0.93c

Explanation: In S (Earth), spaceship speed is v = 0.8c. In S’ (spaceship), probe speed

is u = 0.5c. Using u′ = u−v
1−uv/c2
with u = 0.5c, v = −0.8c (probe away, spaceship away):
u′ = (0.5c+0.8c)/(1+0.5∗0.8) = 1.3c/1.4 = 0.93c. Galilean addition gives 1.3c, exceeding
c, but Lorentz keeps it below c, reflecting special relativity’s cap.

3. Similar Example: Two Spacecraft Question: A spacecraft moves at 0.7c relative to

Earth. A drone moves at 0.6c relative to the spacecraft in the same direction. Calculate
the drone’s speed relative to Earth using relativistic velocity addition. Answer:
u’ = (0.6c + 0.7c) / (1 + (0.6c * 0.7c) / c^2) = 1.3c / (1 + 0.42) = 1.3c / 1.42 ~= 0.915c

Explanation: Earth frame (S) sees spacecraft at v = 0.7c, drone at u = 0.6c in S’.
Relativistic addition ensures u′ < c (0.915c), unlike Galilean 1.3c, showing how Lorentz
transformations maintain the speed limit and adjust motion perceptions.

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Key Takeaways:

• Lorentz transformations (x′ = γ(x−vt), t′ = γ(t−vx/c2 )) unify space and time, replacing
Galilean simplicity with relativistic adjustments.

• Relativistic velocity addition (u′ = u−v

1−uv/c2
) caps speeds at c, enabling time dilation and
length contraction, key to special relativity.

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6. Space–Time Concepts
Definition: Space–time concepts in special relativity include the invariant space–time interval,
proper time interval, proper length, time dilation, length contraction, and the relativity of
simultaneity. The space–time interval is defined as (∆s)2 = (c∆t)2 − (∆x)2 , an invariant
quantity constant across inertial frames. Proper time interval (∆t0 ) is the time between events
in a frame where they occur at the same location, related by ∆t = γ∆t0 . Proper length (L0 )
is the length of an object in its rest frame, related by L = L0 /γ. Time dilation slows moving
clocks, length contraction shortens moving objects, and simultaneity varies by frame.
Explanation:

• Space–Time Interval: The interval (∆s)2 = (c∆t)2 − (∆x)2 measures the separation
between two events (e.g., light flash and detection) and remains constant across inertial
frames, unlike separate ∆t and ∆x. If (c∆t)2 > (∆x)2 , ∆s is timelike (events causally
connected); if equal, lightlike; if less, spacelike.

• Proper Time and Length: Proper time (∆t0 ) is measured where events are co-located
(e.g., a clock’s ticks), dilated in moving frames (∆t = γ∆t0 ). Proper length (L0 ) is
the object’s rest length, contracted when moving (L = L0 /γ). These are frame-specific,
addressing “How do observers in different reference frames describe events?”

• Relativistic Effects: Time dilation (∆t = γ∆t0 ) means a moving clock ticks slower
(e.g., muon lifetime extends). Length contraction (L = L0 /γ) shortens objects along
motion (e.g., a spaceship shrinks). Simultaneity is relative—events simultaneous in one
frame may not be in another due to t′ = γ(t − vx/c2 )—shifting from Galilean absolute
time (Guiding Question 2).

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Examples:

1. Time Dilation (Question 3) Question: A spacecraft leaves Earth with speed 0.800c,
relative to Earth, on its way to a planet that is 12.0 light years away according to Earth
measurements. (a) (ii) Calculate the time of arrival of the spacecraft at the planet ac-
cording to the spacecraft. Answer:
(a) (ii) 15.0 * sqrt(1 - 0.8^2) = 9.0 yrs

Explanation: Earth frame (S) measures t = 12.0/0.8 = 15.0 years. In the spacecraft’s
√
frame (S’), γ = 1/ 1 − 0.82 = 5/3, so proper time ∆t0 = ∆t/γ = 15.0 ∗ 3/5 = 9.0
years. The spacecraft’s clock (where start and arrival occur) shows less time, exemplifying
∆t = γ∆t0 .

2. Length Contraction (Question 5) Question: The radius of the event horizon of a

black hole is R. A probe is at a distance of 0.25R above the event horizon. The probe
sends radio pulses at intervals of 1.0 s, according to the probe. Calculate the time between
the arrival of the pulses at a spacecraft far from the black hole. Answer:
(c) Delta t = 1.0 / sqrt(1 - R / 1.25R) = 1.15 s

Explanation: This involves gravitational effects, but for length contraction, consider Ques-
tion 5’s context with Question 12(b)(iii): A cargo ship’s proper length L0 = 992 m at
√
v = 0.946c gives L = 992 ∗ 1 − 0.9462 = 256 m in S. Here, length isn’t key, but time
dilation relates; at v = 0.6c (γ = 1.25), ∆t0 = 1.0 s becomes ∆t = 1.25 s, similar to 1.15
s adjusted for gravity.

3. Simultaneity (Question 21) Question: A train is moving across a bridge with a speed
v = 0.40c. Observer A is at rest in the train. Observer B is at rest with respect to the
bridge. According to observer B, two lamps at opposite ends of the bridge are turned on
simultaneously as observer A crosses the bridge. (c) (iv) Determine the time, according
to observer A, between X and Y. Answer:
(c) (iv) Delta t’ = 1.09 * (0 - (0.4 * 2.0 * 10^3) / (3.0 * 10^8)) = -2.9 * 10^-6 s

Explanation: In B’s frame (S), lamps at x = 0 and x = 2.0 km turn on at t = 0 (∆t = 0).
In A’s frame (S’, v = 0.4c), γ = 1.09, t′ = γ(t − vx/c2 ). For x = 2.0 km, t′ = 1.09 ∗
(0 − (0.4 ∗ 2.0 ∗ 103 )/(3.0 ∗ 108 )) = −2.9 µs, showing non-simultaneity (Y before X), unlike
Galilean t′ = t.

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Key Takeaways:

• The space–time interval (∆s)2 is invariant, unifying frames, while proper time (∆t0 ) and
length (L0 ) are frame-specific, adjusted by γ.

• Time dilation, length contraction, and relativity of simultaneity reshape space–time from
Galilean absolutes to relativistic interdependence.

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7. Space–Time Diagrams
Definition: Space–time diagrams are graphical representations of relativistic motion, plotting
time (typically as ct, where c = 3.0 × 108 m/s) on the vertical axis and space (x) on the
horizontal axis. They illustrate events, world lines (paths of objects through space–time), and
the effects of special relativity, such as time dilation, length contraction, and the relativity of
simultaneity. The angle between a particle’s world line and the time axis is related to its speed
by tan θ = v/c, where v is the particle’s velocity.
Explanation:

• Purpose and Structure: Space–time diagrams visualize how observers in different

inertial reference frames describe events in terms of space and time (Guiding Question 1).
The ct-axis represents time scaled by c (e.g., 1 s = 3.0 × 108 m), aligning units with space
(meters). Events are points (x, ct), and world lines show motion—vertical for stationary
objects, sloped for moving ones. Light travels at 45° (since ct = x, v = c, tan θ = 1).

• Relativistic Motion: The syllabus specifies that “the discussion of world lines of moving
particles will be limited to constant velocity,” meaning straight lines. The slope of a world
line (tan θ = v/c) quantifies speed; for v = 0.5c, θ = arctan(0.5) ≈ 26.6◦ . The scales on ct
and ct′ (time in frame S’) or x and x′ (space in S’) differ due to Lorentz transformations,
defined by constant space–time intervals ((∆s)2 = (c∆t)2 − (∆x)2 ).

• Visualization of Effects: Time dilation, length contraction, and simultaneity are de-
picted on diagrams. A moving clock’s ticks spread farther on ct (dilation), a moving
object’s length contracts along x, and simultaneous events in S may appear offset in S’
(Guidance: “visualized using space–time diagrams”).

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Examples:

1. World Line Angle (Question 76) Question: A spaceship S leaves the Earth with a
speed v = 0.80c. The spacetime diagram for the Earth is shown. A clock on the Earth
and a clock on the spaceship are synchronized at the origin of the spacetime diagram. (a)
Calculate the angle between the worldline of S and the worldline of the Earth. Answer:
(a) tan theta = v/c = 0.80 theta = 39 degrees

Explanation: In Earth’s frame (S), the spaceship’s world line slopes at v = 0.8c. The tan-
gent of theta is v/c = 0.8, so θ = arctan(0.8) ≈ 39◦ . This straight line (constant velocity
per Guidance) shows the spaceship’s path, with ct increasing as x grows, visualizing its
motion on a space–time diagram.

2. Simultaneity on Diagram (Question 64) Question: According to observer Q there

is an instant at which the train is completely within the tunnel. At that instant two
lights at the front and the back of the train are turned on simultaneously according to
Q. (a) (i) Draw the time ct′ and space x′ axes for observer P’s reference frame on the
spacetime diagram. (ii) Deduce, using the spacetime diagram, which light was turned on
first according to observer P. Answer:
(a) (i) ct’ axis sloped to right x’ axis sloped to left
(a) (ii) front light turned on first events simultaneous in Q frame have different ct’ in P frame

Explanation: In Q’s frame (S), lights at x = 0 and x = 100 m turn on at ct = 0 (∆t = 0).
In P’s frame (S’, v = 0.6c), ct′ and x′ axes tilt (tan θ = 0.6). Events at (0, 0) and (100,
0) in S have different ct′ values in S’ due to t′ = γ(t − vx/c2 ), with the front light (larger
x) appearing earlier, showing simultaneity’s relativity on the diagram.

3. Similar Example: Rocket Signal Question: A rocket moves at 0.5c relative to Earth.
At ct = 0, x = 0, it emits a signal; at ct = 2.0 × 108 m, x = 1.0 × 108 m, it’s received.
Draw the world line and calculate θ. Answer:
World line from (0, 0) to (1.0 * 10^8, 2.0 * 10^8), tan theta = v/c = 0.5, theta ~= 26.6 degrees

Explanation: The rocket’s path slopes at v = 0.5c, with tan θ = 0.5. The signal’s 45°
light line (ct = x) intersects the world line, visualizing constant velocity motion and light’s
path, contrasting with Galilean absolute time assumptions.

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Key Takeaways:

• Space–time diagrams plot ct vs. x, with world lines (tan θ = v/c) showing motion,
visualizing relativistic effects like time dilation and simultaneity.

• They bridge Galilean simplicity to special relativity’s space–time unity, illustrating frame-
dependent event descriptions.

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8. Experimental Evidence
Definition: Experimental evidence for special relativity includes muon decay experiments,
which demonstrate time dilation and length contraction. Muons, unstable particles with a
short rest-frame half-life (e.g., 1.56 µs or 2.2 µs), decay into electrons and neutrinos, but their
observed survival at high speeds supports relativistic predictions over Galilean ones.
Explanation:

• Muon Decay Overview: Muons are produced in Earth’s upper atmosphere by cosmic
rays, traveling at near-light speeds (e.g., 0.98c, 0.995c). In their rest frame, half decay in
∼1.5 to 2.2 µs (proper time, ∆t0 ), traveling only ∼450 to 660 m at c without relativity.
Yet, detectors on Earth, ∼10 km below, record significant numbers, requiring time dilation
(∆t = γ∆t0 ) and length contraction (L = L0 /γ) to explain.

• Time Dilation Evidence: In the ground frame (S), γ extends muon lifetime (e.g., γ = 5
at 0.98c, ∆t = 7.5 to 11 µs), allowing travel of ∼2250 to 3300 m, far exceeding Galilean
predictions (Guiding Question 2). This supports “muon decay experiments provide ex-
perimental evidence for time dilation.”

• Length Contraction Evidence: In the muon’s frame (S’), the ∼10 km altitude (L0
in S) contracts (e.g., L = 10 km/5 = 2 km at γ = 5), reducing travel distance, so fewer
decay, aligning with observed counts. This dual evidence shifts motion understanding
from Galilean absolute time.

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Examples:

1. Muon Decay in Lab (Question 8) Question: A muon is an unstable particle with

a half-life of 1.56 µs as measured in the muon’s rest frame. Muons are produced in a
laboratory and are all directed at a speed 0.866c towards a muon detector. The gamma
factor (γ) for this speed is 2.00. The detector, according to observers in the laboratory,
is a distance D from the muon source. (a) According to laboratory observers number of
muons detected / number of muons produced = 1/2. Calculate D. Answer:
(a) T_1 = 2.00 * 1.56 * 10^-6 = 3.12 * 10^-6 s D = 3.12 * 10^-6 * 0.866 * 3 * 10^8 = 811 m

Explanation: In the muon’s frame (S’), ∆t0 = 1.56 µs. In the lab frame (S), γ = 2,
∆t = 3.12 µs, so half survive to D = 0.866 ∗ 3 ∗ 108 ∗ 3.12 ∗ 10−6 = 811 m. Without dilation
(Galilean), D = 405 m, far less, proving time dilation’s role in muon survival.

2. Atmospheric Muons (Question 45) Question: Muons are created in the upper at-
mosphere of the Earth at an altitude of 10 km above the surface. The muons travel
vertically down at a speed of 0.995c with respect to the Earth. When measured at rest
the average lifetime of the muons is 2.1 µs. (b) (i) Calculate, according to the theory of
special relativity, the time taken for a muon to reach the ground in the reference frame of
the muon. (b) (ii) Discuss how your result in (b)(i) and the outcome of the muon decay
experiment support the theory of special relativity. Answer:
(b) (i) gamma = 10 Delta t_0 = 34 / 10 = 3.4 mu s
(b) (ii) the value found in (b)(i) is of similar magnitude to average lifetime significant number of muons are
observed on the ground therefore this supports the special theory

Explanation: In S, t = 104 /(0.995 ∗ 3 ∗ 108 ) = 34 µs. In S’, γ = 10, ∆t0 = 34/10 = 3.4 µs
(proper time), close to 2.1 µs, so many survive (∼ e−3.4/2.1 ≈ 0.2). Galilean t = 2.1 µs
predicts ∼ 10 km/(0.995 ∗ 3 ∗ 108 ) ≈ 33 µs, ∼16 half-lives, a tiny fraction, highlighting
relativistic support.

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3. Similar Example: High-Speed Particle Question: A particle with a 1.0 µs rest half-
life moves at 0.99c from 15 km altitude. Calculate survival fraction in S using special
relativity. Answer:
gamma = 1/sqrt(1 - 0.99^2) ~= 7.1, t = 15 * 10^3 / (0.99 * 3 * 10^8) ~= 50.5 * 10^-6 s, Delta t_0 = 50.5 / 7.1
~= 7.1 * 10^-6 s, half-lives = 7.1 / 1.0 = 7.1, fraction = (1/2)^7.1 ~= 0.007; Galilean ~50 half-lives,
~10^-14

√
Explanation: In S, γ = 1/ 1 − 0.992 ≈ 7.1, t = 15 × 103 /(0.99 × 3 × 108 ) ≈ 50.5 µs,
∆t0 = 50.5/7.1 ≈ 7.1 µs, half-lives = 7.1, fraction = (1/2)7.1 ≈ 0.007. Galilean predicts
∼50 half-lives (t = 1.0 µs, D = 297 m, 15 km ∼50 µs), fraction ∼ 10−14 . Relativistic
dilation yields a measurable fraction, matching experiments, unlike Galilean’s near-zero
prediction.

Key Takeaways:

• Muon decay experiments confirm time dilation and length contraction, with dilated life-
times and contracted distances in moving frames enabling survival, supporting special
relativity over Galilean predictions.

• This evidence validates relativistic space–time adjustments, shifting motion understand-

ing.

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9. Linking Questions and Nature of Science (NOS)
Overview: This section addresses the syllabus’s linking questions—“How are equations of
linear motion adapted in relativistic contexts?”, “Why is the equation for the Doppler effect
for light so different from that for sound?”, and “Special relativity places a limit on the speed
of light. What other limits exist in physics?” (NOS)—connecting relativity to broader physics
concepts and its scientific nature.
Explanation:

• Linear Motion Adaptation: In Galilean relativity, linear motion equations (e.g., x =

x0 +vt) assume absolute time. Special relativity adapts these via Lorentz transformations
(x′ = γ(x − vt), t′ = γ(t − vx/c2 )), incorporating γ to cap speeds at c and adjust
space–time, as in relativistic velocity addition (u′ = (u−v)/(1−uv/c2 )), unlike u′ = u−v.

• Doppler Effect Difference: Sound’s Doppler effect (f ′ = f (v ± v0 )/(v ± vs )) depends

on medium speed v and relative source/observer motion, assuming absolute time. Light’s
p
relativistic Doppler effect (f ′ = f (1 − v/c)/(1 + v/c)) accounts for c’s constancy and
time dilation, omitting a medium, reflecting special relativity’s postulates.

• Physical Limits (NOS): Special relativity’s c limit (3.0 × 108 m/s) is absolute; nothing
exceeds it. Other limits include absolute zero (–273.15°C, thermodynamic limit), Planck
length (1.6 × 10−35 m, quantum gravity), and Heisenberg’s uncertainty (∆x∆p ≥ h̄/2),
showcasing physics’ bounded nature.

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Examples:

1. Relativistic Motion (Question 12) Question: A spaceship is travelling at 0.80c, away

from Earth. It launches a probe away from Earth, at 0.50c relative to the spaceship. (c)
Calculate the speed of the probe in terms of c, relative to Earth. Answer:
(c) u = (0.5c + 0.8c) / (1 + (0.5c * 0.8c) / c^2) u = 0.93c

Explanation: Galilean u′ = 1.3c exceeds c; relativistic u′ = 0.93c adapts linear addition,

showing how equations adjust in relativistic contexts.

2. Doppler Effect (Question 19) Question: A rocket is accelerating upwards at 9.8 ms−2
in deep space. A photon of energy 14.4 keV is emitted upwards from the bottom of the
rocket and travels to a detector in the tip of the rocket 52.0 m above. (a) Explain why a
change in frequency is expected for the photon detected at the top of the rocket. Answer:
(a) detector accelerates moves away from point of photon emission so Doppler effect redshift so f decreases

Explanation: Unlike sound’s medium-dependent Doppler, light’s redshift here (and gener-
ally) reflects relative motion and c’s constancy, differing due to no medium and relativistic
effects.

3. Speed Limit (Question 55) Question: A probe launched from a spacecraft moves
towards the event horizon of a black hole. The probe sends a radio pulse every 1.0
seconds (as measured by clocks on the probe). The spacecraft receives the pulses every
2.0 seconds (as measured by clocks on the spacecraft). (a) (i) State what is meant by the
event horizon of a black hole. Answer:
(a) (i) the distance from the black hole at which the escape speed is the speed of light

Explanation: c’s limit defines the event horizon; other limits like Planck length (Question
79’s black hole context) show physics’ boundaries (NOS).

Key Takeaways:

• Relativistic motion adapts linear equations via Lorentz transformations, Doppler for light
reflects c’s invariance, and c’s limit joins other physical bounds, highlighting relativity’s
scientific grounding.

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