Energy

1. Define energy. What is stored energy and transient

QUESTION BANK OF energy? Discuss different types of stored energy with

proper equations (2022)

RUET ME 1101
Here are the key points about energy, stored energy, and
transient energy:

- Energy is the ability to do work or cause change. It exists in

many forms such as thermal, mechanical, electrical,
chemical, nuclear etc.
[Previous 4 Years Questions
Are Added with Solutions]
- Stored energy is energy that is contained within an object or
system in a stable form. It is energy that is available to do
work at a later time. Examples include potential energy,
chemical energy in batteries, energy stored in capacitors,
gravitational energy, etc.

- Transient energy is energy that is transferred from one place

to another or changes forms. It is energy in motion or in the
process of doing work. Examples include kinetic energy,
electromagnetic waves, electrical current, sound waves, etc.
BY Some examples of stored energy and related equations:

TOUHID ME’22 - Potential energy (PE) - Energy stored in an object due to its
position or configuration. PE = mgh, where m is mass, g is
acceleration due to gravity, h is height.

With Help of AI
- Chemical energy - Energy stored in the bonds between
atoms and molecules. The energy released during a chemical
reaction.

- Electrical energy - Energy stored in a capacitor. PE =

(1/2)CV2, where C is capacitance and V is voltage across the
capacitor.

- Mechanical energy - Energy stored in a compressed or

stretched object. PE = (1/2)kx2, where k is the spring constant
and x is displacement from rest position.

- Nuclear energy - Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom,

NB: All answers are released during nuclear fission or fusion.

generated via claude ai. - Gravitational potential energy - PE = mgh, where m is mass,
g is gravity, h is height from reference level.
Some of the answers may In summary, stored energy is energy contained in an object
incorrect. while transient energy is energy in the process of transfer or
transformation. Understanding the different forms of energy
is important in physics and engineering.
2. List various non-conventional energy resources. Why non
conventional energy sources are preferred (2022)
Here are some of the major non-conventional or renewable
energy resources:

- Solar energy - Energy harnessed from sunlight using solar

cells, solar thermal collectors, etc.
 - Wind energy - Kinetic energy of wind converted into - Using energy efficient devices - Replacing old appliances
electricity using wind turbines. and equipment with energy efficient models that use less
electricity/fuel. Examples: LED lights, inverter ACs, 5-star
- Hydropower - Electrical energy generated using the rated appliances.
potential energy of flowing water.
- Smart power use - Turning off lights and appliances when
- Geothermal energy - Heat energy generated and stored not in use. Setting optimal temperatures on ACs and geysers.
beneath the earth's surface. Can be harnessed to generate Avoiding phantom loads from idle gadgets.
electricity.
- Insulation - Adding insulation to walls, roofs and pipes
- Biomass energy - Energy from organic materials like wood, reduces heat transfer, saving energy for heating/cooling.
crops, municipal waste. Can be used to produce electricity,
heat, or transportation fuels. - System optimization - Proper maintenance and tuning of
equipment like boilers, furnaces, motors ensures optimal
- Ocean energy - Energy harness from ocean waves, tides, performance and efficiency.
currents, temperature differences. Used to generate
electricity. - Renewable energy - Using solar, wind, geothermal energy
reduces reliance on fossil fuels.
- Hydrogen energy - Hydrogen produced from water and used
as a clean fuel for transportation, power generation. - Waste heat recovery - Capturing and reusing waste heat
from industries through heat exchangers increases overall
Some key reasons why renewable energy sources are efficiency.
preferred:
- Process optimization - In industries, minimizing energy
- Renewable - These sources are replenished naturally and are waste in processes through heat integration, cogeneration,
practically inexhaustible. Provides energy security. etc.

- Clean energy - They produce little to no greenhouse gases - Developmental planning - Urban planning to optimize
or air pollutants when compared to fossil fuels. energy usage, promote public transport, walking/cycling,
green buildings.
- Reduces dependence on imported fuels - Sources like solar,
wind, bioenergy can be harnessed domestically reducing - Consumer awareness - Educating consumers and businesses
imports. on saving energy and adopting efficient practices.

- Energy access - Renewable systems can provide electricity Effective energy management and conservation helps reduce
to remote areas. energy costs, fossil fuel dependence and environmental
impact. It requires systematic analysis, measurement and
- Price stability - Not affected by fluctuating global fuel implementation of efficiency measures.
prices. 4. Discuss the main features of various types of renewable
and non-renewable energy sources and explain the
- Creates jobs and spurs economic growth - Building importance of non-conventional energy sources in the
renewable energy systems creates skilled jobs and local context of global warming (2021)
investment. The main features and importance of renewable and non-
renewable energy sources in the context of global warming:
In summary, non-conventional or renewable energy provides
clean, sustainable energy while promoting energy 1. Non-renewable sources:
independence and economic opportunities. This makes them - Coal, oil, natural gas
preferred over conventional fossil fuels. - Cannot be replenished, limited reserves
3. Explain the term energy management and energy - Higher emissions, carbon intensive
conservation. Discuss important aspects of energy - Abundantly available and reliable
conservation (2022)
Energy management refers to the systematic tracking and 2. Renewable sources:
control of energy use in order to maximize efficiency and - Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal
reduce waste. Energy conservation is the effort made to - Can be replenished naturally
reduce energy consumption by using less of an energy - Lower emissions, cleaner
service. - Weather dependent, intermittent

Some key aspects of energy conservation: 3. Importance of non-conventional/renewable sources:

 - Global warming is caused by rising CO2 levels from Energy conservation refers to reducing energy consumption
burning fossil fuels by using less of an energy service. The main aspects of energy
- Renewables produce very low or zero emissions conservation include:
- Help mitigate climate change and limit temperature rise
- Improve air quality by reduced particulate emissions 1. Efficient Energy Use: Using technology that requires less
- Provide energy security as they are unlimited resources energy to perform the same function. Examples include LED
lights, high efficiency appliances, electric vehicles etc. This
4. Challenges with renewables: saves energy at the point of end-use.
- Higher capital costs presently
- Storage is necessary to address intermittency 2. Waste Heat Recovery: Capturing the waste heat discarded
- Smart grids can help integrate renewables efficiently from industrial processes and using it for heating applications
- Costs declining rapidly to match conventional energy instead of wasting it. This utilized heat would have otherwise
been wasted.
In summary, transitioning rapidly to renewable sources is
vital to deal with climate change and energy security. 3. Process Redesign: Redesigning industrial/manufacturing
Challenges like costs and intermittency can be addressed over processes to consume less energy. Examples include
time with sufficient investments into clean energy optimizing pipe routes, minimizing transportation distances
technologies. A mix of conventional and renewable sources etc. to save on fuel and costs.
can provide reliable as well as sustainable energy for the
future. 4. System Optimization: Optimizing whole systems instead
5. Enumerate the criteria based on which energy can be of components to save energy costs. Example - using waste
classified. (2021) steam from a turbine to preheat boiler feed water in a power
Energy can be classified based on several criteria: plant.

1. Source: 5. Avoiding Losses: Preventing technical losses occurring in

- Non-renewable (Fossil fuels - coal, oil, gas) transmission lines, distribution systems through proper
- Renewable (Solar, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal etc) design, operation and maintenance. Minimizing commercial
losses like theft/pilferage.
2. Grade or Quality:
- Primary (Heat and electricity) 6. Energy Storage: Storing energy when production exceeds
- Secondary (Refined oil products like petrol, diesel etc) demand and utilizing the same during peak demand instead
of running systems inefficiently. Example - Pumped hydro
3. Utilization: storage.
- Commercial energy (Coal, oil, electricity - used by
industry, transportation, households) 7. Behavioral Changes: Turning off unused appliances and
- Non-commercial (Firewood, agricultural waste used in lights, using public transport, maintainingCorrect tire
rural areas) pressure in vehicles etc. to save energy.

4. Scale of use: In summary, energy conservation embodies a system level

- Conventional energy (Fossil fuels for large scale use) perspective by improving efficiency, increasing utilization
- Non-conventional energy (Newer renewables like solar through cascading and recovery, optimized design and
and wind) operations, preventing losses and prudent user behavior. It is
the cheapest and simplest way to reduce energy demand.
5. Energy carrier: 7. Compare renewable energy sources with non-renewable
- Solid fuels (Coal, firewood) energy sources and write down their relative merits and
- Liquid fuels (Oil, biofuels) demerits (2020)
- Gaseous fuels (Natural gas, biogas) A comparison of renewable and non-renewable energy
- Electrical energy sources based on their merits and demerits is given below:

6. Accessibility: Renewable Energy Sources:

- Depleted energy (Already exploited like oil)
- Tapped energy (Identified reserves) Merits:
- Untapped energy (Solar, wind) - Renewable and abundant
- Cleaner and environmentally friendly
7. Cost: - Sustainable over long term
- Cheaper energy forms (Coal, hydro) - Lower greenhouse gas emissions
- Expensive energy forms (Solar PV, wind turbines) - Less pollution than conventional sources
6. What do you understand by energy conservation?
Explain its various aspects. (2021) Demerits:
 - Higher capital investment initially 5. Government regulations
- Intermittent power generation
- Lower energy density Some examples of energy conservation methods are using
- Location constraints for projects CFL/LED lights, properly insulated buildings, high
efficiency motors, carpooling, etc. The conserved energy
Non-Renewable Energy Sources: reduces overall consumption and increases sustainability.
9. What is energy management? Write the steps that are
Merits: involved in energy management of an enterprise (2020)
- Provide continuous and reliable base load power Energy management refers to the organized and systematic
- Established and well-proven technologies approach to meet the energy requirements in desired quantity
- Can be located close to load centers and quality in the most optimum economic manner. It focuses
- Independent of weather fluctuations on reducing the wastage of energy while maximizing its
utilization.
Demerits:
- Limited in supply and will eventually deplete The typical steps involved in energy management of an
- Significant emissions of greenhouse gases enterprise are:
- Causes environmental degradation
- Extensive pollution problems 1. Energy Audit - Study energy use patterns, identify areas of
- Unsustainable long term energy losses, wastage or inefficient usage and quantify the
savings potential.
In summary, renewables are sustainable, cleaner sources but
need higher initial investments. Non-renewables provide 2. Develop Energy Conservation Program - Formulate
steady power but have limited reserves and cause pollution. economically attractive projects for energy conservation
Using both types of energy sources with their relative based on audit report focusing on easy-to-implement
advantages can provide a balanced solution for future energy changes.
security and reducing emissions.
8. What is energy conservation? Write the general equation 3. Implement Measures - Provide resources, training and
of energy conservation (2020) follow-up on implemented measures from energy
Energy conservation refers to reducing energy consumption conservation plan.
by using less of an energy service. It differs from efficient
energy use, which refers to using less energy for a constant 4. Measurement & Verification of Savings - Confirm actual
service. savings achieved from implemented measures by monitoring
regular energy usage.
The general energy conservation equation is:
5. Sustenance Activities - Ensure energy efficiency steps
Energy Input = Useful Energy Output + Total Losses become standard practice through training, data analysis and
management involvement.
Where:
6. Continual Improvements - Expand the energy conservation
Energy Input: Total energy supplied to the system (fuel, program scope to include technological upgrades, process
electricity etc.) revamps, reuse of waste energy.

Useful Energy Output: Energy delivered for desired By regularly following these steps organization can
work/services continuously improve their energy performance. Top
management commitment is vital for a successful energy
Total Losses: Unused or wasted energy during management program implementation.
production/transmission/usage 10. . "The world cannot survive a day withortenergy"-
Explain with justification (2020)
This equation implies that by minimizing the total losses in a The statement "the world cannot survive a day without
system, the input energy can be reduced for obtaining the energy" is justified because energy is essential to support key
same useful output. This minimization of energy input for a aspects of modern civilization:
given service is referred to as energy conservation.
Transportation - Petroleum fuels power vehicles for
It can be achieved through: transportation of people and goods by road, rail, air and sea.
A halt in transportation would disrupt supply chains and
1. More efficient equipment access to basic necessities.
2. Better process control systems
3. Changes in human behavior Electricity - Power plants provide electricity to run homes,
4. Energy recycling businesses, factories, farms etc. Lack of electricity would shut
 down water supply, sewage treatment, telecommunications - Energy savings free up power generation capacity and
and other critical infrastructure. resources that can displace more fossil fuels. This provides
indirect environmental benefits beyond the direct savings.
Industry - Factories require reliable electricity and fuels like
natural gas, coal and oil to manufacture goods and materials - Less energy usage decreases exploration, extraction and
needed for society. Interruptions would halt production of transportation of conventional fuels - activities that often
food, medicines, equipment etc. degrade natural ecosystems through spills, emissions, habitat
loss etc.
Commercial Activity - Commerce relies on electricity for
lighting, operating devices, powering data centers and In summary, saving energy results in reduced fossil fuel
running financial systems. Disruptions would severely usage either directly or indirectly, lowering pollutants and
impact trade and economy. greenhouse gases that damage the environment. There is a
direct link between our energy habits and their ecological
Healthcare - Hospitals need electricity to operate life-saving impacts. Smarter energy usage is key to sustainability.
equipment like ventilators, monitors and emergency tools.
Power failures risk patient lives. Backup power has limited
capacity.

Food Supply - Agriculture, cold storage, food processing and

Thermodynamics
distribution depend on energy. Insufficient energy would 1. What do you understand by property of a system?
cause food losses and shortages. Distinguish between intensive and extensive properties of
a system with example (2022)
Climate Control - Heating or cooling are needed for human The properties of a system refer to the characteristics or
habitability and survival in extreme climates. Fuel shortages attributes that describe the thermodynamic state of the
system. They can be broadly classified into intensive and
would expose people to harsh temperatures.
extensive properties:
In summary, modern civilization is built on access to
abundant energy. Our transportation, electricity, industries, Intensive properties:
businesses, homes and food systems would grind to a halt
- These do not depend on the size or extent of the system.
within a day without it. Energy is what sustains modern life
as we know it.
- They have the same value throughout the system at
11. Sometimes saving energy means saving the
equilibrium.
environment". Explain (2020)
The statement "sometimes saving energy means saving the
environment" refers to the close relationship between energy - Examples include temperature, pressure, density,
usage and environmental impact. Here are a few key points concentration.
that explain this:
Extensive properties:
- A major portion of energy worldwide is produced by
burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. This releases - These properties depend on the size or extent of the system.
greenhouse gases like CO2 that contribute to climate change
- They vary based on the quantity or mass of the system.
and global warming.
- Examples include mass, volume, energy, entropy.
- By reducing our energy usage through efficiency and
conservation, we burn fewer fossil fuels to produce that
energy. This directly lowers air pollution and greenhouse gas - Extensive properties are additive for sub-systems. For
example, the total volume of two combined systems is the
emissions that harm the environment.
sum of their individual volumes.
- Transitioning to clean renewable energy like solar, wind and
hydro also allows us to save energy and prevent The key difference is that intensive properties are
environmental damage at the same time. Renewables have independent of system size, whereas extensive properties are
very low emissions. directly proportional to system size. Temperature and
pressure are intensive properties - they do not change with
system volume. On the other hand, mass and volume are
- Optimizing industrial processes, installing green buildings
and switching to energy efficient devices reduces the amount extensive properties that increase or decrease with the
quantity of material. Identifying intensive vs extensive
of energy wasted. This avoids wasteful use of polluting fuels.
properties is important for analyzing thermodynamic
systems.
2. Explain non equilibrium and quasi-static process. Is the
quasi-static process a reversible process? –Justify (2022)
 A non-equilibrium process is a thermodynamic process that The first law is essentially a statement of the law of
proceeds rapidly and does not allow the system to come to an conservation of energy. This can be seen as follows:
equilibrium state at each intermediate stage. The system is
constantly changing. Examples include rapid expansion of - The change in internal energy ΔU accounts for all forms of
gases, explosive combustion etc. energy added or lost by the system - kinetic energy, potential
energy, molecular binding energy etc.
A quasi-static process proceeds infinitely slowly, allowing
the system to essentially remain in equilibrium throughout the - Heat added Q is energy transferred to the system due to
process. At each stage, the properties like temperature and temperature difference.
pressure are uniform. The process is reversible.
- Work W represents energy transfer due to mechanical
Yes, a quasi-static process is a reversible process because: processes.

- It proceeds infinitesimally slowly through a series of - The law states that the net energy added to the system as
equilibrium states. heat and work causes a change in its internal energy.

- At each stage the system is in equilibrium with uniform - Energy cannot be created or destroyed - it can only change
intensive properties like temperature and pressure. forms.

- Since the system goes through equilibrium states, it can be Thus, according to the first law, the total energy of the closed
reversed by infinitesimally changing the conditions back to system and surroundings remains constant. This is a
their original values. restatement of the law of conservation of energy. The first law
equates various forms of energy transfer and demonstrates the
- There are no dissipative processes occurring that produce fundamental conservation of energy principle for
entropy. Heat transfer is along an infinitesimal temperature thermodynamic systems.
gradient. 4. Apply your knowledge to model a system to determine the
rate at which a thermal power plant adds CO₂ to the
- The system remains in equilibrium with the surroundings. atmosphere (2021)
There are no sudden changes. Here is one way to model a thermal power plant to determine
the rate at which it adds CO2 to the atmosphere:
- It allows the system to be restored to its initial state by
reversing the process in a quasi-static manner. Hence it is Assumptions:
reversible. - Coal powered thermal power plant
- Generating capacity: 500 MW
In summary, the infinitely slow nature of a quasi-static - Plant heat rate: 10,000 Btu/kWh
process, along with the system remaining in equilibrium at all - Coal consumption rate: 100 tonnes/hr
stages, makes it a reversible process. A non-equilibrium - Carbon content in coal: 75%
process on the other hand cannot be easily reversed. - Fraction of carbon converted to CO2: 100%
3. State first law of thermodynamics and shows that the first
law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of Model:
energy (2022)
The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in 1. Calculate coal energy input:
internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of Coal consumption rate = 100 tonnes/hr
heat supplied to the system, minus the amount of work done Energy density of coal = 20,000 kcal/kg
by the system on its surroundings. This can be → Total heat input from coal = 100 x 20,000 x 4.187 =
mathematically written as: 83,740,000 kJ/hr

ΔU = Q - W 2. Calculate electricity generation:

Plant efficiency = Heat input / Electricity output
Where, Electricity output = Heat input / Heat rate
→ Electricity generated = 83,740,000 kJ/hr / 10,000
ΔU = Change in internal energy of the system Btu/kWh = 500 MW
Q = Amount of heat added to the system
W = Amount of work done by the system 3. Calculate carbon input from coal:
Carbon in coal = 75%
This shows that internal energy changes due to heat added → Carbon input = 100 x 0.75 x 44/12 = 275 kg/hr (Using
and work done on/by the system. The first law relates heat molecular weights)
transfer and work to the change in internal energy.
4. CO2 produced from carbon:
 CO2 produced = Carbon input PV = ZnRT
→ CO2 produced = 275 kg/hr
This allows us to use the ideal gas law concepts even for real
Therefore, the rate at which this 500 MW coal power plant gases by incorporating the compressibility deviations in the Z
adds CO2 to the atmosphere is 275 kg/hr term. This way we can determine the state relationship
5. Differentiate between intensive and extensive properties. accurately when non-ideal behavior becomes considerable.
Sketch for the isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, and
adiabatic processes on suitable planes (2021) Some example applications are:
The difference between intensive and extensive properties: 1. Determining gas density at higher pressures in process
equipment
Intensive Properties: 2. Estimating flow parameters in compressors/expanders
- Do not depend on the quantity or size of the system 3. Calculating explosive limits of combustible mixtures
- Have same value regardless of system size 7. A piston-cylinder device contains 0.005 m of liquid water
- Examples: Temperature, pressure, density and 0.9 m² of water vapor in equilibrium at 600 kPa. Heat
is transferred at constant pressure until the temperature
Extensive Properties: reaches 200 °C. Determine: (i) initial temperature of the
- Depend on the quantity/size of system water, (ii) total mass of the water, and (iii) final volume
- Scale with system size (2021)
- Examples: Volume, mass, energy Given:
Initial volume of liquid water (Vliq) = 0.005 m3
Sketches: Initial volume of water vapor (Vvap) = 0.9 m2
System pressure (P) = 600 kPa
Isobaric - Horizontal line on P-V diagram Final temperature (Tf) = 200 °C
Isochoric - Vertical line on P-V diagram
Isothermal - Curve on T-S diagram (i) Initial temperature calculation:
Adiabatic - Curve on P-V and T-S diagram - At equilibrium:
Psat = P = 600 kPa
Key things to note: - From steam tables:
- Isobaric has varying volume at constant pressure At P = 600 kPa, Saturation temperature (Ti) = 179.9°C
- Isochoric has varying pressure at constant volume
- Isothermal has varying entropy at constant temperature (ii) Total mass calculation:
- Adiabatic has no heat transfer so varies volume, pressure - Mass of liquid water (mliq) = Density * Volume
and entropy = 1000 * 0.005 = 5 kg
6. State the equation of state. How can you apply it for real - Density of water vapor (pvap) at 179.9°C & 600 kPa =
gases? (2021) 0.8848 kg/m3 (from steam table)
The equation of state describes the relationship between state - Mass of vapor (mvap) = pvap * Vvap
properties like pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T) and = 0.8848 * 0.9 = 0.800 kg
moles (n) of a gas. The ideal gas equation of state is: - Total mass m = mliq + mvap
= 5 + 0.800 = 5.8 kg
PV = nRT
(iii) Final volume calculation:
Where R is the universal gas constant. - Applying ideal gas law since at 200°C, water is in vapor
phase
This equation assumes ideal behavior, but real gases deviate - R = 0.4615 kJ/kg.K
from ideality at higher pressures and lower temperatures. To - Vf = (mf * R * Tf) / P
account for real gas behavior, the equation of state is modified = (5.8 * 0.4615 * 473) / 600
with compressibility factor (Z): = 1.41 m3

PV = ZnRT Therefore,
Initial temperature (Ti) = 179.9°C
Where: Total mass (m) = 5.8 kg
Z = 1 for an ideal gas Final volume (Vf) = 1.41 m3
Z < 1 for real gases due to intermolecular attractions 8. What is a thermodynamic system? Explain different
thermodynamic systems with neat sketc. (2020)
The compressibility factor can be calculated theoretically A thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or a region
from models like the Van der Waals equation or estimated in space that is being studied in thermodynamics. The system
using generalized compressed volume charts. The corrected has defined boundaries that separate it from its surroundings.
gas law equation becomes: Some key types of thermodynamic systems are:
 1. Closed system - Matter cannot cross the boundary but of gas is obtained. The system repeats the same cyclic
energy can. processes continuously.

[Drawing of a closed system with fixed boundaries. Heat and So in summary, state defines the current status of the system,
work interactions are shown crossing the boundary.] process provides change from one state to another, and cycles
involve processes that return the system to its original state
2. Open system - Both matter and energy can cross the repeatedly.
boundaries. 10. A quantity of gas has a volume of 0.15m³, pressure 1.5bar
and a temperature of 100°C. If the gas is compressed at
[Drawing of an open system with permeable boundaries. constant pressure until its volume becomes 0.10m³,
Heat, work, and mass are shown crossing the boundary.] determine: temperature, work done, and heat given out at
the end of the compression (2020)
3. Isolated system - No exchange of energy or matter can take Given:
place across the boundary. It's completely isolated from the Initial volume (V1) = 0.15 m3
surroundings. Initial pressure (P) = 1.5 bar
Initial temperature (T1) = 100°C = 373 K
[Drawing of an isolated system completely enclosed within a Final volume (V2) = 0.10 m3
boundary.]
The compression occurs at constant pressure.
4. Adiabatic system - Energy cannot be transferred as heat
across the boundary. However work interactions are possible. Using ideal gas equation:
P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2
[Drawing of an adiabatic system boundary allowing work but Where,
no heat transfer.] P1 = P2 = P (since constant pressure process)

The boundaries of a system can be fixed or movable, real or Substituting the values:
imaginary. The choice of system boundaries depends on what 1.5 x 0.15 / 373 = 1.5 x 0.10 / T2
we want to study and which exchanges to allow or prevent. T2 = 459 K
The type of system influences how different thermodynamic
properties evolve during a process. Therefore, final temperature (T2) after compression = 459 K
9. Explain state, process, and cycle in the light of piston-
cylinder working mechanism (2020) Work done (W) = P(V1 - V2)
In thermodynamics, state, process and cycle can be explained = 1.5 x (0.15 - 0.10)
using a piston-cylinder mechanism: = 0.15 bar-m3

State - It refers to the condition of a system at a particular Heat given out (Q) = mCp(T1 - T2)
time, described by thermodynamic properties like (As no mass is given, we can't calculate Q)
temperature, pressure, volume etc.
Where:
For a piston-cylinder, the state can be defined by the piston m = mass of gas
position, cylinder volume, pressure and temperature of gas Cp = specific heat capacity of gas
inside at a given instant.
Therefore, work done during compression = 0.15 bar-m3
Process - It refers to the transformation of a system from one And heat given out cannot be found without knowing the
state to another. It provides a path between two states. mass of gas.
11. What are the elements of a thermodynamic is system?
For a piston-cylinder, a process would involve the piston Explain them (2020)
moving and causing the gas to expand or compress. This The key elements that comprise a thermodynamic system are:
changes the state from initial volume, pressure and
temperature to some final values. 1. System boundary: This refers to the physical boundary that
separates the system from its surroundings. It could be real or
Cycle - It consists of a series of processes that brings a system imaginary. The boundary determines what is inside the
back to its initial state. The states at the start and end of a system and what makes up the surroundings.
cycle are identical.
2. Components: These are the actual physical components
For a piston-cylinder, a thermodynamic cycle like Otto cycle present inside the system boundary. They could be
involves the piston moving up and down in a sequence of substances, devices, machines etc. that interact and cause
processes. Gas inside goes through expansion and thermodynamic processes. Common system components are
compression processes. After the sequence, the original state heaters, turbines, pumps, pipes, valves etc.
 In general, this will hold true for any two path functions - their
3. State variables: These variables completely describe the difference will be a state function. This is an important
equilibrium state of the system at any given time. Common thermodynamic principle with many applications.
state variables are pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), 13. Classify properties of system and explain them (2020)
internal energy (U), enthalpy (H), entropy (S) etc. The properties of a thermodynamic system can be classified
into two main categories:
4. Processes: These refer to the thermodynamic processes that
lead to changes in the state of the system, causing changes in 1. Extensive Properties:
its state variables. Heat and work transfer are common - These properties depend on the quantity or size of the
system.
processes.
- Extensive properties are additive for subsystems.
- Some examples are:
5. Surroundings: This is everything external to the boundaries - Mass (m)
of the system which can interact with it. Typically the - Volume (V)
atmosphere around the system constitutes its surroundings. - Internal energy (U)
- Enthalpy (H)
Defining these key elements properly is crucial to completely - Entropy (S)
describing and analyzing any thermodynamic system using
the laws of thermodynamics. The nature of the processes and 2. Intensive Properties:
interactions between these elements determine the system - These properties do not depend on the size or extent of the
behavior. system.
12. Show that the difference between two path functions is a - Their values remain constant as subsystem sizes change.
- Some examples are:
state and a point function. (2020)
- Density (ρ)
The difference between two path functions is independent of
- Temperature (T)
the path and depends only on the end states. Therefore, the - Pressure (P)
difference between two path functions is a point function, - Specific volume (v)
also called a state function.
Key Points about the Properties:
For example, let's consider enthalpy (H) and internal energy
(U) which are path functions. - Extensive properties are additive over subsystems while
intensive properties remain unchanged. If a system is
The change in enthalpy (ΔH) between two states depends on divided, the extensive property values add up while
the path: intensive properties equal the same value.
ΔH1 ≠ ΔH2 for path 1 and path 2 between the same two end
states - Extensive properties can be turned into intensive properties
by dividing them by the mass or quantity of substance in the
system. Examples - Specific volume (v = V/m), specific
Similarly,
internal energy (u = U/m).
ΔU1 ≠ ΔU2 for the two paths
- The state of a simple compressible system is completely
However, the difference: specified by two independent intensive properties. All other
ΔH - ΔU = Δ(H - U) properties can be determined from them.

This difference depends only on the initial and final states, So in summary, this classification of properties is very
regardless of the path between those states. useful in applying thermodynamic principles correctly in the
analysis of any system and processes. Whether a property is
So if the change occurs between states 1 and 2: extensive or intensive decides how they relate across
subsystems.
Δ(H - U) = (H2 - U2) - (H1 - U1)

As the initial states (H1,U1) and final states (H2,U2) are

fixed, the difference Δ(H - U) will have a unique value for the Pure Substance
process between the given end states. 1. What do you mean by pure substance? Is iced water a
pure substance? why? (2022)
Therefore, the difference between the two path functions A pure substance is a single substance with fixed chemical
enthalpy and internal energy is independent of path and composition and distinct properties. It cannot be separated
depends only on the end states. This makes the difference a into other chemical elements or compounds by any physical
point function or state function. methods.

Iced water is not a pure substance because it is a mixture of

two pure substances - water and ice.
 - Quality must be specified along with temperature and
The reasons why iced water is not a pure substance are: pressure to define the state of wet saturated steam.
- It indicates the proportion of vapor present in saturated
- It consists of two distinct pure substances - solid ice and steam.
liquid water.
So in summary, quality is a meaningful parameter only for
- Ice and water have different chemical properties and phase saturated steam, not superheated steam, as it indicates the
change behaviors. amount of vapor present in the two-phase mixture.
3. Does hfg changes with pressure? How? Also complete the
- The composition of iced water can vary depending on the following table for H2O (2022)
relative amounts of ice and water. T (C) P (Kpa) h (kJ/kg) x phase
description
- Ice can be physically separated from liquid water by melting 200 0.7
and evaporation. 140 1800

- Water and ice have different crystalline structures and can Yes, the enthalpy of vaporization (hfg) changes with pressure
exist independently. for a substance. At lower pressures, the hfg value is higher,
and it decreases with increasing pressure.
- The presence of impurities can be different in ice versus This happens because:
1. At lower pressures, more energy is required to overcome the
water.
intermolecular forces and separate the molecules to transition
from liquid to vapor.
- The temperature of the mixture depends on the ratio of ice 2. As pressure increases, the molecules are already closer
to water. together, requiring less energy for vaporization.
3. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation shows that hfg is inversely
In summary, since iced water consists of two distinct related to pressure for a given temperature.
chemical substances that can be separated physically, and its 4. What is a pure substance? Is air a pure substance?
properties depend on composition, it is not a pure substance Explain (2021)
but a mixture. A pure substance has a fixed composition and A pure substance is a single substance with fixed chemical
uniform properties throughout. composition and properties. Some key points about pure
2. What is quality of steam? Does it have any meaning in the substances:
superheated vapor and saturated vapor? (2022)
The quality of steam refers to the dryness fraction - the mass 1. It consists of only one type of molecule or compound.
fraction of vapor in a wet steam mixture containing both There are no contaminants or mixtures.
liquid water and vapor phases.
2. It has a defined chemical formula and molecular structure.
The quality ranges from 0 to 1: Examples - H2O for water, O2 for oxygen gas.

- Quality = 0 indicates saturated liquid water. 3. The composition and properties do not vary from one
- Quality = 1 indicates dry saturated steam. sample to another. Water always boils at 100°C at standard
- Quality between 0 and 1 indicates wet steam, which is a pressure.
mixture of saturated liquid and vapor.
4. Can exist in different physical phases - solid, liquid or gas.
The concept of quality has different meanings in superheated H2O can be ice, liquid water or water vapor.
and saturated steam:
Air is NOT a pure substance because:
Superheated steam:
1. It is a homogeneous mixture of different gases like
- It is 100% vapor, with no liquid phase present. nitrogen, oxygen, argon etc.
- Quality is always equal to 1 for superheated steam.
- It is a single phase gas with temperature higher than 2. No single chemical formula. Contents vary slightly by
saturation temperature. source and location.
- Quality has no practical significance for superheated steam.
3. Boiling/condensation points depend on the constituent
Saturated steam: fractions. No fixed values.

- It is a two phase mixture containing both liquid water and So in summary, air is not a pure substance as it contains
vapor. different gas components mixed together in varying
- Quality varies from 0 to 1 depending on the vapor mass proportions. The composition and properties can differ based
fraction.
 on the sample of air. It does not have a defined chemical Total mass (m) = 2 kg
formula or molecular structure. Pressure (P) = 6 bar
5. Draw the T-s diagram of a pure substance with relevant
constant property lines (2021) Steps:
Here is a T-s diagram of a pure substance with relevant 1. Determine saturation temperature (Tsat) at 6 bar from
constant property lines: steam tables
Explanations: Tsat = 179.9°C

- The T-s diagram has temperature T on the y-axis and 2. At Tsat = 179.9°C,
entropy s on the x-axis - Density of saturated liquid (ρl) = 958.4 kg/m3
- The bell shaped curve ABC shows phase change from solid - Density of saturated vapor (ρv) = 9.844 kg/m3
to liquid to vapor
- The saturation line AB separates subcooled liquid and 3. Apply saturation equation:
superheated vapor regions x = (ρv)/(ρl + ρv)
- Point C indicates the triple point temperature and pressure where x is vapor quality
- Point B is the critical point above which distinct → x = (9.844) / (958.4 + 9.844) = 0.01
liquid/vapor phases do not exist
- Lines HG and IJ show constant pressure and constant 4. Calculate vapor mass:
temperature processes respectively mv = x∙m
mv = 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 kg
This T-s diagram with the saturation curve and critical point
is characteristic of pure substances. It shows the various 5. Calculate liquid mass
thermodynamic regions and processes possible during phase ml = m - mv
change. ml = 2 - 0.02 = 1.98 kg
6. What do you understand by triple point? Give the
pressure and temperature of water at its triple point 6. Liquid volume = Mass / Density
(2021) → Vl = ml/ρl = 1.98/958.4 = 0.00206 m3
The triple point of a substance refers to the temperature and
pressure at which the three phases of matter - solid, liquid, 7. Vapor volume = Total volume - Liquid volume
and gas - exist in thermodynamic equilibrium. → Vv = V - Vl = 0.5 - 0.00206 = 0.49784 m3

Key points about triple point: Results:

Liquid volume = 0.00206 m3
- At this point, all 3 phases coexist in balance Liquid mass = 1.98 kg
- Adding/removing heat does not change relative amounts of Vapor volume = 0.49784 m3
each phase Vapor mass = 0.02 kg
- Used to calibrate thermometers to International 8. Define the terms phase and pure substance. A system
Temperature Scale consists of liquid water in equilibrium with a gaseous
mixture of air and water vapor. How many phases are
For water, the triple point occurs at: present? Does the system consist of a pure substance?
Explain (2020)
Temperature: 273.16 K (0.01 °C) Phase: It is a homogeneous part of a system that has uniform
Pressure: 611.73 Pa physical and chemical characteristics. The phases can be gas,
liquid or solid states of matter. A phase boundary separates
At this precise temperature and pressure the solid, liquid and two phases.
vapor states of water remain in stable equilibrium, with no net
phase change between them. Pure Substance: It is a single type of matter that has defined
chemical composition and properties. It cannot be separated
If either temperature or pressure differs even slightly from into other chemical elements or compounds by any physical
this triple point, one phase will be favored over the others. processes.

So the triple point gives the defining value for a substance, For the given system:
acting as a calibration point for instruments. The invariance
of coexisting phases underlies its significance. Phases present:
7. A vessel of volume 0.5 m² contains 2 kg of wet steam at a 1. Liquid water phase
pressure of 6 bar. Determine the volume and mass of both 2. Gaseous phase (mixture of air and water vapor)
liquid and vapor. (2021)
Given: So there are two phases with a liquid-gas phase boundary.
Total volume (V) = 0.5 m3
 It is not a pure substance as the gaseous phase consists of a Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a frictionless piston-
mixture of two different components - air (oxygen, nitrogen cylinder arrangement. Let:
etc.) and water vapor. There is no single defined chemical m = mass of gas
composition. The liquid phase however is pure water. P = absolute pressure
V = volume
Therefore, two phases are present in the system but it does T = absolute temperature
not consist of a pure substance since the gas mixture has R = universal gas constant
varying composition. The liquid water alone as a separate
phase can be considered a pure substance Applying Boyle's law:
9. Determine the phase or phases in a system consisting of P α 1/V -------(1)
H₂O at the following conditions and sketch P-V diagrams
showing the location of each state: (i) P=5bar, T-151.9°C Applying Charles's law:
(ii) P-5bar, T=200° (iii) P-1bar, T-12°C (2020) V α T -------(2)
The phase determination and P-V diagram for the given H2O
states are as follows: Eliminating V from equations (1) and (2):
P α T ------(3)
(i) P = 5 bar, T = 151.9°C
At this state, H2O is in liquid-vapor saturation region. So Also, density ρ = m/V
it is a mixture of liquid water and water vapor. Hence two
phases exist - liquid and vapor. Putting the value of V in terms of m and ρ in equation (3):
P = constant x (m/ρ) x T-----(4)
(ii) P = 5 bar, T = 200°C
At temperature above critical temperature (374°C for Here the constant is the universal gas constant R.
water), substance remains in single gaseous phase
irrespective of pressure. So H2O at this state is superheated Therefore, ideal gas equation is:
vapor. Only vapor phase exists. PV = mRT

(iii) P = 1 bar, T = 12°C Thus derived.

At 1 bar and 12°C, water remains in stable liquid phase. 11. Define the term phase. Discuss the phase change
So only liquid water phase is present. phenomenon of a pure substance. (2020)
Phase refers to the physical state of matter, defined by the
The P-V diagram depicting the three states: molecular arrangement and degree of molecular motion. The
three common phases are solid, liquid and gas.
[Sketch showing liquid, vapor and supercritical states]
The phase change phenomenon in a pure substance involves
As shown, state (i) lies in liquid-vapor dome, state (ii) is in transition between these solid, liquid and gas phases. It occurs
the supercritical region and state (iii) exists as liquid at given due to addition or removal of latent heat:
pressure and temperature conditions.
10. What is the difference between ideal and real gases? Show Solid to liquid: This change from solid to liquid state is called
that PV=mRT, where the notations bear their usual melting or fusion. Heat is absorbed by the solid to overcome
meanings. (2020) intermolecular forces and allow molecules to move freely.
The differences between ideal and real gases are: The temperature remains constant during melting.

Ideal Gas: Liquid to gas: This liquid to gas transition is called

1. Obeys Boyle's, Charles's, Avogadro's and Dalton's laws vaporization or boiling. Absorption of heat causes change
perfectly. from liquid to gaseous state as molecules break free from
2. Has no intermolecular attractive forces between gas intermolecular forces. Temperature again remains same.
molecules.
3. Occupies negligible volume compared to empty space. Gas to liquid: The reverse change from gas to liquid is called
condensation. Heat is released when a gas condenses to liquid
Real Gas: by losing kinetic energy. Temperature does not change during
1. Deviates from ideal gas laws at high pressure and low condensation.
temperature.
2. Exerts intermolecular van der Waals attractive forces Liquid to solid: This liquid to solid transition is called
between molecules. freezing or solidification. Heat is released as the random
3. Gas molecules have finite volume that is non-negligible. liquid molecules rearrange in an orderly crystal pattern in the
solid state. Temperature again remains unchanged.
Derivation of Ideal Gas Equation:
 The amount of latent heat involved decides the nature and
temperature of these phase changes between distinct physical Density ρ = 909 kg/m3 (from steam table)
states. Thus, heat absorption or heat release enables phase
changes in a pure substance while maintaining a constant Enthalpy H = m x h
temperature. = 2 x 719 = 1438 kJ
12. Draw a saturation curve on T-s diagram and mention the
different states of water on it (2020) Entropy S = m x s
Here is a T-s (temperature-entropy) diagram showing the = 2 x 2.2 = 4.4 kJ/K
saturation curve for water and the different states:
Therefore, for 2 kg water at 2 bar and 80°C:
[Drawing of a T-s diagram with temperature on the y-axis and Volume V = 0.00220 m3
entropy on the x-axis. A bell shaped saturation curve is drawn Density ρ = 909 kg/m3
from the triple point up to the critical point.] Enthalpy H = 1438 kJ
Entropy S = 4.4 kJ/K
The saturation curve bounds the liquid-vapor region on the
phase diagram. The different states are:

Solid (ice) - Represented by the area below the curve and to

Mixture of gas and
the left of the triple point. Water in solid ice state.
vapour
Liquid (water) - The area under the curve between triple point 1. What is the difference between R and Ru? How are they
and critical point. Liquid water state. related? Under what conditions is the ideal gas
assumption suitable for real gases? (2022)
Vapor (steam) - The area above the saturation curve is the The key differences between the gas constant R and the
vapor region. Gaseous water or steam. universal gas constant Ru are:

Supercritical fluid - The area above the critical point is the - R is the gas constant for a specific gas. Its value depends on
supercritical region where distinct liquid and vapor phases do the identity of the gas.
not exist.
- Ru is the same for all gases. It has a fixed universal value of
Triple point - At the intersection of all three phases, water can 8.314 J/mol-K.
coexist as solid, liquid and vapor.
R and Ru are related as:
Critical point - Above this point, liquid water transitions
directly into steam. No phase boundary exists. R = Ru/M

The saturation curve depicts the boundary between liquid- Where M is the molar mass of the gas in kg/mol.
vapor phases. The T-s diagram illustrates the distinct states
water can exist in and the transitions between them. So the gas constant R is calculated by dividing the universal
13. Calculate volume, density, enthalpy and entropy of 2kg of gas constant Ru by the molar mass of that particular gas.
water at 2 bar and 80°C (2020)
Given: The ideal gas assumption is suitable under conditions where:
Mass of water (m) = 2 kg
Pressure (P) = 2 bar - The gas particles have negligible volume (point particles)
Temperature (T) = 80°C = 353 K
- There are negligible intermolecular attractive forces (non-
To find: Volume (V), density (ρ), enthalpy (h), entropy (s) polar gases)

Using steam tables: - The average kinetic energy is much higher than the potential
At P = 2 bar and T = 353 K energy
Specific volume of saturated water v = 0.00110 m3/kg
Density ρ = 1/v = 1/0.00110 = 909 kg/m3 This happens at high temperatures and low pressures, when
Enthalpy h = 719 kJ/kg the gas molecules are far apart and their motion is random.
Entropy s = 2.2 kJ/kg⋅K
At low temperatures or high pressures, the ideal gas law fails
Calculations: because gas molecules have significant volumes, experience
Volume V = m x v intermolecular forces, and do not act as point particles. Real
= 2 x 0.00110 gas behavior must be considered under such conditions.
= 0.00220 m3
2. Show that for an ideal gas Cp = Cv + R. A fixed mass of an The change in enthalpy (ΔH) for the constant pressure
ideal gas is heated from 50°C to 80°C. (i) at constant process is:
volume (ii) at constant pressure. For which case do you ΔH = m*Cp*(T2 - T1)
think the energy required will be greater? (2022) ΔH = 10 * 1.005 * (373 - 293) = 8000 kJ
For an ideal gas, the molar heat capacities at constant pressure
(Cp) and constant volume (Cv) are related as: The change in internal energy (ΔU) for the constant volume
process is:
Cp - Cv = R ΔU = m*Cv*(T2 - T1)
ΔU = 10 * 0.718 * (373 - 293) = 5600 kJ
Where R is the gas constant.
Therefore, the values are:
This can be derived from the ideal gas law and the definition
of Cp and Cv. Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
Now, to compare the energy required to heat the fixed mass ΔH = 8000 kJ
of an ideal gas from 50°C to 80°C under constant volume ΔU = 5600 kJ
versus constant pressure: 4. What do you understand by the term "Psychrometry"?
What is Sling Psychometer? With neat sketch explain it's
(i) Constant volume process: working process (2022)
Psychrometry refers to the measurement of moisture content
Heat required, Q = mCvΔT in air and other gases. It involves the determination of various
thermodynamic properties of air-water vapor mixtures.
(ii) Constant pressure process:
Sling Psychrometer is a simple instrument used to measure
Heat required, Q = mCpΔT relative humidity. It consists of:

Since Cp > Cv for an ideal gas, the heat required at constant - Two thermometers mounted together on a handle or frame.
pressure (Q = mCpΔT) will be greater than that at constant
volume (Q = mCvΔT). - One thermometer has its bulb covered by a muslin sleeve
that is wetted with water. This is called the wet bulb
This is because an additional amount of energy (mRΔT) is thermometer.
required during the constant pressure process to do expansion
work as the gas temperature increases at fixed pressure. - The other thermometer has an uncovered bulb and measures
the dry bulb temperature.
Therefore, more energy is needed to heat the fixed mass of an
ideal gas from 50°C to 80°C under conditions of constant Working principle:
pressure compared to constant volume.
3. 10kg of air is heated in a rigid vessel from 20°C to 100°C. 1. The muslin sleeve is wetted with distilled water.
If the ratio of specific heat is 1.4 Estimate the value of C.,
C. ∆H and ∆U, where symbols have their usual meanings. 2. The user whirls the psychrometer rapidly for some time.
(2022)
Given: 3. Due to evaporation, the wet bulb temperature falls below
Mass of air (m) = 10 kg the dry bulb temperature.
Initial temperature (T1) = 20°C = 293 K
Final temperature (T2) = 100°C = 373 K 4. The temperatures at both bulbs are measured.
Ratio of specific heats (γ) = 1.4
5. The difference in the two temperatures is used to determine
Specific heat at constant volume (Cv) can be calculated using the relative humidity from psychrometric charts.
γ as:
γ = Cp/Cv 6. Greater the evaporation from wet bulb, lower is the
Cp = γ*Cv humidity.
Cv = Cp/γ
[Sketch of a sling psychrometer with wet and dry bulb
For air, γ = 1.4 thermometers]
Therefore, Cv = Cp/1.4 = 0.718 kJ/kg.K
The main advantage of a sling psychrometer is that it is
Heat capacity at constant pressure, simple, portable and provides reasonable accuracy in
Cp = γ*Cv = 1.4*0.718 = 1.005 kJ/kg.K measuring humidity.
5. Define the following (i) dew point temperature (ii) relative
humidity (iii) Specific humidity (iv) degree of saturation. Moisture added = Vp2 - Vp1 = 2.12 - 0.425 = 1.695 kPa
(2022)
The definitions are: Sensible heat added = Mass of air x Cp x (T2 - T1)
(Taking Cp = 1 kJ/kg.K for air)
(i) Dew point temperature: It is the temperature to which air = 1 x (30 - 16) = 14 kJ
must be cooled at constant pressure for water vapor to
condense into liquid. At this point, air reaches 100% relative Latent heat added = Moisture added x Latent heat of
humidity. vaporization of water
= 1.695 x 2257 = 3827 kJ
(ii) Relative humidity: It is the ratio of actual partial pressure
of water vapor in air to the saturation pressure of water vapor Therefore, total heat added = Sensible heat + Latent heat
at the same temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. = 14 + 3827 = 3841 kJ

(iii) Specific humidity: It is the ratio of the mass of water Sensible heat factor = Sensible heat added / Total heat added
vapor to the total mass of moist air in a given volume. = 14/3841 = 0.364

(iv) Degree of saturation: It refers to the ratio of actual So the moisture added is 1.695 kPa, total heat added is 3841
humidity or vapor content to the maximum possible humidity kJ and sensible heat factor is 0.364.
at the same temperature. It ranges from 0 to 1. Value of 1 7. What is a Psychrometric chart? Describe with a neat
indicates saturated air. sketch the basic features of the Psychrometric chart
(2021)
In summary: Psychrometric Chart:

- Dew point is the temperature at which condensation occurs A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of various
thermodynamic properties of moist air at a constant pressure.
- Relative humidity compares current vapor pressure with the It shows the relationship between humidity ratio, relative
maximum possible humidity, enthalpy and temperature for air-water vapor
mixtures.
- Specific humidity is the absolute moisture content
Features of Psychrometric Chart:
- Degree of saturation compares current absolute humidity to
the maximum possible 1. Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) Lines: The chart has vertical
lines representing air DBT in °C or °F.
These parameters help quantify the amount of water vapor
present in a given volume of air. 2. Relative Humidity (RH) Lines: Diagonal lines show
6. Atmospheric air at a dry bulb temperature of 16°C and variation in RH percentage from 0 to 100%.
25% relative humidity passes through a furnace and then
through a humidifier, in such a way that the final dry bulb 3. Moisture Content Lines: The horizontal lines denote
temperature is 30°C and 50% relative humidity. Find the specific humidity, humidity ratio or some other moisture
heat and moisture added to the air. Also determine the content measure.
sensible heat factor of the process. (2022)
Given: 4. Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) Lines: The curved lines
Initial dry bulb temperature (T1) = 16°C connect points having same WBT. It decreases with
Initial relative humidity (RH1) = 25% increasing moisture content.
Final dry bulb temperature (T2) = 30°C
Final relative humidity (RH2) = 50% 5. Enthalpy Lines: Diagonal lines denote moist air enthalpy
typically in kJ/kg or Btu/lb.
Initial saturation vapor pressure at 16°C (from steam tables)
= 1.7 kPa A simplified sketch showing these major features on a
Final saturation vapor pressure at 30°C = 4.24 kPa psychrometric chart is given below:

Initial vapor pressure (Vp1) = RH1 x Saturation vapor [Sketch of psychrometric chart showing 1) DBT lines 2) RH
pressure at T1 lines 3) Moisture content 4) WBT lines and 5) Enthalpy lines]
= 0.25 x 1.7 = 0.425 kPa
The chart is thus used to visualize the state of moist air and
Final vapor pressure (Vp2) = RH2 x Saturation vapor analyze various air conditioning processes that control
pressure at T2 temperature, humidity or enthalpy of air.
= 0.5 x 4.24 = 2.12 kPa
8. Establish the following expression for air-vapor mixture: - Relative humidity depends on both moisture content and
𝑷𝒖 temperature. Specific humidity only depends on moisture
specific humidity, w = 0.622x where Pu is the partial
𝑷𝒃−𝑷𝒖
content.
pressure of water vapor and Pb is the barometric
pressure. (2021)
- As temperature increases, relative humidity decreases if
9. The dry and wet-bulb temperature of atmospheric air at
moisture content stays constant. Specific humidity is
1 atm. (101.325 kPa) pressure are measured with a sling
unchanged with temperature.
psychrometer and determined to be 25 and 15 °C,
respectively. Determine (i) the specific humidity, (ii) the
- Relative humidity ranges from 0% to 100%. Specific
relative humidity, and (iii) the enthalpy of the air. (2021)
humidity has no theoretical limit and can keep increasing as
Given:
more moisture is added.
Dry bulb temperature (Tdb) = 25°C
Wet bulb temperature (Twbt) = 15°C
- Relative humidity tells you how saturated the air is
Atmospheric pressure (P) = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
compared to the maximum it can hold. Specific humidity tells
you the absolute moisture content of the air.
(i) Specific humidity (ω)
Using psychrometric relations:
So in summary, relative humidity describes the degree of
ω = (2501 - 2.326Twbt) / (2372 + 1.805Tdb)
saturation of air, while specific humidity describes the
ω = (2501 - 2.326 x 15) / (2372 + 1.805 x 25)
moisture content. Both are useful for analyzing the amount of
= 0.00992 kg/kg
water vapor present.
11. Atmospheric air at 1.0132bar has a dry bulb temperature
(ii) Relative humidity (RH)
of 32°C and a wet bulb temperature of 26°C. Compute (i)
RH = (Pwbt/Pws) x 100
partial pressure of water vapor, (ii) Specific humidity, (iii)
Where Pwbt is saturation vapor pressure at wet bulb
dew point temperature, (iv) relative humidity, (v) degree
temperature
of saturation, (vi) density of air in the mixture, (vii)
Pws is saturation vapor pressure at dry bulb
density of vapour in the mixture, and (viii) enthalpy of the
temperature
mixture. (2020)
Given:
Pwbt at 15°C = 17.535 kPa (from steam tables)
Barometric pressure (P) = 1.0132 bar
Pws at 25°C = 31.824 kPa
Dry bulb temperature (Tdb) = 32°C = 305 K
RH = (17.535/31.824) X 100
Wet bulb temperature (Twb) = 26°C = 299 K
= 55.1%
(i) Partial pressure of water vapor (Pw):
(iii) Enthalpy (h)
Using psychrometric chart:
h = 1.006Tdb + ω(2501 + 1.805Tdb)
At Tdb = 32°C and Twb = 26°C, Pw = 0.024 bar
h = 1.006 x 25 + 0.00992(2501 + 1.805 x 25)
(ii) Specific humidity (Ws):
= 50.2 kJ/kg
Using psychrometric chart:
At Tdb = 32°C and Twb = 26°C, Ws = 0.0105 kg/kg
Therefore,
Specific humidity = 0.00992 kg/kg
(iii) Dew point temperature (Tdp):
Relative humidity = 55.1%
Using psychrometric chart:
Enthalpy = 50.2 kJ/kg
At Tdb = 32°C and Twb = 26°C, Tdp = 20°C = 293 K
10. What is relative humidity? How does it differ from
specific humidity? (2020)
(iv) Relative humidity (RH):
Relative humidity and specific humidity are two ways to
RH = (Pw/Pws) x 100
measure the amount of water vapor present in air.
Where Pws is saturation pressure of water at Tdb.
Using steam tables, at 32°C, Pws = 0.04246 bar
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual vapor pressure of
RH = (0.024/0.04246) x 100 = 56.5%
water in the air to the saturated vapor pressure of water at that
temperature. It is expressed as a percentage. A relative
(v) Degree of saturation (R):
humidity of 100% indicates the air is saturated with water
R = Pw/Pws = 0.024/0.04246 = 0.565
vapor and cannot hold any more moisture at that temperature.
(vi) Density of air (ρa):
Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to
ρa = P/(Ra*Tdb)
the total mass of the air (including water vapor). It is typically
Where Ra = specific gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
expressed in grams of moisture per kilogram of air (g/kg).
ρa = 1.0132/(0.287 x 305) = 1.16 kg/m3
The key differences:
(vii) Density of vapor (ρw):
 ρw = Pw/(Rw*Tdb) Initial pressure (P1) = 7 bar
Where Rw = specific gas constant for water vapor = 0.462 Initial volume (V1) = 1.5 m3
kJ/kg.K Final pressure (P2) = 1.4 bar
ρw = 0.024/(0.462 x 305) = 0.017 kg/m3 Final volume (V2) = 4.5 m3
Change in internal energy (ΔU) = 525 kJ
(viii) Enthalpy of mixture (h): Specific heat at constant volume (Cv) = 1.047 kJ/kg∙K
Using psychrometric chart:
At Tdb = 32°C and Ws = 0.0105 kg/kg, h = 63 kJ/kg (i) Gas constant (R):
Using ideal gas equation:
Therefore, PV = mRT
(i) Pw = 0.024 bar mR = (P1V1 - P2V2)/ (T1 - T2)
(ii) Ws = 0.0105 kg/kg For an ideal gas undergoing expansion, T1 = T2
(iii) Tdp = 20°C ∴ mR = (P1V1 - P2V2)/0 = (7 x 1.5 - 1.4 x 4.5) = 3.5 bar∙m3
(iv) RH = 56.5% R = 3.5 / 3 = 1.17 kJ/kg∙K
(v) R = 0.565
(vi) ρa = 1.16 kg/m3 (ii) Change in enthalpy (ΔH):
(vii) ρw = 0.017 kg/m3 ΔU = ΔH - Δ(PV)
(viii) h = 63 kJ/kg Where, Δ(PV) = P1V1 - P2V2
12. Under what condition does a real gas behave as an ideal ∴ ΔH = ΔU + Δ(PV)
gas? (2020) = 525 + (7 x 1.5 - 1.4 x 4.5) = 525 + 3.5
A real gas behaves closely to an ideal gas when the following = 528.5 kJ
conditions are met:
(iii) Initial temperature (T1):
1. Low Pressure - At low pressures, the molecules of a real ΔU = mCv(T2 - T1)
gas are far apart and intermolecular attractive forces are 525 = 3 x 1.047 x (T2 - T1)
minimal. This makes their behavior closer to an ideal gas. ∴ T2 - T1 = 0 (for ideal gas expansion)
∴ Initial temperature, T1 = Final temperature, T2
2. High Temperature - At high temperatures, the thermal
kinetic energy of molecules is much greater than the potential Final temperature (T2):
energy from intermolecular attractions. Behavior approaches T2 = ΔU/mCv = 525/3x1.047 = 169.5 K
ideal.
Therefore,
3. Low Density - Low density indicates large volume and (i) Gas constant, R = 1.17 kJ/kg∙K
increased separation between molecules. Ideal gas behavior (ii) Change in enthalpy, ΔH = 528.5 kJ
improves at low densities. (iii) Initial temperature, T1 = Final temperature, T2 = 169.5
K
4. Small Molecule Size - Larger molecules have more 14. The sling psychrometer in the Heat engine Lab gives dry
pronounced intermolecular forces. Smaller molecules like bulb temperature of 30°C and wet bulb temperature of
helium and hydrogen behave more ideally. 25°C during, a Sessional class. Calculate (i) vapour
pressure (ii) relative humidity, (iii) specific humidity, (iv)
5. Absence of Chemical Reactions - Chemical reactions and degree of saturation, (v) dew point temperature, and (vi)
dissociation introduce deviations. Ideal behavior is enthalpy of the mixture. (2020)
approached when no reactions occur. Given:
Dry bulb temperature (Tdb) = 30°C
To summarize, a real gas behaves very close to an ideal or Wet bulb temperature (Twb) = 25°C
perfect gas under conditions of low pressure, high
temperature, low density, small molecular size, and no (i) Vapour pressure (Pv):
chemical reactions. Under these conditions, the simplifying Using psychrometric chart:
assumptions made for an ideal gas model become most valid. At 25°C wet bulb temperature, the vapour pressure = 0.03bar
All real gases show some deviation, but follow the ideal gas
laws well within normal temperature and pressure ranges. (ii) Relative humidity (φ):
13. 3kg of an ideal gas is expanded from a pressure 7 bar and Using the chart:
volume 1.5m² to e pressure 1.4 bar and volume 4.5m³. The Pv = 0.03 bar
change in internal energy is 525kJ. The specific heat at Pws at 30°C dry bulb temp = 0.043 bar
constant volume for the gas is 1.047kJ/kg-K. Calculate (i) ∴ Relative Humidity, φ = (Pv/Pws) x 100 = (0.03/0.043) x
gas constant (ii) change in enthalpy and (iii) initial and 100 = 70%
final temperature. (2020)
Given: (iii) Specific humidity (ω):
Mass of gas (m) = 3 kg Using the chart, at 70% Relative humidity,
 Specific humidity (ω) = 0.012 kg water vapor/kg dry air

(iv) Degree of saturation:

Basic Mechanical
DS = Actual specific humidity/Specific humidity at
saturation Devices
At 30°C, ωs = 0.0242 kg/kg 1. What do you mean by Refrigeration and Air-
∴ DS = (Actual ω/ ωs) x 100 = (0.012/0.0242)x100 = 50% conditioning? What are the factors which affect comfort
air conditioning? (2022)
(v) Dew Point Temperature: Refrigeration refers to the process of removing heat from a
The temperature at which condensation begins is called the space or substance to lower its temperature below the
dew point temperature. ambient. It is used for cooling, food preservation etc.
Using chart, at 0.03 bar vapour pressure,
Dew point temperature = 20°C Air-conditioning is the process of controlling temperature,
humidity, cleanliness and distribution of air in an enclosed
(vi) Enthalpy of mixture: space to provide a comfortable interior environment.
From psychrometric chart,
At 30°C DBT & 70% RH, Enthalpy h = 63 kJ/kg The major factors affecting comfort air conditioning are:

Therefore, the calculated parameters are: - Temperature - The room dry bulb temperature affects
(i) 0.03 bar (ii) 70% thermal comfort. Air conditioning aims to maintain optimal
(iii) 0.012 kg/kg (iv) 50% temperature.
(v) 20°C (vi) 63 kJ/kg
15. What is saturated air and degree of saturation (2020) - Humidity - The moisture content in air impacts comfort.
Saturated Air and Degree of Saturation are important Humidity needs to be controlled along with temperature.
psychrometric properties used to analyze air-water vapor
mixtures. - Air motion - Air movement aids comfort by promoting
evaporation and heat loss from skin. Fans circulate air.
Saturated Air:
- It refers to moist air in which the water vapor content - Air purity - Filters remove dust, microbes, odors from the
reaches its maximum limit at a given temperature. air to provide clean, fresh air.
- At saturation, the air holds the maximum amount of water
vapor it can hold at that temperature. - Noise level - Excess noise from fans and compressors
- The relative humidity of saturated air is 100%. causes discomfort. Acoustic treatment minimizes noise.
- If more water vapor is added, condensation occurs.
- Air distribution - Air should be uniformly distributed and
Degree of Saturation: circulated throughout the conditioned space.
- It is defined as the ratio of the actual humidity of air to the
saturation humidity at the same temperature. - Ventilation - Fresh outdoor air needs to be adequately
- Mathematically, introduced for oxygen replenishment.
Degree of Saturation = (Actual Humidity Ratio / Saturation
Humidity Ratio at the given temperature) x 100 - Individual factors - Comfort is also affected by clothing,
- It is expressed as a percentage. activity level and preferences of occupants.
- It gives a measure of how close the given air sample is to
getting saturated. Properly controlling these factors through heating, cooling,
humidification, dehumidification, air circulation and cleaning
For example, if air at 30°C has a degree of saturation of 80%. provides comfort conditioning.
This means the actual humidity ratio is 80% of the maximum 2. Define COP. Also prove that (COP)HP = (COP)R + 1 (2022)
ratio needed to saturate the air at 30°C. A value of 100% COP stands for Coefficient of Performance. It is a measure of
indicates saturated air. efficiency for heating and refrigeration systems.

The degree of saturation is an important parameter used in COP is defined as:

psychrometric analysis of air conditioning and refrigeration
cycles. COP = Heat Output / Work Input

For a refrigerator:

COP(refrigerator) = Heat Removed/Work Input

For a heat pump:

 Due to the adiabatic humidification, the temperature of the air
COP(heat pump) = Heat Supplied/Work Input decreases. It is again increased up to the required value by
passing the air over the secondary heating coil.
The COP of a reversible heat pump and refrigerator are This process is often represented on a psychrometric chart,
related as: where process 1-2 and 4-6 represent sensible heating, and
process 2-4 represents adiabatic humidification of air
4. What is an IC Engine? How IC engine are classified?
(COP)hp = (COP)r + 1
Differentiate between petrol and diesel engine. (2022)
An internal combustion (IC) engine is a heat engine in which
Where (COP)hp is the COP of the heat pump and (COP)r is
the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine itself.
the COP of the refrigerator.
Some key points about IC engines:
This can be proven as follows:
Classification of IC Engines:
For a refrigerator:
1. Based on fuel used:
Heat removed from low temperature = Qr
a) Petrol engines
Work input = W
b) Diesel engines
(COP)r = Qr/W
c) Gas engines
2. Based on method of ignition:
For a heat pump:
a) Spark ignition engines - petrol engines using spark plugs
Heat supplied to high temperature = Qhp
b) Compression ignition engines - diesel engines relying
Work input = W
on heat of compressed air
(COP)hp = Qhp/W
3. Based on number of strokes per cycle:
Applying energy balance:
a) Four stroke engines
Qhp = Qr + W
b) Two stroke engines
Or, Qhp - Qr = W
4. Based on cooling medium:
Substituting the above equations:
a) Air cooled engines
(COP)hp = Qhp/W = (Qr + W)/W = (COP)r + 1
b) Water cooled engines
Therefore, (COP)hp = (COP)r + 1
Differences between petrol and diesel engines:
This shows the COPs of a heat pump and refrigerator are
1. Fuel type: Petrol engines use gasoline, diesel engines use
related by this fundamental equation.
diesel fuel.
3. Describe the winter Air-conditioning system with a block
diagram (2022) 2. Ignition: Petrol engines use spark plugs to ignite
A winter air conditioning system is designed to provide
compressed petrol-air mixture. Diesel engines rely on heat of
heating and humidification to maintain a comfortable indoor
compressed air to ignite injected diesel fuel.
environment during cold weather. Here’s a simplified
description of its construction and working:
Construction: The winter air conditioning system consists of 3. Air intake method: Petrol engines are normally aspirated
the following main components1: or uses forced induction. Diesel engines always rely on forced
Filter: This cleans the incoming air. induction via a turbocharger.
Primary Heating Coil: This increases the temperature of the
air. 4. Pressure: Petrol engines have lower compression ratios
Water Eliminator: This removes water droplets from the while diesel engines require higher compression for ignition.
conditioned air.
Secondary Heating Coil: This further increases the air 5. Efficiency: Diesel engines typically have higher thermal
temperature to the desired value. efficiency due to higher compression ratios.
Working: The process of conditioning air in a winter air
conditioning system involves several steps1:
6. Weight and size: Diesel engines are heavier than petrol
The air first passes through a filter for cleaning.
engines due to stronger components needed for higher
It then flows over the primary heating coil, where its
temperature increases but its relative humidity decreases. pressures.
To increase the relative humidity, the air is passed through an 5. What is a gas turbine? How does a gas turbine compare
adiabatic humidifier, where cold water (having a temperature with the internal combustion engine power plant (2022)
less than the dry bulb temperature of air, but more than its A gas turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from the
dew point temperature) is sprayed in the path of the air. This flow of combustion gases. It has a compressor for air intake,
humidifies the air. a combustion chamber where fuel is burned, and a turbine
The humid air is then passed through the water eliminator to where hot expanding gases coming from the combustion
remove water droplets. chamber strike the blades to produce rotational movement.
 - Performance parameters: Flow rate, compression ratio,
The main differences between a gas turbine and an internal power, isothermal/adiabatic efficiency etc.
combustion (IC) engine power plant are:
In summary, both pumps and compressors supply external
1. Working fluid - Gas turbines use hot combustion gases as energy to transfer liquids and compress gases respectively.
the working fluid. IC engines use the pressure generated from Pumps handle liquids which are relatively incompressible
combustion inside the engine itself. while compressors handle compressible gases. Efficiency and
intended application guide the choice of pump/compressor
2. Continuous process - Gas turbines have continuous flow type for a system.
allowing smooth power output. IC engines have repeating 7. An engine uses 6.5 kg of oil per hour of calorific value
cycles making the power delivery uneven. 30000 kJ/kg, the B.P. of the engine is 22 KW and
mechanical efficiency 85%, Calculate the brake thermal
3. Efficiency - Gas turbines can achieve higher efficiencies efficiency and specific fuel consumption (2022)
than IC engines as the combustion gases expand from very Given data:
high to ambient temperatures. Oil consumption (m) = 6.5 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil (Q) = 30,000 kJ/kg
4. Weight - Gas turbines have better power-to-weight ratio Brake power of engine (BP) = 22 kW
requiring smaller size for same power output. Mechanical efficiency (ηm) = 85%

5. Fuels - Gas turbines can use a variety of fuels like natural Calculations:
gas, coal gas and fuel oils. IC engines typically use specific 1. Heat supplied by fuel per hour (Qf)
liquid fuels like gasoline or diesel. = Fuel consumption per hour x Calorific value
=mxQ
6. Applications - Due to compact size and smooth power, gas = 6.5 x 30,000
turbines are used as jet engines and power generators. IC = 195,000 kJ/hr
engines are used for transportation and cheaper distributed
power needs. 2. Brake thermal efficiency (ηth)
= (Brake power / Heat supplied) x 100
In summary, gas turbines are more efficient and provide = (BP / Qf) x 100
continuous smooth power but they are complex and = (22 x 1000 / 195,000) x 100
expensive to build. IC engines are simpler and cheaper but = 11.28%
less efficient for large power generation. The choice depends
on the exact application and power needs. 3. Specific fuel consumption (SFC)
6. Write short notes on pump and compressor (2022) = Fuel consumption / Brake power
Here are short notes on pumps and compressors: = m / BP
= 6.5 / 22
Pump: = 0.295 kg/kWh

- A pump is a mechanical device used to lift or transfer liquids Therefore,

from one place to another Brake thermal efficiency (ηth) = 11.28%
- They impart mechanical energy to the liquid to overcome Specific fuel consumption (SFC) = 0.295 kg/kWh
various losses and increase pressure 8. Using P-V diagram, illustrate the sequence of operation of
- Main types: Centrifugal, reciprocating, rotary, diaphragm, an Sl engine. (2021)
etc. Sure, I can explain the sequence of operations of a Spark
- Applications: water supply, chemicals/oils transfer, Ignition (SI) engine using a Pressure-Volume (P-V) diagram.
domestic/industrial systems The SI engine operates on the principle of the Otto cycle and
- Performance parameters: Discharge, head, power, completes one cycle of combustion operation in four strokes.
efficiency, NPSH etc. Each stroke consists of 180° rotation of the crankshaft, hence
four strokes are completed in 720° rotation of the crankshaft 1.
Here are the four strokes:
Compressor:
1. Suction or Intake Stroke (Process 0→1): This stroke starts
when the piston is at top dead centre (TDC) and about to
- A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the move downward. The intake valve is open and the exhaust
pressure and density of a gas by reducing its volume valve is closed. The movement of the piston produces a
- They require external power to do mechanical work on the vacuum inside the cylinder and charge consisting of air-fuel
gas for compression mixture is drawn into the cylinder. When the piston reaches
- Main types: Reciprocating, rotary screw, centrifugal, axial the bottom dead centre (BDC), the inlet valves close. During
flow etc. this process, the volume increases but the pressure inside the
- Applications: Gas storage/transport, chemicals cylinder remains constant (atmospheric pressure)1.
manufacturing, gas turbine systems, refrigeration & A/C 2. Compression Stroke (Process 1→2): The piston moves from
BDC to TDC. Both the inlet and outlet valves are closed and
 the charge previously drawn into the cylinder gets Specific heat ratio (k) = 1.4
compressed. At the end of this stroke, the whole charge is
compressed into clearance volume. The pressure increases Efficiency for an air standard Otto cycle is given by:
with a decrease in volume1. ηth = 1 - 1/rk^(r-1)
3. Combustion/Expansion or Power Stroke (Process 2→3 and
Process 3→4): At the end of the compression stroke, the Plugging the values:
charge is burned using a spark plug at the cylinder head. The ηth = 1 - 1/(7*1.4^(7-1))
temperature and pressure inside the cylinder increase ηth = 1 - 1/7*1.4^6
dramatically at constant volume due to the burning of fuel ηth = 0.596 = 59.6%
(process 2→3). The high-pressure burnt gases push the piston
from TDC to BDC. During this process, both intake and Therefore, the air standard efficiency of the given Otto cycle
exhaust valves remain closed. At the end of the power stroke, with a compression ratio of 7 and specific heat ratio of 1.4 is
the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure drops to 59.6%
atmospheric pressure (process 4→5)1.
4. Exhaust Stroke (Process 5→0): The piston moves from BDC The efficiency is high because the compression ratio is
to TDC while the inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve reasonably good at 7. Air standard efficiency gives theoretical
is open. The piston pushes out the burnt gas from the cylinder maximum possible for comparison of engine configurations.
to the atmosphere1. 11. Draw the layout of a vapor compression refrigerating
This sequence of operations is repeated over and over again system. State the function of 2.5 COP each component and
for continuous engine operation. The P-V diagram for an SI process. (2021)
engine illustrates these processes, showing how pressure and A vapor compression refrigeration system typically consists
volume change during each stroke. of the following major components:
9. List some conventional and renewable fuels for Cl
engines. (2021) 1. Compressor:
Some conventional and renewable fuels used in Compression - Function: Compresses the refrigerant vapor from evaporator
Ignition (CI) engines are: pressure to condenser pressure
- Process: Isentropic compression
Conventional CI Engine Fuels:
2. Condenser:
- Diesel - Most common fuel made from petroleum, used - Function: Rejects heat from hot compressed vapor and
widely in CI engines condenses it to a high pressure liquid
- Petrol - Sometimes used in CI engines under special - Process: Constant pressure heat rejection
operating conditions
- Kerosene - Used in some large CI engines like those in ships 3. Expansion valve:
and jets - Function: Expands high pressure liquid refrigerant to low
- Light fuel oils - Used in medium and slow speed industrial pressure liquid vapor mixture
CI engines - Process: Adiabatic flash expansion
- Heavy fuel oils - Used in large ship engines
- Coal gas - Used in early gas engine systems 4. Evaporator:
- Function: Absorbs heat from refrigerated space and
Renewable CI Engine Fuels: evaporates refrigerant to vapor
- Process: Constant pressure heat addition
- Biodiesels - Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) derived from
vegetable oils and animal fats The system works on a vapor compression refrigeration cycle
- Dimethyl ether (DME) - Derived from waste biomass with refrigerant circulating through components as:
- Biogas - Generated by anaerobic digestion of organic
waste/sewage 1-2: Isentropic compression in compressor
- Hydrogen - Carbon-free fuel that can be used in modified 2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
CI engines 3-4: Adiabatic flash expansion in expansion valve
- Ammonia - Currently being researched as a hydrogen carrier 4-1: Constant pressure heat addition in evaporator
fuel
The coefficient of performance (COP) of the system is
The renewable fuels can supplement conventional fossil fuels defined as:
to reduce both costs and emissions from compression ignition COP = Heat removal in evaporator / Work input to
engines in an eco-friendly manner. Research is ongoing on compressor
utilizing more biofuels and synthetic fuels.
10. An engine running on an air standard Otto cycle has a For a COP of 2.5:
displacement volume 250 cm³ and a clearance volume 35.7 Heat removed in evaporator = 2.5 x Work input to compressor
cnı. Determine the air standard efficiency. Assume the 12. Define the terms: thermodynamic process, cyclic process.
specific heat ratio as 1.4 (2021) Demonstrate a quasi-static process with an example.
Given: (2021)
Displacement volume (Vd) = 250 cc Thermodynamic Process: It is the transformation of a
Clearance volume (Vc) = 35.7 cc thermodynamic system from an initial state to a final state. It
Compression ratio (r) = Vd/Vc = 250/35.7 = 7 provides a pathway for a system to undergo a change in its
 thermodynamic properties like temperature, pressure, volume
etc. 6. Noise and Vibrations - Noise levels below 40 dB and
minimal vibrations provide comfortable environment inside
Cyclic Process: It is a thermodynamic process in which the conditioned spaces.
system returns to its initial state after undergoing a series of
changes. The system repeats the same sequence of changes in 7. Individual Factors - Clothing insulation, activity level, age,
properties while returning to its initial state. gender, health etc. also affect a person's thermal comfort.

Example of a quasi-static process: By controlling these factors appropriately, a thermally

comfortable environment can be achieved for occupants.
Isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with 14. A cold storage is to be maintained at -5 °C while the
a frictionless piston. surroundings are at 35 °C. The heat leakage from the
surroundings into the cold storage is estimated to be 29
In this process: kW. The actual COP of the refrigeration plant is one-
third of an ideal plant working between the same
1) An ideal gas undergoes isothermal (constant temperature) temperature. Find the power required to drive the plant
expansion. (2021)
Given:
2) The expansion happens slowly by moving the piston Cold storage temperature (T1) = -5°C = 268 K
outward in infinitesimally small steps. Surrounding temperature (T2) = 35°C = 308 K
Heat leakage (QL) = 29 kW
3) At each step the gas reaches equilibrium with constant Actual COP (COPa) = 1/3 Ideal COP
pressure and temperature before next incremental expansion.
Ideal COP = T1/(T2 - T1) (for refrigeration)
4) This continues till gas expands to the final desired volume. = 268/(308 - 268)
=6
5) The process is then reversed to compress the gas back to
initial state in the same quasi-static manner in infinitesimally Actual COP = Ideal COP/3
small steps allowing the gas to attain equilibrium at each step. =2

So the gas undergoes a cyclical process and returns to its Refrigerating effect needed = Heat leakage
initial state at the end of the full cycle. This makes it a quasi- = 29 kW
static cyclic process with the system undergoing a series of
equilibrium states between same initial and final states. Power required for plant operation = Refrigerating
13. Write the definition of human comfort as given by effect/Actual COP
ASHRE and also mention the factors affecting comfort air = 29/2 = 14.5 kW
conditioning. (2021)
According to ASHRAE 55-2017, human comfort is defined Therefore, the power required to drive the refrigeration plant
as: is 14.5 kW.

"That condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the The key steps are:
thermal environment and is assessed by subjective 1) Determine ideal COP using cold storage and surrounding
evaluation." temperatures
2) Take 1/3rd of ideal COP to get actual COP
The major factors affecting comfort air conditioning are: 3) Equate refrigerating effect needed to the given heat leakage
4) Calculate power required using actual COP
1. Temperature - Effective temperature should be in the range 15. Compare the methodology of power production by a
of 23°C - 26°C for human comfort. steam turbine, a water turbine, and a gas turbine. (2021)
The methodologies for power production in the three turbines
2. Humidity - The relative humidity should be in the range of can be compared as follows:
40% - 60% for thermal comfort. Higher humidity causes
discomfort. 1. Steam Turbine:
- Works on rankine cycle
3. Air Movement - Optimum air movement between 0.2 m/s - Water is boiled to superheated steam in a boiler
to 0.3 m/s is comfortable. Higher drafts cause discomfort. - Steam expands in turbine blades to produce power
- Exhaust steam is condensed to water and recycled
4. CLTD - Cooling load temperature difference depends on
heat gains from people, lighting, equipment etc. Adequate 2. Water Turbine:
cooling should be provided to maintain optimal temperature. - Potential energy of falling water used to drive turbine
- Water from a height flows through penstock pipes
5. Air Quality and Purity - The conditioned space should have - Falls on turbine blades placed at bottom
sufficient outdoor air changes as per occupancy and activity - Turbine rotates to produce electricity
pollutant load. Air filters should be used to provide dust free - Water discharged to tailrace after turbine rotation
air.
 3. Gas Turbine: Electric power generated (Pe) = 1862 kW
- Works on brayton cycle Generator efficiency (ηgen) = 95%
- Air is compressed and heated by combustion in turbine
- Resulting hot gases expand to produce power (i) Overall efficiency (ηo)
- Fuel is burnt continuously in combustion chamber Hydraulic power input = ρ*g*h*m
- Exhaust gases let out to atmosphere after expansion Where,
ρ is density of water
So in summary - steam turbines use steam as working fluid, g is acceleration due to gravity
water turbines use falling water potential energy, and gas
turbines employ hot combustion gases to drive the turbine and ηo = Pe/(ρ*g*h*m)*100
generate electricity through different thermodynamic cycles. On substituting values,
16. List the accessories of a hydraulic turbine. What is the ηo = (1862 x 1000) / (1000 x 9.81 x 50 x 5000) x 100
feature of the turbine used in the only hydro-electric = 90.5%
power plant at Kaptai in Bangladesh? (2021)
The accessories of a hydraulic turbine include: (ii) Shaft power supplied (Ps)
Ps = Pe/ηgen
1. Governor - To regulate turbine speed and power Here generator efficiency,
ηgen = 95%
2. Inlet valves - To control water flow to turbine Ps = 1862/0.95 = 1960.0 kW

3. Draft tube - To recover the kinetic energy left after turbine Therefore,
Overall efficiency = 90.5%
4. Tail race - To dispose water after turbine rotation Shaft power supplied = 1960.0 kW
18. Draw the layouts of a vapour compression refrigerating
5. Brake - To stop the turbine rotation system. State the function of each component. (2020)
Here is a drawing of the layout of a basic vapor compression
6. Lubrication system - For lubricating bearings refrigeration system along with an explanation of each major
component:
7. Penstock pipes - Supply pipes carrying water from dam to
turbine [Drawing of a vapor compression refrigeration system with
labels for each component]
8. Cooling system - Removes heat from oil and windings
Compressor: The compressor compresses the refrigerant
9. Excitation system - Supplies DC current to field winding vapor, raising its pressure and temperature.

The hydroelectric power plant in Kaptai, Bangladesh uses 4 Condenser: The high pressure and temperature vapor
nos. of 60,000 kW Kaplan turbines. Some key features are: refrigerant condenses to liquid by rejecting heat to the
surroundings.
1. Kaplan turbine - Allows adjustable blades for higher
efficiency Expansion valve: The high pressure liquid refrigerant passes
through the expansion valve, undergoing a pressure and
2. Uses 32m water head from dam to operate at optimum temperature drop.
capacity
Evaporator: The low pressure liquid refrigerant evaporates by
3. Multi-staged development possible by increasing water absorbing heat from the refrigerated space, causing cooling.
levels
The cycle then repeats, with the compressor drawing in the
4. Power used to run grid system in Chattogram region of low pressure refrigerant vapor and compressing it once again.
Bangladesh This vapor compression cycle allows heat transfer from a low
temperature refrigerated space to a higher temperature
Thus, adjustable propeller type Kaplan turbines are well ambient, achieving the cooling effect. The full refrigeration
suited for medium head dam installations like the one in cycle depends on each component to either absorb heat, reject
Kaptai, Bangladesh. heat, decrease pressure, or increase pressure on the
17. The water in a large lake is to be used to generate refrigerant.
electricity by the installation of a hydraulic turbine- 19. A constant pressure open cycle gas turbine plant works
generator at a location where the depth of the water is 50 between temperature range 15°C and 700°C and pressure
m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the ratio of 6. Find the mass of air circulating in the
electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and installation if it develops 1100kW. Also find the heat
the generator efficiency is 95%. Determine (i) the overall supplied by the heating chamber (2020)
efficiency of the turbine-generator, and (ii) the shaft Okay, let's solve this step-by-step:
power supplied by the turbine to the generator. (2021)
Given data: Given:
Head (h) = 50 m Temperature range = 15°C to 700°C
Water flow rate (m) = 5000 kg/s Pressure ratio (rp) = 6
 Power output (W) = 1100 kW In summary, pumps add energy to move fluids, turbines
extract energy from moving fluids, and compressors increase
Assumptions: the pressure of a gas through mechanical work. These devices
- Open cycle gas turbine find wide application by utilizing fluid and thermal energy in
- Constant pressure process various engineering systems.
- Air acts as an ideal gas 21. Classify turbines mentioning their respective
applications. Draw the material flow diagram for a typical
Applying ideal gas equation: steam turbine unit. (2020)
T1/T2 = (P1/P2)^(γ - 1)/γ Turbines can be classified based on the working fluid used:
Where γ for air = 1.4
1. Steam Turbines:
T1 = 15°C = 288 K - Use steam as working fluid
T2 = 700°C = 973 K - Used in thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, steam
P1/P2 = 1/rp = 1/6 engines
- High rpm capability makes them suitable for electricity
Substituting: generation
(288/973) = (1/6)^(1.4 - 1)/1.4
∴ T2/T1 = 6 2. Gas Turbines:
- Use hot gases as working fluid
Work output (W) = m * Cp * (T2 - T1) - Used in jet engines, stationary power plants, gas compressor
Where Cp for air = 1.005 kJ/kg.K drives
- Light weight and high power-to-weight ratio
1100 kW = m * 1.005 * (973 - 288)
m = 1100 * 1000 / 1.005 / (973 - 288) 3. Water Turbines:
= 347.4 kg/s - Use water as working fluid
- Used in hydroelectric power plants
Therefore, mass flow rate of air (m) is 347.4 kg/s - Classified as impulse or reaction turbines

Heat supplied to the chamber (Q1) = m * Cp * (T2 - T1) 4. Wind Turbines:

= 347.4 * 1.005 * (973 - 288) - Use wind energy to rotate turbine
= 326,030 kJ/s - Used in wind farms for generating electricity
- Horizontal or vertical axis wind turbines
So the heat supplied is 326,030 kJ/s or 326 MW.
20. How will you introduce with pump, turbine, and Material flow diagram for a steam turbine:
compressor (2020)
Pumps, turbines, and compressors are important mechanical [Draws diagram showing: Fuel and air -> Combustion
devices used in many engineering systems. Here is a brief chamber -> Steam generator -> Steam turbine -> Condenser
introduction to each: -> Feed pump -> Steam generator]

Pump - A pump is used to add energy to a fluid to move it Fuel and air combust in combustion chamber to produce heat.
from one location to another. It converts mechanical energy The steam generator uses this to convert water into steam.
from a motor to increase the pressure and kinetic energy of a The high pressure steam expands in the steam turbine
fluid. Common types of pumps include centrifugal, producing rotational motion. Exhaust steam is condensed
reciprocating, and rotary pumps. They have many back to water in the condenser. Feed pump recirculates this
applications such as pumping water, hydraulic fluids, fuels, condensate back to the steam generator to repeat the cycle.
lubricating oils, etc. 22. Mention five practical uses of blower and compressor.
How they differ from each other (2020)
Turbine - A turbine converts the kinetic or pressure energy of Here are five practical uses of blowers and compressors:
a moving fluid into rotational mechanical energy. Steam, gas,
water or wind applies a force on turbine blades to rotate a Blowers:
shaft. This rotational motion can then drive an electrical
generator or other machinery. Types of turbines include 1. Supply combustion air to boilers and furnaces
steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, and wind 2. Exhaust fumes in engines and turbines
turbines. 3. Pneumatic conveying of powdered materials
4. Aeration in water treatment plants
Compressor - A compressor is used to compress and increase 5. Cooling electronic equipment
the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. The mechanical
work required for compression is done by an electric motor Compressors:
or combustion engine that drives the compressor.
Compressors are used in refrigeration, air conditioning, 1. Pressurize gases for storage and transport
pneumatic systems, etc. Reciprocating, rotary, centrifugal 2. Supply high pressure air to pneumatic tools
and axial flow compressors are some common types. 3. Refrigeration and air conditioning systems
4. Pressurize gases for chemical and petrochemical processes
5. Supercharging combustion air in engines
 - Requires careful timing to prevent mixing.
The main differences between blowers and compressors are:
5. Supercharging:
- Blowers move large volumes of air or gases against low
pressures. Compressors handle lower volumes at higher - Fresh mixture supplied to cylinder at above atmospheric
pressures. pressure.

- Blowers are generally used for ventilation or exhaust. - Improves volumetric efficiency and scavenging process.
Compressors are used to pressurize and store gases.
In summary, efficient scavenging is critical for 2-stroke
- Blowers can tolerate higher levels of contamination in the engines. Uniflow scavenging gives the best performance but
fluid. Compressors require cleaner intake air. requires complex port timing. Loop scavenging is the
simplest method. Supercharging improves scavenging by
- Blowers operate near ambient temperatures. Compressors pressurizing the fresh charge.
lead to greater temperature rise in the compressed gas. 24. Why are cooling necessary for IC engine? What are the
effects of overheating on IC engine (2020)
- Blowers are relatively inexpensive and tolerate some Cooling is necessary in internal combustion (IC) engines for
leakage. Compressors are more sophisticated with tighter the following reasons:
clearances.
1. To maintain optimal engine temperature for efficient
So in summary, blowers move large volumes at lower operation - Most engine components are designed to operate
pressures, while compressors produce higher pressures in at normal temperatures around 250°F to 300°F. Overheating
compressed gases. Their applications and design reduces efficiency.
requirements differ accordingly.
23. What is scavenging? Discuss different typ of scavenging 2. To avoid engine damage from excess heat - High
(2020) temperatures during combustion can damage cylinder heads,
Scavenging is the process of removing exhaust gases from the pistons, valves, gaskets etc. Engine components may warp or
cylinder of an internal combustion engine after the power melt if overheated.
stroke and replacing it with fresh air or air-fuel mixture for
the next cycle. It is critical for proper functioning of 2-stroke 3. To reduce thermal stresses - Rapid heating and cooling
engines. The main types of scavenging are: during engine operation induces thermal stresses in
components. Cooling helps reduce these stresses and fatigue
1. Loop scavenging: failures.

- Fresh charge enters from one side of the cylinder and pushes 4. To prevent pre-ignition - Overheating can cause the fuel-
out exhaust gases from the opposite end. air mixture to self-ignite before the spark, leading to pre-
ignition and engine knock. This can severely damage the
- Simple method but leads to poor scavenging efficiency due engine.
to mixing of fresh and burnt gases.
5. To protect passengers from high temperatures - Excess heat
2. Cross scavenging: makes the passenger cabin uncomfortable and can even pose
safety risks.
- Fresh charge enters from one side and exhaust exits from
the same side. Effects of overheating in IC engines:

- Baffles are used to prevent mixing of incoming and - Loss of power

outgoing gases. - Increased wear and tear
- Seizure of pistons or bearings
- More efficient scavenging but complex design. - Gasket, O-ring and seal failures
- Cracks in cylinder heads
3. Uniflow scavenging: - Engine knocking or pre-ignition
- Eventual breakdown of the engine
- Fresh mixture enters from one end and exhaust gases leave
from the other end. Therefore, proper cooling is vital for smooth, efficient and
safe operation of internal combustion engines.
- No interference between incoming and outgoing gases. 25. Discuss forced lubrication system (2020)
Forced lubrication system is a type of lubrication system
- Requires timed opening and closing of ports. where the lubricant is supplied to the moving parts of the
engine under pressure using an external pump. The main
4. Reverse scavenging: features of a forced lubrication system are:

- Exhaust gases leave from one end while fresh charge enters - Oil Pump - A gear pump or rotor pump driven by the engine
from the same end. crankshaft draws oil from the sump and pressurizes it. This
 pump provides positive displacement to push the oil through 27. Why engine cooling is necessary? Describe different
the lubrication system. methods of cooling and give specific examples where each
method is employed (2020)
- Oil Filters - Filters are used to remove any contaminants Engine cooling is necessary for the following reasons:
from the oil before circulating in the engine. This helps keep
the oil clean. 1. To maintain optimal engine temperature for efficient
working of the engine and protecting engine components.
- Oil Cooler - A heat exchanger or oil cooler maintains Most engines have an optimum temperature range of 30°C to
optimum oil temperatures by removing excess heat from the 105°C.
lubricating oil.
2. To avoid overheating of engine components like the
- Oil Channels and Jets - Drilled oil channels and spray jets cylinder block, cylinder head, pistons etc. High temperatures
direct a stream of oil to the critical components like camshaft, can lead to thermal expansion, material failure and engine
crankshaft bearings, tappets, piston pins etc. seizure.

- Relief Valve - A pressure relief valve regulates the oil 3. To increase the temperature of fuel air mixture for proper
pressure by allowing excess oil to return back to the sump ignition in spark ignition engines. Cooling maintains higher
when pressure exceeds safe limits. compression ratios.

- Oil Return to Sump - Gravity drain channels and scavenge 4. To reduce temperature of the lubricating oil for effective
pumps return the spent oil from top end of the engine back to lubrication.
the oil sump for reuse.
The different cooling methods and application examples are:
Forced lubrication provides better control over oil supply,
maintains optimum oil pressure and temperatures, facilitates 1. Air cooling:
oil filtration and cooling, and allows effective distribution of Used in small engines like motorcycles, scooters,
oil for reliable lubrication. It improves engine durability lawnmowers. Fins provide increased surface area for heat
compared to splash lubrication. But it increases complexity transfer.
and requires more power to drive the oil pump.
26. With appropriate sketches, discuss the sequence of 2. Water cooling:
operation of a diesel engine. (2020) Used in cars, trucks. Passageways in engine components
Here is the sequence of operations in a 4-stroke diesel engine distribute coolant liquid that absorbs and removes heat.
with appropriate sketches:
3. Oil cooling:
1. Suction Stroke: Used in industrial engines, generators to cool piston and
As the piston moves downwards, it creates a suction that cylinder walls. Oil absorbs heat from critical components.
draws air into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The
exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke. 4. Intercooling:
Used between compression stages in large diesel/gas engines
2. Compression Stroke: like in ships, gensets. Removes waste heat and increases air
In this stroke, both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. density.
The piston moves upwards which compresses the air to high
pressures and temperatures. So in summary, engine cooling is critical for proper
functioning, efficiency and preventing failure in combustion
3. Power Stroke: engines. Different cooling types are used depending on the
At the end of the compression stroke, diesel fuel is injected size and application of the engine.
by the injector at high pressure into the combustion chamber. 28. Write the function of the essential components of a simple
The heat generated during the compression stroke ignites this open gas turbine plant. Draw and label p-v and T-s
atomized fuel. The fuel-air mixture explodes rapidly, diagram for a constant pressure closed cycle gas turbine.
producing a sudden rise in pressure. The high pressures push (2020)
the piston downwards. This provides the actual power that The essential components of a simple open cycle gas turbine
runs the vehicle/equipment. plant and their functions are:

4. Exhaust Stroke: 1. Air Compressor:

In this stroke the exhaust valve opens while the inlet valve - Compresses the atmospheric air to high pressures
remains closed. The piston moves upwards pushing out the
exhaust gases produced after combustion through the exhaust 2. Combustion Chamber:
valve/port and into the exhaust system. This completes one - Fuel is added and combusted with compressed air
operating cycle. The sequence then repeats itself. - Heat addition occurs at constant pressure

So in summary, these are the 4 distinct strokes that make up 3. Turbine:

the operating cycle of a typical diesel engine - each stroke has - Expands the high temperature and high pressure gases
a specific purpose in the efficient functioning of the engine. - Produces rotational power to drive the compressor and
external load
 4. Generator:
- Converts turbine mechanical power into electrical power
Study of Steam
The p-v and T-s diagrams for a simple constant pressure
closed cycle gas turbine cycle are shown below:
Generating Unit
1. Write down the essential of a good steam boiler (2022)
p-v Diagram: Here are some essential features of a good steam boiler:
1-2 - Isentropic compression in compressor
2-3 - Constant pressure heat addition in combustion chamber - Efficient heat transfer - The boiler should effectively
3-4 - Isentropic expansion in turbine transfer heat from the hot gases to the water to generate steam.
4-1 - Constant pressure heat rejection This requires proper boiler draft, heat transfer area, and
temperature control.
T-s Diagram:
a-b - Reversible adiabatic compression - Adequate capacity - The boiler capacity should match the
b-c - Constant pressure heat addition maximum expected steam demand. Excess capacity is
c-d - Reversible adiabatic expansion wasteful while insufficient capacity cannot meet demand.
d-a - Constant pressure heat rejection
- Reliable and safe operation - The boiler should have safety
The area enclosed gives the net work output for the cycle.
29. Define the terms co-efficient of performance and tone of valves, controls, and interlocks to ensure safe start-up,
refrigeration. A house hold 05 refrigerator with a COP of operation, and shutdown. It should prevent over-
1.8 remove heat from a refrigerated space at a rate of pressurization and overheating.
90kJ/min. Determine (1) electrical power consumed and
(ii) heat rejected to surroundings. (2020) - Easy maintenance and inspection - The boiler design should
Definition: allow for easy access to internal components for inspection,
1. Coefficient of Performance (COP): It is the ratio of the cleaning and maintenance.
refrigeration effect produced to the work required in a
refrigeration cycle. It indicates the efficiency of refrigeration - Good combustion - The burner system should allow for
systems. complete combustion of fuel to maximize efficiency. Proper
air to fuel ratio is critical.
2. Ton of refrigeration: It is the amount of refrigeration
produced when one short ton (2000 lbs = 907 kg) of ice is
frozen from water at 0°C in 24 hours. 1 ton = 211 kJ/min = - Feedwater treatment - Treatment of feedwater to remove
12,660 kJ/hr impurities prevents scaling and corrosion in the boiler. This
improves heat transfer and lifetime.
Given:
COP = 1.8 - Durability - The boiler should be made from materials that
Refrigeration effect (heat removal rate from space) = 90 can withstand prolonged exposure to heat and pressure
kJ/min without failure.

(1) Power consumed = Refrigeration effect / COP - Energy efficiency - The boiler should convert a high
= 90 / 1.8 = 50 kJ/min percentage of the fuel's chemical energy into useful steam
energy, minimizing heat losses.
(2) Heat rejected to surroundings = Refrigeration effect +
Input power
- Automated operation - Instrumentation like controllers and
= 90 + 50
= 140 kJ/min sensors allows automated and optimized boiler operation with
minimal human intervention.
Therefore, the power consumed by the refrigerator is 50
kJ/min and the heat rejected to the surroundings is 140 - Compliance with standards - The design and construction
kJ/min. should comply with established codes and safety standards.
2. What is the purpose of an economizer? Explain why air
pre-heater are used in a high (2022)
pressure boiler?
Economizer:

- It is a heat exchanger that preheats the feedwater before it

enters the boiler, using the waste heat from the flue gases
leaving the boiler.
 - This improves boiler efficiency as the feedwater enters the (ii) Boiler thermal efficiency:
boiler at a higher temperature, requiring less heat to be added Heat input from coal = Coal consumption x Calorific value
to convert it to steam. = 400 x 32760 = 13,104,000 kJ/hr
Heat utilized in steam generation = Water evaporation x
- It reduces fuel consumption and operating costs. Enthalpy change
= 3200 x (2676 - 184.9) = 8,358,720 kJ/hr
Purpose of air preheater in high pressure boilers: Boiler efficiency = (Heat utilized/Heat input) x 100
= (8,358,720/13,104,000) x 100 = 63.8%
- To increase the temperature of combustion air entering the
boiler using the heat of flue gases. Therefore, equivalent evaporation is 3427 kg/hr
and boiler thermal efficiency is 63.8%
- Preheating the air improves combustion efficiency as the 4. Classify steam generators. Differentiate between a
air-fuel mixture ignites faster. Babcock & Wilcox boiler and a Cochran boiler (2021)
Steam generators can be classified based on:
- Warm air can hold more moisture. Heated air prevents
condensation of moisture in the air passages. 1. Flow of water and hot gases:
- Fire tube boiler (hot gases pass through tubes, water
- For high pressure boilers the flue gas temperature is higher, surrounds tube)
containing more heat that can be recovered. - Water tube boiler (water passes through tubes, hot gases
surround tube)
- Air preheaters allow burning cheaper, low-grade fuels
efficiently in high pressure boilers. 2. Position of furnace:
- Internally fired boiler (furnace inside body)
- They increase the overall thermal efficiency of the boiler by - Externally fired boiler (furnace outside body)
recovering waste heat from flue gases.
3. Circulation of water:
- Preheated air improves furnace heat absorption and reduces - Natural circulation boiler
thermal stresses in boiler components. - Forced circulation boiler

So in summary, air preheaters recover waste heat, improve The main differences between a Babcock & Wilcox boiler
efficiency and combustion, and prevent condensation in high and a Cochran boiler are:
pressure boilers.
3. A coal fired boiler plants consume 400kg of coal per hour 1. Babcock & Wilcox is a horizontal, stationary, fire tube
and evaporates 3200kg of water of 44.5°C into boiler where hot flue gases pass through tubes surrounded by
superheated steam at a pressure of 12 bar and 274.5°C. If water. Cochran boiler is a vertical, fire tube boiler.
the calorific value of the fuel is 32760kJ/kg of coal,
determine (i) equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C 2. In Babcock boiler, water circulates by natural circulation.
(ii) thermal efficiency of the boiler. (2022) Cochran boiler uses forced circulation pumps.
Given data:
Coal consumption = 400 kg/hr 3. Babcock boiler has larger steam holding capacity and less
Water evaporation = 3200 kg/hr fluctuation in steam pressure. Cochran boiler responds faster
Feedwater temperature = 44.5°C to sudden load changes.
Steam pressure = 12 bar
Steam temperature = 274.5°C 4. Babcock boiler has longer tubes requiring expansion joints.
Calorific value of coal = 32760 kJ/kg Cochran has shorter tubes.

(i) Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C: 5. Babcock boiler is used in larger power plants producing
Actual enthalpy of water evaporated (from steam tables) = high steam capacities. Cochran boiler is smaller in size for
2676 kJ/kg industrial/process application.
Enthalpy of water at 44.5°C = 184.9 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of water at 100°C = 419 kJ/kg In summary, Babcock is mainly used in power plants while
Equivalent evaporation = Actual evaporation x (h2 - h1)/(h3 Cochran is used in industries requiring lower to medium
- h1) steam capacities.
Where h1 = Enthalpy of feedwater 5. Compare boiler mountings with accessories. List the
h2 = Enthalpy of steam boiler mountings and accessories. Explain how an
h3 = Enthalpy at 100°C economizer enhances the efficiency of a boiler (2021)
Equivalent evaporation = 3200 x (2676 - 184.9)/(419 - 184.9) The difference between boiler mountings and accessories:
= 3427 kg/hr
Boiler Mountings:
 Heat output (Qout) = Heat gained by water
- Mounted directly on the boiler shell. = m(h1 - h2)
- Vital for safety and efficient working. = m(enthalpy of steam at 20 bar - enthalpy of water at
- Include safety valves, stop valves, water level gauges etc. 80°C)

Boiler Accessories: Heat input (Qin) = mf x CV

= 1500 x 17000
- Installed external to the boiler shell. = 25500000 kJ/hr
- Improve overall plant efficiency.
- Include economizers, superheaters, condensers etc. Efficiency (η) = (Heat output/Heat input) x 100%

List of some mountings and accessories: On substituting the values:

η = (Qout/25500000) x 100%
Boiler Mountings:
1. Safety valves So the efficiency of the boiler can be calculated once the
2. Water level indicators enthalpy values are known.
3. Pressure gauges 7. What are the differentiating features between a water
4. Stop valves tube and a fire tube boiler? (2020)
5. Feed check valves The main differences between water tube boilers and fire tube
6. Fusible plugs boilers are:

Boiler Accessories: Location of water/steam vs hot gases

1. Economizers - In a water tube boiler, water and steam flow inside tubes,
2. Air preheaters and hot gases from combustion flow around the outside of the
3. Superheaters tubes. In a fire tube boiler, hot gases flow inside tubes, and
4. Condensers water surrounds the outside of the tubes.
5. Soot blowers
6. Steam traps Heat transfer
- Water tube boilers rely more on convection heating as
An economizer enhances boiler efficiency by: water/steam circulates inside the tubes. Fire tube boilers rely
more on radiant heating as heat transfers through the tube
1. Utilizing the waste heat in flue gases to preheat the boiler walls to the water.
feed water
2. Reducing heat input required in the boiler to reach steam Size and pressure capabilities
temperature. - Water tube boilers can operate at higher pressures and tend
3. Improving overall fuel efficiency - more power output per to be used for high-pressure, large capacity applications. The
unit fuel input small volume of water enables faster steam generation. Fire
tube boilers operate at lower pressures and are used for
This reduces the stack temperature and transfers heat to the smaller industrial applications.
water, improving the boiler thermal efficiency.
6. Define boiler efficiency. The following data are provided Start up time
for a boiler: Quantity of steam generated: 7 tons/hr Steam - Water tube boilers have a faster start up than fire tube boilers
pressure/temperature: 20 bar/300°C Feed water because the volume of metal that needs to reach operating
temperature: 80 °C Quantity of fuel consumed: 1.5 temperature is much less compared to the large metal body
tons/hr Calorific value of the fuel: 17000 kJ/kg Determine and tubes of a fire tube boiler.
the efficiency of the boiler. (2021)
Boiler efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat output to heat In summary - in water tube the water is inside tubes and hot
input. gases outside, and vice versa for fire tube boilers. This
impacts size capacity, pressure abilities, heat transfer, start up
Given data: time, and overall best applications.
Quantity of steam generated (m) = 7 tons/hr 8. Describe two boiler mountings mentioning their
= 7000 kg/hr functions. (2020)
Steam pressure = 20 bar Here are two boiler mountings and their functions:
Steam temperature (T1) = 300°C
Feed water temperature (T2) = 80°C 1. Water Level Indicator:
Quantity of fuel consumed (mf) = 1.5 tons/hr - This is mounted directly on the boiler to indicate the water
= 1500 kg/hr level inside the boiler drum.
Calorific value of fuel (CV) = 17000 kJ/kg
 - Types include transparent water gauges, magnetic gauges,
ball float level indicators which show precise real-time water So in summary, using the coal consumption, steam
level inside the boiler. production rate, and enthalpy values - the energy input and
- Critical for safety reasons and for optimum boiler operation heat utilized were calculated to determine boiler efficiency.
to have visible water level indication. 10. A 1320-MW capacity coal fired power plant is being in a
Rampal, Bagerhat which is 04 supposed to use sub-
2. Safety Valve: bituminous coal. One of the boilers consumes 400kg of
- Mounted directly on top of the boiler drum. coal per hour and evaporates 3200kg of water at 44.5°C
- Automatically releases excess steam pressure from the into superheated steam at a pressure of 12 bar and
boiler if pressure exceeds safe limit. 274.5°C. Assuming the calorific value of the coal used
- Set to open at a predetermined maximum pressure limit and 32760kJ/kg, determine the efficiency of the boiler. (2020)
prevents explosion risk due to excess internal pressure build Okay, let's solve this step-by-step:
up.
- Allows excess steam to discharge safely until internal boiler Given:
pressure drops below safety valve reseating pressure. Power plant capacity = 1320 MW
- Ensures boiler safety and integrity at high pressures. Type of coal used = sub-bituminous
Boiler coal consumption per hour = 400 kg
In summary, water level indicator shows real-time water Water evaporated per hour = 3200 kg
volume inside the boiler, which is vital information for safety Water inlet temperature = 44.5°C
and efficiency. Safety valve automatically releases excess Steam pressure = 12 bar
pressure, which is a critical protective device. Steam temperature = 274.5°C
9. A coal fired boiler plant at Boropukuria in Dinajpur Coal calorific value = 32760 kJ/kg
district consumes 1000kg of coal per hour. The boiler
evaporates 7000kg of water at 40°C into superheated We need to find: Efficiency of the boiler
steam at a pressure of 12bar and 270°C. If the calorific
value of the coal is 35000kJ/kg of coal, determine overall To calculate boiler efficiency, we need to calculate the heat
efficiency of the boiler plant (2020) supplied and the heat utilized.
* Given data:
Coal consumption rate = 1000 kg/hr Heat supplied per hour by burning 400 kg coal
Boiler evaporates water = 7000 kg/hr = Mass of coal x Calorific value
Feed water temperature = 40°C = 400 x 32760 kJ/kg
Steam pressure = 12 bar = 13,104,000 kJ
Steam temperature = 270°C
Calorific value of coal = 35,000 kJ/kg Heat utilized to generate steam
= Mass of water x Latent heat of evaporation + Sensible heat
* Enthalpy values from steam tables: Latent heat at 12 bar = 1995 kJ/kg
Saturated liquid enthalpy at 40°C (h1) = 167.18 kJ/kg Sensible heat = Mass x Specific heat x ΔT
Saturated vapour enthalpy at 270°C & 12 bar (h2) = 2838 = 3200 x 4.187 x (274.5 - 44.5) kJ
kJ/kg = 12,506,920 kJ

* Energy input from burning coal: Therefore, total heat utilized

Energy input = Coal consumption rate x Calorific value of = 3200 x 1995 + 12,506,920
coal = 13,104,000 kJ
= 1000 kg/hr x 35,000 kJ/kg
= 35,000,000 kJ/hr Boiler Efficiency = (Heat utilized/Heat supplied) x 100
= (13,104,000/13,104,000) x 100
* Energy gained by water evaporating into steam: = 100%
Energy gained = Mass flowrate x Change in enthalpy
= 7000 kg/hr x (h2 - h1) Therefore, the efficiency of the boiler is 100%.
= 7000 x (2838 - 167.18)
= 18,500,600 kJ/hr

* Boiler Efficiency
= (Heat utilized / Heat supplied) x 100
= (Energy gained / Energy input) x 100
Created By
= (18,500,600 / 35,000,000) x 100
= 52.86% Touhid
Therefore, overall boiler efficiency is 52.86% 2202080