Chapter-11

Dual Nature of Radiations and Matter

1.Thermionic Emission: When a metal is heated , its free electrons get
sufficient thermal energy and overcome surface barrier. This method of removal
of electrons is called thermionic emission.
2.Field Emission(cold cathode emission): Process of pulling out an electron
by application of strong electric field to a metal.
3.Photoelectric Emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a
metal surface, electrons are emitted from the metal surfaces.That frequency is
known as threshold frequency. These photo-generated electrons are called –
photoelectrons
4. Secondary Emission: By bombardment of high-speed electrons on the
metal surface so that free electrons can be removed from the metal surface.

Work Function
• The minimum energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal
surface is called work function of the metal.
• It depends on nature of the metal and conditions of the metal surface.
• Measured by smaller unit of energy called eV(electron volt)
• One electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is
accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
• 1 electron volt(eV) = charge x potential
• eV = 1.602x10-19C x 1V
• 1eV = 1.602x10-19J

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metallic surface when
radiation of suitable frequency falls on it is called photoelectric effect.
• Photoelectric effect is mostly observed in metals.
• Certain alkali metals like – Na,K,Ca ets shows photoelelectric effect when
visible light falls on it. Zn,Mn,Cd etc shows photoelelectric effect to UV light.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect

It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C
and another metal plate A. Monochromatic light from the source S of
sufficiently short wavelength passes through the window W and falls on the
photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent quartz window is sealed on to
the glass tube, which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and
irradiate the photosensitive plate C. The electrons are emitted by the plate C
and are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the
battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C
and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by
a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or
negative potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is
positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The
emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit. This current
is called Photo-electric current, which flows in the outer circuit and is
measured using the microammeter (µA). The potential difference between the
emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V). The photoelectric
current can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate
A with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the
incident light can be varied, as can the potential difference V between the
emitter C and the collector A.

1.EFFECT OF INTENSITY ON PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT

It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident

light as shown graphically. The photocurrent is directly proportional to the
number of photoelectrons emitted per second. This implies that the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.

2.EFFECT OF POTENTIAL ON PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT

•Intensity and the frequency of incident radiation fixed , increase the positive
potential difference on Plate A gradually , it is found that the photoelectric
current increases with the increase in accelerating potential till a stage is
reached when the photoelectric current becomes maximum and does not
increase further with the increase in the accelerating potential. This
maximum value of the photoelectric current is called the saturation current.
•Repeat the experiment with intensity I1 < I2 < I3 ( same frequency.
 •The value of the retarding potential at which the photoelectric current
becomes zero is called cut off or stopping potential (V0) for the given
frequency of the incident radiation.
! "
•K.Emax = "m𝑣#$% = e V0( this is the work done to stop)
•Saturation current is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation
but stopping potential independent of intensity of incident radiation .

3.EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT RADIATION ON STOPPING

POTENTIAL
•The intensity of incident radiation for each frequency is adjusted is adjusted in
such a way that the saturation current is same each time when the plate A is
at positive potential. The potential on the plate A is gradually reduced to zero
and then increased in the negative direction till stopping potential is reached.
This is repeated for radiations of frequencies 𝜈& > 𝜈" > 𝜈! and the corresponding
stopping potentials vary in the order 𝑉'& >𝑉'" > 𝑉'! .
•This implies that greater the frequency of the incident radiation, greater is the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and hence greater is the
retarding potential required to stop such electrons completely.

Variation of Stopping Potential with frequency of incident radiations:

The graph shows that
• The stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident
radiations for a given photosensitive material.
• There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency 𝜈' for which the stopping
potential is zero.
• The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation, but independent of its intensity.
• For a frequency 𝜈 of the incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency 𝜈' ,
no photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large. This
minimum frequency is called threshold frequency.

Laws of photoelectric emission

• For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation the
photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of light. The
saturation of current is directly proportional the intensity of incident radiation
• For a given photosensitive material, there exist a certain minimum cut-off
frequency below which no photoelectrons are emitted, however high is the
intensity of incident radiation. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
• Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalent maximum
K.E of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to frequency of incident
radiation, but independent of intensity.
• The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between
the incidence light radiation and the emission of photoelectrons is very small,
even less than 10-9s.

Limitations of wave theory of light

• According to wave theory the greater the intensity of radiation, the greater are
the amplitude of electric and magnetic fields. Consequently, the greater the
intensity, the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron. In this
picture, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons on the surface is
then expected to increase with increase in intensity but experimental
observation shows that kinetic energy remains constant even if we increase
the intensity.
• No matter what the frequency of radiation is, a sufficiently intense beam of
radiation (over sufficient time) should be able to impart enough energy to the
electrons, so that they exceed the minimum energy needed to escape from the
metal surface. A threshold frequency, therefore, should not exist.
• In the wave picture, the absorption of energy by electron takes place
continuously over the entire wavefront of the radiation. Since a large number
of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed per electron per unit time
turns out to be small. Explicit calculations estimate that it can take hours or
more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to overcome the work
function and come out of the metal.
 Einstein photoelectric equation
• According to Einstein, light radiation consists of tiny packets of energy called
quanta. One quantum of light radiation is called photon, which travels with the
speed of light.
• one photoelectron is emitted from a metal surface if one photon of suitable
frequency is incident on the metal. Einstein postulated that energy carried by
the photon of radiation having frequency 𝜈.
E=h𝜈
Mathematically Einstein’s photo electric equation can be written as
E = ∅' + 𝐾. 𝐸#$%
!
h 𝜈 = ∅' + " 𝑚𝑣 " #$%
h 𝜈 = ∅' + e𝑉'
e𝑉' = h 𝜈 - ∅' ………..(1)
∅' = h 𝜈'
e𝑉' = h 𝜈 -h 𝜈'
e𝑉' = h( 𝜈 - 𝜈' )
or 𝐾. 𝐸#$% = h( 𝜈 - 𝜈' )…………..(2)
Equation (1) and (2) are called Einstein’s Photoelectric equations.
NOTE: 𝜈 < 𝜈' = 𝐾. 𝐸#$% is negative which is impossible. Therefore photoelectric
emission cannot occur.
𝜈 > 𝜈' = 𝐾. 𝐸#$% This means that maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
depends on the frequency of the incident radiation.

• According to Eistein’s photoelectric equation Kmax depends linearly on

frequency of incident radiation and is independent of intensity of radiation.
• Since Kmax must be non-negative, photoelectric emission is possible only if ℎ𝜈 >
∅' . Thus, there exists a threshold frequency for the metal surface, below which
no photoelectric emission is possible, no matter how intense the incident
radiation may be or how long it falls on the surface.
• In this picture, intensity of radiation as noted above, is proportional to the
number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time. The greater the number of
energy quanta available, the greater is the number of electrons absorbing the
energy quanta and greater, therefore, is the number of electrons coming out of
the metal i.e, photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident
radiation.
• In Einstein’s picture, the basic elementary process involved in photoelectric
effect is the absorption of a light quantum by an electron. This process is
instantaneous. Thus, whatever may be the intensity i.e., the number of quanta
of radiation per unit area per unit time, photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
Experimental verification of planck’s constant
• From the Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation
h 𝜈 = ∅' + e𝑉'
e𝑉' = h 𝜈 - ∅'
 h ∅
V0 = ( 𝜈 − (!
This equation is a equation of a straight line .(y = mx+C)
Comparing with the standard equation on y axis à y = 𝑉 0
x axis à 𝜈
h
slope , m à (
∅!
Intercept on negative Y-axis = - (
Intercept on X-axis = 𝜈0

• Thus we can find work function ∅' and threshold frequency 𝜈0 for the metal.
h
• If we find the slope of the graph ,m = ( the value of planck’s constant can be
determined.
•
Particle nature of light

(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of

particles called photons.
(ii) Each photon has energy E (=h ν) and momentum p (= h ν /c), and speed c, the
speed of light.
(iii)All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the same
energy and momentum, whatever the intensity of radiation may be. By
increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is only an increase in
the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with each photon
having the same energy. Thus, photon energy is independent of intensity of
radiation.
(iv)Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
(v) In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total
energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons
may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new
photon may be created.
 Wave nature of matter

According to de Broglie, a moving particle behave as a wave. The moving

particle behaves as a particle when interacting with matter and it behaves like
a wave when spreading unobserved through space.
The wave associated with a moving particle is called matter wave or de Broglie
wave and the wavelength associated with the wave is called de Broglie
wavelength.
The energy of a photon of radiation of frequency 𝜈 and wavelength 𝜆 is
E = h 𝜈 ……………..(1)
If photon is considered as particle of mass m , then according to Einstein’s
mass-energy relation , the energy of the photon is given by
E = mc2 ……………..(2)
Equating (1) and (2)
mc2 = h 𝜈
h*
m = +"
Momentum is P = mass x velocity
h*
p = +" . c
h*
p= +
h
p= ,
h
𝜆= -
. This equation gives de-Broglie wavelength of a photon

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

• According to this Principle, it is not possible to measure both the position and
momentum of an electron at the same time exactly.
• There is always some uncertainty ∆x in the specification of position and some
uncertainty ∆p in the specification of momentum.

.
∆x. ∆p= "/