MODULE II

BIO MATERIALS
The term “biomaterials” is used to describe building materials derived from living organisms
including plants, animals and fungi. Increasing knowledge about microbiology and synthetic
biology techniques is now allowing innovative biomaterials to enter the market. With the
construction industry responsible for 40% of global CO2 emissions, responsibility falls on the
industry to make dramatic changes to improve its sustainability. New biomaterials are being
created using waste products and microbes to solve these ecological problems, with timber or
plant-based materials being net carbon sinks. The biomaterials that are being explored for use
in the construction industry are diverse and varied, each aiming to solve a different problem
within the industry.

Biomaterials have the potential to provide construction materials with the following benefits:

● Capture and storage of carbon extracted from atmospheric CO2 by recent

photosynthesis,
● Sustainable production as crops grown annually or as longer harvest-cycle forest,
● Biodegradability at end of life (Controlled decay inside an anaerobic digester would
produce both organic fertilizer and bio-methane to supply energy),
● Low or almost zero linear coefficients of thermal expansion,
● The property of controlling temperature and humidity in enclosed spaces by phase
changes of water in cells,
● High vapour diffusivity and ‘Fickian’ vapour dispersal,
● Usually, high specific heat capacity,
● Low thermal diffusivity,
● Often good performance-to-weight ratios, and
● Lower embodied energy.

PROPERTIES OF BIO MATERIALS

1. Renewable: Bioconstruction materials are made from renewable resources such as

bamboo, straw, and hemp. They can be regrown and harvested again, making them a
sustainable option.

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2. Non-toxic: Most bioconstruction materials are non-toxic and do not release harmful
chemicals into the environment. This is beneficial for both the builders and occupants of
the building.
3. Energy-efficient: Bioconstruction materials often have excellent insulating properties,
which can help to reduce energy consumption by maintaining a comfortable indoor
temperature throughout the year.
4. Durable: Many bioconstruction materials are strong and long-lasting. For example,
bamboo is known for its strength and durability, and can last for decades with proper
maintenance.
5. Biodegradable: Unlike many conventional building materials, bioconstruction materials
are biodegradable, which means they can be easily broken down by natural processes after
the end of their useful life. This makes them a more environmentally friendly option.
6. Low carbon footprint: Bioconstruction materials are often produced with minimal
processing, which means they have a low carbon footprint. This is because the
manufacturing process generates fewer emissions compared to traditional building
materials such as concrete and steel.

APPLICATIONS OF BIO MATERIALS

1. Wall systems: Bio construction materials such as straw bales, hempcrete, and rammed
earth are commonly used as wall systems. These materials are durable, non-toxic, and
have excellent insulating properties, making them ideal for creating comfortable and
energy-efficient homes and buildings.
2. Roofing: Bio construction materials such as thatch, bamboo, and wood shingles are
commonly used for roofing. These materials are lightweight, durable, and have good
insulation properties.
3. Flooring: Bio construction materials such as bamboo, cork, and linoleum are commonly
used for flooring. These materials are non-toxic, renewable, and provide a natural look
and feel to the interior of the building.
4. Insulation: Bio construction materials such as cellulose, sheep wool, and recycled denim
are commonly used for insulation. These materials are non-toxic, have excellent
insulation properties, and are made from renewable resources.
5. Structural components: Bio construction materials such as bamboo, timber, and
engineered wood are commonly used for structural components such as beams and

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 columns. These materials are strong, durable, and provide a natural and aesthetically
pleasing look to the building.
6. Cladding: Bio construction materials such as wood, bamboo, and straw bales are
commonly used for cladding. These materials are durable, renewable, and provide a
natural look to the exterior of the building.
7. Landscaping: Bio construction materials such as reclaimed wood, stone, and recycled
concrete are commonly used for landscaping. These materials are non-toxic, durable, and
provide a natural look and feel to outdoor spaces.

BIO MATERIALS FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE

1. Fly ash

Fly ash is a coal combustion product that is composed of the particulates of burned fuel that
are driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases. Ash that falls to the bottom of
the boiler's combustion chamber is called bottom ash. In modern coal-fired power plants, fly
ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment
before the flue gases reach the chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom
of the boiler, it is known as coal ash.

Depending upon the source and composition of the coal being burned, the components of fly
ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO 2)
(both amorphous and crystalline), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO), the main
mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata. The minor constituents of fly ash depend upon
the specific coal bed composition but may include one or more of the following elements or
compounds found in trace concentrations (up to hundreds ppm): gallium, arsenic, beryllium,
boron, cadmium, chromium, hexavalent chromium, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury,
molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along with very small
concentrations of dioxins and PAH compounds. It also has unburnt carbon.

2. Red mud

Red mud, now more frequently termed bauxite residue, is an industrial waste generated during
the processing of bauxite into alumina using the Bayer process. It is composed of various oxide
compounds, including the iron oxides which give its red colour. Over 95% of the alumina
produced globally is through the Bayer process; for every tonne of alumina produced,
approximately 1 to 1.5 tonnes of red mud are also produced. Annual production of alumina in

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2020 was over 133 million tonnes resulting in the generation of over 175 million tonnes of red
mud.

Due to this high level of production and the material's high alkalinity, if not stored properly, it
can pose a significant environmental hazard. As a result, significant effort is being invested in
finding better methods for safe storage and dealing with it such as waste valorization in order
to create useful materials for cement and concrete. Less commonly, this material is also known
as bauxite tailings, red sludge, or alumina refinery residues. Red mud is composed of a mixture
of solid and metallic oxides. The red colour arises from iron oxides, which can comprise up to
60% of the mass. The mud is highly basic with a pH ranging from 10 to 13. In addition to iron,
the other dominant components include silica, unleached residual aluminium compounds, and
titanium oxide.

The main constituents of the residue after the extraction of the aluminium component are
insoluble metallic oxides. The percentage of these oxides produced by a particular alumina
refinery will depend on the quality and nature of the bauxite ore and the extraction conditions.

3. Copper slag

Copper slag is a byproduct of copper extraction from copper ore. When copper ore is processed
to obtain copper metal, the residue left behind is known as copper slag. It is a blackish-brown
or reddish-brown granular material with a glassy appearance, and it is generated during the
smelting process of copper.

Copper slag is an abrasive material with excellent properties for use in various industries. It
has a high specific gravity and is hard and dense, making it ideal for use in the production of
abrasives, building materials, and concrete. It is also a useful raw material for the production
of cement, tiles, bricks, and other construction materials. In terms of its composition, copper
slag consists of iron, silica, copper, and trace amounts of other metals. The iron content ranges
from 30% to 50%, while the copper content ranges from 0.2% to 2%. The silica content is
typically around 35%, and the remaining portion consists of other elements like calcium,
magnesium, and aluminum.

One of the primary uses of copper slag is as an abrasive blasting material. It is used to clean
and remove rust, paint, and other coatings from metal surfaces. It is also used in the
construction industry as a substitute for sand in concrete production. Copper slag improves the
compressive strength, durability, and resistance to corrosion of concrete. Additionally, it is a
cheaper and more eco-friendly alternative to sand, which is often sourced from riverbeds.

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Copper slag is also used in the production of mineral wool insulation. Mineral wool is made
from molten rock, slag, and other industrial byproducts. Copper slag provides the raw material
for the slag wool insulation, which has excellent insulation properties and is used for thermal
and acoustic insulation in buildings.

4. Silica fume

Silica fume, also known as microsilica, is a byproduct of the production of silicon metal and
ferrosilicon alloys. It is a finely divided, amorphous silica that is highly reactive and has a high
surface area per unit weight. Silica fume is composed of small, spherical particles with an
average diameter of about 0.1 microns, which is 100 times smaller than the average cement
particle. Silica fume is produced by reducing high-purity quartz with coal or coke in an electric
arc furnace. The resulting fume is collected in baghouse filters, and it is then processed and
refined to meet the desired specifications.

Silica fume is a highly reactive pozzolan, which means that it reacts with calcium hydroxide, a
byproduct of cement hydration, to form calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. This gel fills the
voids in the cement paste and strengthens the bond between cement particles. As a result,
concrete made with silica fume has higher compressive strength, improved durability, and
increased resistance to chemicals and abrasion.

Silica fume is commonly used as a supplementary cementitious material in high-performance

concrete. It is added to the concrete mix at a rate of 5% to 10% by weight of cement, which
reduces the permeability of the concrete and improves its resistance to corrosion and sulfate
attack. Silica fume also reduces the heat of hydration of concrete, which helps prevent cracking
and improves its long-term durability. In addition to its use in concrete, silica fume has other
applications. It is used as a filler in polymer composites to improve their mechanical properties,
as a refractory material in high-temperature applications, and as a catalyst in chemical
reactions.

One of the challenges of using silica fume in concrete is its high surface area and fineness,
which can make it difficult to handle and mix into the concrete. It also tends to absorb moisture,
which can affect the consistency of the concrete mix. To overcome these challenges, silica
fume is often pre-mixed with water before adding it to the concrete mix.

BIO MATERIALS FROM MINING WASTE

1. Geopolymer concrete

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Geopolymer concrete is a type of concrete that is made from industrial waste materials such as
fly ash, slag, and other mining wastes, which are rich in silicon and aluminum. It is a sustainable
alternative to traditional Portland cement-based concrete, which has a high carbon footprint
and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Geopolymer concrete is produced through a
chemical reaction between these industrial waste materials and an alkaline solution such as
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. This chemical reaction produces a cementitious binder
that hardens and solidifies to form a concrete material with properties similar to Portland
cement-based concrete.

Geopolymer concrete has many advantages over Portland cement-based concrete. Firstly, it
has a lower carbon footprint and produces significantly less greenhouse gas emissions during
its production. Secondly, it has higher compressive strength and durability, making it more
resistant to cracking, corrosion, and other types of damage. Thirdly, it has excellent fire
resistance and can withstand high temperatures without losing its structural integrity. Fourthly,
it has good resistance to chemical attack and can be used in harsh environments where
traditional concrete would fail.

The production of geopolymer concrete starts with the selection of suitable industrial waste
materials. Fly ash, which is a byproduct of coal combustion, is the most commonly used
material. Other waste materials that can be used include blast furnace slag, mining tailings, and
red mud. These materials are then mixed with an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide and
sodium silicate. The mixture is then cast into molds and allowed to cure for several hours.

The properties of geopolymer concrete can be adjusted by changing the composition of the
waste materials and the alkaline solution. The concentration of the alkaline solution, the ratio
of waste materials, and the curing time can all be varied to achieve the desired properties of the
final product.

2. Porous bricks

Porous bricks are a type of bioconstruction material made from mining waste such as tailings
and slag. They are designed to be lightweight, durable, and provide excellent thermal
insulation. These bricks have high porosity, which makes them capable of absorbing and
releasing moisture and air, improving indoor air quality and reducing the risk of condensation
and mold growth.

The manufacturing process for porous bricks involves mixing mining waste with a binding
agent such as cement or lime, and then shaping the mixture into bricks. The bricks are then

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cured to achieve their final strength and properties. The high porosity of these bricks is achieved
by introducing air pockets into the mixture during the manufacturing process, which reduces
the density of the bricks and increases their insulation value.

Porous bricks have several advantages over traditional bricks. First, they are lightweight, which
reduces the structural load of a building and can lead to cost savings in the construction process.
Second, they have excellent thermal insulation properties, which can significantly reduce
energy consumption and associated costs for heating and cooling. Third, they are durable and
resistant to wear and tear, making them ideal for use in harsh environments. Fourth, they have
good sound absorption properties, reducing noise pollution.

Porous bricks also have several environmental benefits. They are made from mining waste,
which reduces the amount of waste going to landfills and the need for virgin raw materials.
Additionally, they have a lower carbon footprint than traditional bricks because they require
less energy to produce and transport.

3. Eco blocks

Eco-blocks are a type of building block made from a mixture of mining waste, such as slag,
other industrial byproducts like fly ash, and a binding material, such as cement or lime. They
are designed to be more environmentally friendly and sustainable than traditional concrete
blocks, while still being strong, durable, and easy to work with.

Eco-blocks have many benefits over traditional concrete blocks, including:

● Environmental sustainability: Eco-blocks are made from industrial waste, which would
otherwise be discarded in landfills, contributing to environmental pollution. By using
these waste materials, eco-blocks help reduce the amount of waste generated and
conserve natural resources.
● Energy efficiency: Eco-blocks have excellent thermal insulation properties, which
means that they can help reduce energy consumption in buildings. They are particularly
effective in regions with extreme temperatures, where they can help keep buildings cool
in summer and warm in winter.
● Cost-effectiveness: Eco-blocks are often cheaper than traditional concrete blocks,
which can make them an attractive option for construction projects. They are also easy
to transport and work with, which can help reduce labor costs.

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 ● Durability: Eco-blocks are strong and durable, and they can withstand harsh weather
conditions and seismic activity. They are also resistant to fire and pests, which can help
prolong the life of a building.
● Reduced carbon footprint: Because eco-blocks are made from waste materials, they
have a lower carbon footprint than traditional concrete blocks. This means that they
help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change.

The manufacturing process for eco-blocks is relatively simple. The waste materials are mixed
with a binding material, such as cement or lime, and water to form a paste. The paste is then
poured into molds, where it is allowed to harden and cure. The resulting blocks can be used for
a variety of construction applications, including walls, foundations, and retaining walls.

4. Recycled steel

Recycled steel is a type of steel that is produced from scrap or recycled steel rather than from
raw iron ore. It is an environmentally friendly and sustainable material that reduces the demand
for new steel production, conserves natural resources, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
The process of recycling steel involves collecting steel scrap from various sources, such as
construction sites, demolition projects, and automobile scrapyards. The scrap is then sorted,
cleaned, and processed in a steel mill. The processing involves melting the scrap in a furnace,
removing impurities and adding alloys as necessary, and then casting the molten steel into
various shapes and forms.

There are two main methods for recycling steel: the electric arc furnace (EAF) method and the
basic oxygen furnace (BOF) method. The EAF method involves melting steel scrap in an
electric arc furnace, while the BOF method involves melting iron ore and scrap in a basic
oxygen furnace. The EAF method is more commonly used for recycling steel because it is more
energy-efficient and has a lower carbon footprint. Recycled steel has many benefits over new
steel production. It requires less energy and resources to produce, which reduces the carbon
footprint and environmental impact. Recycling steel also conserves natural resources, as it
reduces the need for new iron ore mining and the associated environmental impacts.
Additionally, recycled steel has the same quality and properties as new steel, so it can be used
in the same applications and industries.

Recycled steel is commonly used in construction, automobiles, appliances, and packaging. It

is also used in the production of new steel, as it can be blended with iron ore to produce steel

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with the desired properties. Steel recycling has become an important industry worldwide, as it
reduces waste, conserves resources, and helps create a more sustainable future.

BIO MATERIALS FROM MINERAL WASTE

1. Mineral wool insulation

Mineral wool insulation is a type of insulation material that is made from natural or synthetic
minerals, typically basalt, diabase, and slag. It is also known as rock wool insulation. The
minerals are melted at a high temperature, then spun into fibers that are formed into batts or
rolls. The resulting insulation material is a dense, fibrous material that is commonly used to
insulate walls, ceilings, and roofs in buildings.

One of the main advantages of mineral wool insulation is its excellent thermal properties. It
has a low thermal conductivity, which means that it is an effective insulator and can help reduce
heat loss or gain in buildings. Mineral wool insulation is also fire-resistant and can withstand
temperatures of up to 1,000°C without melting or emitting harmful gases. Another advantage
of mineral wool insulation is its acoustic properties. It is an effective sound absorber and can
help reduce noise levels in buildings. Mineral wool insulation is also non-combustible, which
means that it does not burn and can help prevent the spread of fire in buildings. Mineral wool
insulation is also environmentally friendly. It is made from natural or recycled materials, and
it is fully recyclable at the end of its life. Mineral wool insulation does not emit harmful gases
or particles, making it safe to handle and use.

One of the challenges of using mineral wool insulation is its installation. It can be difficult to
handle and cut, and it can irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory system if proper safety
precautions are not taken. Therefore, it is important to wear protective clothing and use
appropriate safety equipment when installing mineral wool insulation.

2. Pozzolan-lime plaster

Pozzolan-lime plaster is a bioconstruction material made from two main components: pozzolan
and lime. Pozzolan is a natural or industrial mineral material that reacts with lime to form a
hard, durable, and breathable surface. Pozzolan-lime plasters are used as coatings on walls and
ceilings to provide a breathable and durable finish.

The term "pozzolan" comes from the volcanic ash found near the city of Pozzuoli in Italy,
which was used by the Romans to produce a hydraulic cement. Today, pozzolan can be made

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from a variety of mineral materials, including volcanic ash, pumice, diatomaceous earth, and
fly ash.

Lime is another key component of pozzolan-lime plaster. Lime is a natural material that is
produced by heating limestone in a kiln. It has been used as a building material for thousands
of years and is known for its durability, breathability, and flexibility. When combined with
pozzolan, lime forms a hard and durable surface that is resistant to cracking and moisture
damage.

The production process of pozzolan-lime plaster involves mixing the pozzolan and lime with
water to form a paste. The paste is then applied to the wall or ceiling using a trowel or a spray
gun. Once the plaster has been applied, it is left to dry and cure for several days. During the
curing process, the plaster reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form a hard and durable
surface.

Pozzolan-lime plaster has many advantages over traditional cement-based plasters. Firstly, it
is more breathable and allows moisture to evaporate from the wall or ceiling, reducing the risk
of moisture damage and mold growth. Secondly, it is more flexible and resistant to cracking,
making it ideal for use in areas with seismic activity or other types of movement. Thirdly, it is
non-toxic and does not emit harmful gases, making it safe for use in homes and other buildings.

3. Rammed earth walls

Rammed earth walls are a sustainable and durable building material that has been used for
thousands of years in different parts of the world. This construction technique involves
compressing a mixture of soil, gravel, sand, and sometimes other materials like straw or lime,
into solid blocks or panels. The mixture is compacted into a formwork or mold to create walls
that can be load-bearing or non-load bearing, depending on their thickness and structural
requirements.

The construction process of rammed earth walls involves several steps. First, the site is
prepared by excavating a shallow trench that will act as a foundation. Next, a wooden formwork
or mold is erected on top of the trench, and a layer of gravel or stones is laid at the bottom to
improve drainage. Then, the soil mixture is poured into the formwork in layers and compacted
using manual or mechanical methods. Each layer is typically around 15 cm thick and is
compacted using a ramming tool or mechanical compactor until it reaches its desired density.
The process is repeated until the wall reaches its desired height.

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One of the main advantages of rammed earth walls is their thermal mass, which allows them
to absorb and store heat during the day and release it at night, providing passive solar heating
and cooling. This means that they can help regulate the temperature inside a building, reducing
the need for artificial heating or cooling. Rammed earth walls also have excellent insulation
properties and are highly durable, resistant to fire, pests, and weathering. They are also low
maintenance and have a long lifespan, making them a sustainable building material. Another
advantage of rammed earth walls is their aesthetic appeal. The natural colors and textures of
the soil mixtures used can create beautiful and unique finishes. Additionally, the use of local
materials can reduce transportation costs and promote local sourcing.

However, there are also some challenges associated with rammed earth walls. The quality of
the soil mixtures used can affect the strength and durability of the walls, and the process
requires skilled labor and specialized equipment. The formwork can also be time-consuming
to construct and remove.

BIO MATERIALS FROM AGRICULTURAL WASTE

1. Straw bale

Straw bale is a type of bioconstruction material that is made from agricultural waste,
specifically the stems of cereal crops such as wheat, rice, and barley. The bales are made by
compressing and binding the stems together, resulting in a rectangular block that can be used
as a building material.

Straw bales have many advantages as a bioconstruction material. Firstly, they are renewable
and can be sourced locally, reducing transportation emissions and supporting local farmers.
Secondly, they have excellent insulation properties, with an R-value (a measure of thermal
resistance) of approximately 2.0 to 3.0 per inch. This means that straw bale walls are highly
energy-efficient, reducing heating and cooling costs. Thirdly, straw bales are non-toxic and do
not emit harmful gases, making them a safe and healthy building material.

The construction process for straw bale buildings involves stacking the bales in a running bond
pattern, similar to bricklaying. The bales are then secured together with pins or wires, and a
plaster or stucco coating is applied to the exterior and interior surfaces to protect the straw from
moisture and provide a finished appearance. The plaster can be made from a variety of
materials, including lime, clay, and earth.

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Straw bale buildings have many benefits beyond their energy efficiency and sustainability. The
thick walls provide excellent sound insulation, and the thermal mass of the bales can help
regulate indoor temperatures and reduce temperature swings. Straw bale buildings are also
highly customizable, with a variety of design options and finishes available.

There are some challenges associated with building with straw bales, however. The bales must
be kept dry during construction and throughout the life of the building, as moisture can cause
the bales to rot or mold. Straw bale walls must also be carefully detailed to prevent moisture
infiltration and pests, such as rodents, from entering the building.

2. Bamboo

Bamboo is a versatile and sustainable bioconstruction material that is becoming increasingly

popular in the construction industry. Bamboo is a fast-growing grass that is native to Asia, but
is now grown in many parts of the world. It is known for its strength, durability, and flexibility,
and is considered a renewable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional building materials.

Bamboo can be used in a variety of ways in bioconstruction. One of the most common uses of
bamboo is for structural purposes. Bamboo can be used as a substitute for traditional timber,
as it is stronger and more durable than most woods. It is also a lightweight material, which
makes it ideal for constructing buildings in earthquake-prone areas.

Another use of bamboo in bioconstruction is for flooring and paneling. Bamboo flooring is
durable, easy to clean, and can be produced in a range of colors and styles. Bamboo panels can
be used for wall coverings and ceilings, and are known for their natural and warm appearance.

Bamboo can also be used for roofing, fencing, and scaffolding. Bamboo roofing is durable and
provides excellent insulation, while bamboo fencing is strong, durable, and provides a natural
and attractive alternative to traditional fencing materials. Bamboo scaffolding is commonly
used in Asia for construction projects, and is known for its strength, flexibility, and ease of use.

In addition to its versatility, bamboo is a sustainable and renewable material. Bamboo is the
fastest-growing plant on the planet, and can be harvested every 3-5 years without damaging
the plant or the surrounding ecosystem. Bamboo also has a high carbon sequestration rate,
which means that it can absorb and store more carbon than other types of plants.

3. Cork

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Cork is a bioconstruction material that is harvested from the bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus
suber), which is native to the Mediterranean region. Cork is a unique material that has many
desirable properties that make it an excellent choice for sustainable construction.

The cork harvesting process involves stripping the bark of the cork oak tree, which does not
harm the tree and allows it to continue to grow and produce more cork in the future. The
harvested cork is then processed into a variety of products, including cork flooring, wall
coverings, insulation, and other building materials.

Cork is a natural material that is renewable and sustainable. It is also biodegradable, which
means that it can be composted or recycled at the end of its life cycle. Cork is an excellent
insulation material, with a low thermal conductivity, which helps to reduce energy
consumption and costs associated with heating and cooling buildings.

In addition to its insulation properties, cork is also a durable and resilient material. It is naturally
resistant to moisture, mildew, and pests, making it an ideal choice for use in humid or damp
environments. Cork is also fire-resistant and does not release toxic gases when burned, making
it a safe choice for building materials.

Cork is a versatile material that can be used in a variety of construction applications. It can be
used as a flooring material, as a wall covering, and as an insulation material. Cork is available
in a variety of colors and textures, making it a popular choice for designers and architects.

4. Hempcrete

Hempcrete is a bio construction material that is made from the stalks of industrial hemp plants.
It is used for insulation and can be used to construct walls, floors, and roofs. Hempcrete is a
lightweight, breathable, and fire-resistant material that offers many benefits over traditional
building materials.

The production process of hempcrete involves combining the inner woody core of the hemp
plant with a lime-based binder and water. The mixture is then poured into molds to form blocks
or panels, which can be used for construction.

One of the key advantages of hempcrete is its excellent insulation properties. Hempcrete is
highly insulating and can help reduce energy costs by keeping buildings warm in the winter
and cool in the summer. It is also breathable, which means that it allows moisture to pass
through the walls, preventing the buildup of mold and mildew.

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Hempcrete is also a sustainable and eco-friendly material. Hemp is a fast-growing plant that
requires minimal pesticides and herbicides to grow, and it can be grown in a variety of climates.
In addition, hempcrete is a carbon-negative material, which means that it absorbs more carbon
dioxide than it emits during production.

Another benefit of hempcrete is that it is fire-resistant. The lime binder in hempcrete acts as a
natural fire retardant, which can help prevent the spread of fires in buildings. This makes
hempcrete a safer and more sustainable alternative to traditional building materials, which can
release toxic fumes when they burn.

5. Coconut coir

Coconut coir, also known as coco coir, is a natural fiber that is extracted from the outer husk
of coconuts. It is a versatile and eco-friendly material that is used in a variety of applications,
including bio construction.

Coconut coir is produced by soaking the outer husk of coconuts in water for several months.
This process removes the fruit and leaves behind the fibrous material. The fibers are then
washed, dried, and processed to remove any impurities. The result is a strong and durable fiber
that can be used in a variety of applications.

In bio construction, coconut coir is used as a sustainable alternative to synthetic materials such
as plastic and foam. It can be used as an insulation material, as well as for flooring, wall
coverings, and acoustic panels. Coconut coir is highly absorbent and can hold up to 10 times
its weight in water, making it an excellent choice for insulation. It is also non-toxic, fire-
resistant, and easy to install.

One of the major advantages of using coconut coir in bio construction is that it is a renewable
and sustainable material. Coconuts are widely grown in tropical regions, and the outer husks
are a byproduct of the coconut industry. Using coconut coir in bio construction helps to reduce
waste and promote sustainable practices.

Another advantage of coconut coir is that it is biodegradable. When it reaches the end of its
useful life, it can be composted and returned to the soil, where it will break down naturally.
This makes it a more environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic materials, which can
take hundreds of years to decompose.

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NON-TOXIC MATERIALS
Non-toxic materials are materials that do not pose a significant risk to human health or the
environment. These materials are becoming increasingly important as people become more
aware of the impact of chemicals on human health and the environment. In this explanation,
we will discuss the characteristics of non-toxic materials, the benefits of using them, and some
examples of non-toxic materials.

Characteristics of non-toxic materials:

● Safe for human health: Non-toxic materials do not contain harmful chemicals that can
cause health problems such as respiratory issues, skin irritation, or other illnesses.
● Environmentally friendly: Non-toxic materials do not contribute to pollution or
environmental degradation.
● Sustainable: Non-toxic materials are often made from renewable resources, and are
recyclable or biodegradable, making them environmentally sustainable.

Benefits of using non-toxic materials:

● Improved indoor air quality: Non-toxic materials do not release harmful chemicals into
the air, which can improve indoor air quality and reduce the risk of respiratory issues.
● Reduced environmental impact: Non-toxic materials do not contribute to pollution or
environmental degradation, making them a better choice for the planet.
● Safe for children and pets: Non-toxic materials are safe for children and pets, who may be
more vulnerable to the harmful effects of chemicals.

Examples of non-toxic materials:

● Bamboo: Bamboo is a sustainable and non-toxic material that can be used for flooring,
furniture, and other applications.
● Natural fiber textiles: Natural fiber textiles such as cotton, linen, and hemp are non-toxic
and biodegradable, making them a better choice for clothing and bedding.
● Recycled plastic: Recycled plastic is a non-toxic material that can be used for a variety of
applications, including furniture, flooring, and outdoor decking.
● Low VOC paints, coatings, and adhesives: Low VOC paints, coatings, and adhesives
contain significantly fewer volatile organic compounds than traditional products, making
them safer for human health and the environment.

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● Natural cleaning products: Natural cleaning products such as vinegar, baking soda, and
lemon juice are non-toxic and effective alternatives to traditional cleaning products that
can contain harmful chemicals.

USE OF WASTE MATERIALS

The use of waste materials in construction and design is becoming increasingly popular as
people become more aware of the impact of waste on the environment.

● Paper: Paper is a common waste material that can be used in construction and design.
Recycled paper can be used to create insulation, flooring, and even furniture. Papercrete, a
material made from paper pulp and cement, is a durable and lightweight alternative to
traditional concrete.
● Glass bottles: Glass bottles can be reused in a variety of ways. They can be used to create
walls, windows, and even entire buildings. Bottle walls are made by stacking glass bottles
and then filling the gaps with concrete or other materials.
● Tires: Tires are a significant source of waste, but they can also be repurposed in creative
ways. Tires can be used to create retaining walls, playground equipment, and even homes.
Earthships, a type of sustainable home, use tires filled with soil as a building material.
● Shipping containers: Shipping containers are becoming increasingly popular as a building
material. They are durable, easy to transport, and can be used to create homes, offices, and
even retail spaces. Shipping container homes can be customized to fit any design aesthetic,
and they are often more affordable than traditional homes.

EXAMPLES OF USE OF WASTE MATERIALS

1. The Bottle House

The Bottle House is a unique and sustainable home located in Quapaw, Oklahoma, USA. It
was built in the 1950s by a man named E.D. "Duke" McAlester, who collected glass bottles
from nearby highways and used them to construct the home. Today, the Bottle House is a
popular tourist attraction, showcasing the possibilities of using recycled materials in
construction.

The Bottle House consists of three rooms: a living room, a bedroom, and a bathroom. The walls
are made entirely of glass bottles, arranged in rows and held together with concrete. The bottles
were collected by McAlester and his family, who cleaned them and then stacked them to create
the walls. The bottles are arranged in patterns, creating a beautiful and unique design.
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In addition to the bottle walls, the Bottle House features a concrete floor and a concrete roof,
providing stability and durability. The roof is covered with asphalt shingles, and the windows
are made from traditional glass.

One of the benefits of using glass bottles in construction is their ability to provide natural light.
The Bottle House is filled with natural light, creating a bright and welcoming space. The glass
bottles also provide insulation, keeping the home cool in the summer and warm in the winter.

The Bottle House is an excellent example of using recycled materials in construction. By

repurposing waste materials, such as glass bottles, we can reduce our impact on the
environment and create unique and sustainable spaces. The Bottle House is not only a
functional home but also a work of art, showcasing the beauty and creativity of using recycled
materials in construction. Today, the Bottle House is open to the public for tours, providing
visitors with a glimpse into the possibilities of sustainable and unique construction. It is an
excellent example of how we can repurpose waste materials to create functional and beautiful
spaces.

2. Earthship Biotecture

Earthship Biotecture is a type of sustainable architecture that was pioneered by architect

Michael Reynolds in Taos, New Mexico in the 1970s. Earthships are self-sufficient, off-grid
homes that are made from a variety of waste materials, including tires, glass bottles, and
aluminum cans. The design of Earthships incorporates principles of passive solar design, water
harvesting, and food production, making them a unique and sustainable housing option.

The design of Earthships is based on six core principles: thermal/solar heating and cooling,
solar and wind electricity, contained sewage treatment, water harvesting, food production, and
building with recycled materials. The homes are typically built into the ground, providing
insulation and thermal mass. The walls of Earthships are made from rammed earth, which is a
mixture of soil, cement, and other materials, and are typically covered with stucco. The roof of
an Earthship is sloped and made from a variety of materials, including tires, cans, and mud.

The homes are designed to be self-sufficient and off-grid, meaning they generate their own
electricity and collect their own water. Earthships use a combination of passive solar design
and active solar panels to provide electricity and heat. Water is collected from rainwater
harvesting and treated on site through a series of filtration and purification systems. Waste
water is also treated on site using a contained sewage treatment system that utilizes plants and
bacteria to break down waste.
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Earthships offer a range of benefits, including sustainability, self-sufficiency, and affordability.
They are designed to be low-cost, using waste materials and incorporating principles of passive
solar design to reduce energy costs. The homes are also designed to be resilient, with features
that can withstand extreme weather conditions such as earthquakes and wildfires.

In addition to the environmental benefits, Earthships also provide a unique and aesthetically
pleasing living space. The homes often incorporate interior gardens and natural lighting,
providing a comfortable and healthy living environment.

Earthship Biotecture offers a unique and sustainable housing option that incorporates principles
of passive solar design, water harvesting, and food production. The use of waste materials and
off-grid systems make Earthships an affordable and environmentally friendly option for those
looking to live off the grid or reduce their impact on the environment. The popularity of
Earthships continues to grow, as people become more aware of the benefits of sustainable and
self-sufficient living.

3. Container City

Container City is a unique and innovative commercial development in London, United

Kingdom. It is a collection of office and retail spaces that have been created using repurposed
shipping containers. The development is located in the Trinity Buoy Wharf area of London,
and was designed by the architecture firm Urban Space Management.

Container City was built in two phases. The first phase was completed in 2001 and consisted
of 12 shipping containers that were modified to create office spaces. The containers were
stacked on top of each other and connected with staircases and walkways. The second phase
was completed in 2002 and consisted of 22 additional containers that were used to create
additional office and retail spaces.

The containers used in Container City were sourced from around the world and were chosen
for their durability and structural integrity. Each container is approximately 12 meters long and
2.5 meters wide, and is capable of supporting up to nine additional containers when stacked.

One of the unique features of Container City is its flexibility. The containers can be easily
moved and reconfigured to meet the changing needs of the businesses that occupy them. This
makes Container City an ideal choice for small and growing businesses that need affordable
and flexible office space.

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Container City has been a popular and successful development, and has won several awards
for its innovative design and sustainability. The development has been featured in numerous
publications and has been the subject of several documentaries.

In addition to its commercial spaces, Container City also includes a range of amenities, such
as a cafe, a gallery, and a music studio. The development is located in a vibrant and creative
area of London, and has become a hub for artists, musicians, and entrepreneurs.

Overall, Container City is a prime example of how repurposing waste materials can be an
innovative and sustainable approach to construction and design. By using shipping containers
to create flexible and affordable office and retail spaces, Container City has become a model
for sustainable urban development.

POST-CONSUMER WASTE
Post-consumer recycled content refers to finished goods that are used and then recycled.
Standard post-consumer recycled content includes copy paper, shipping boxes, empty plastic
bottles, and aluminum cans. Many of these items end up in a “single-stream” recycling bin
(such as the blue bin you likely have at home or the office). This single-stream recycling is
then collected by local recycling programs and brought to recycling facilities, often referred to
as Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs). They are sorted into bales of like material, which are
then purchased to be broken or melted down and remanufactured.

Post-Industrial Waste

Post-industrial (often referred to as “pre-consumer”) waste, on the other hand, refers to waste
generated from the manufacturing process that led to the creation of the source material. For
example, when plastic is blown into bottles, scrap (often referred to as “pinch-off”) is left
behind that doesn’t make it into the final bottles. If these scraps are saved, repelletized, and
used again, they will be referred to as “post-industrial waste.”Post-consumer waste refers to
finished goods, while post-industrial waste refers to waste “material” generated from a
manufacturing process.

Wastes from industry used in building materials

The concrete became a more interesting building material because it has improved its properties
and also it is suitable for combining with different types of wastes. The additions of fibres is

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also important because it can improve the performances of concrete or they allow the use of
smaller quantities of cement.

The use of different waste in the concrete mix or for obtaining new types of concretes had as
result the development of a new type of construction materials: green materials. In this category
is included inorganic polymer concrete which is obtained predominantly from industrial waste
materials. Concrete of any type had been used as it is or in combination with other materials,
the most known being the steel with which had resulted reinforced concrete and pre stressed
concrete, that are still today very common and useful in construction industry. Polymer
concrete is a new type of concrete in which the cement is replaced by a polymer. A high variety
of waste are used for obtaining concretes of different requirements related to strength, to
chemical resistance, with high durability, rapid hardening, etc.

An important way to use the wastes is to introduce them as a powder or filler in the composition
of construction materials (cement, concrete, asphalt, etc.) or to use as aggregates (concrete or
bricks from demolition can be used as an aggregate, steel slag can be transformed into
aggregates, etc.). Concrete is one type of building material that can incorporate many types of
waste such as silica fume, fly ash, cinder, husk, tires, glass, etc. Concrete is used for obtaining
structural elements and constructions of any type.

BY-PRODUCT WASTES

1. Silica fume

Silica fume is specially used as mineral admixture in concrete because of the fineness of the
particles which can fill better the spaces between the components of concrete mix. The new
types of concretes (the high strength and high performance concrete, ultra-high performance
concrete, with compressive strengths going to 150-180 MPa), high strength polymer concrete,
etc. that are used in the new modern structures are obtained by adding in the mix silica fume in
dosages between 8-12% . Experimental studies shown that the compressive strength of concrete
can increase with about 20% in the case of a dosage of 10% silica fume. The behaviour of
different types of elements realized with high strength concrete under loading is improved,
their resistant capacity is higher and the sizes of structural elements are reduced in comparison
with structures realized of ordinary concrete.

In the ordinary cement concrete or polymer concrete, silica fume is added in different
percentages, as replacement or not of cement, for improving the properties, in particular the
compressive strength, durability characteristics and bond strength. These good effects of silica

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fume on the concrete are resulting from the fact that the particles of silica fume are very small
and also from the pozzolana reaction of silica fume with cement paste components. In the
behaviour of structural elements it was observed according to experimental studies, that the
failure of beams was improved, the concrete with silica fume had a better behaviour to shear
force, the number of cracks in tension zone at failure was reduced, which indicate that elements
are less destroyed at failure.

In the hydraulic constructions, concrete with silica fume responds better to requirements of
hydraulic construction because this concrete has a better behaviour to frost-thaw cycles, to
abrasion, cavitation, is resistant to chemical attack and it is less permeable, facts which result
in a smaller dosage of cement.

Silica fume is also used for obtaining other types of concrete, such as self-compacting concrete,
fibre reinforced concrete, and polymer concrete. In the case of polymer concrete from
experimental studies it was concluded that the increase in compressive strength is not too much
as in the case of tensile strength.Also the addition of silica fume decreased the content of
polymer, which is an expensive material. The good behaviour of concretes with silica fume can
be used for realizing hybrid elements for constructions such as beam or columns, to which the
tension zone is realized of polymer concrete, that has a better behaviour in tension, and the
compression zone of high strength concrete, having in view the better behaviour of concrete in
compression.

2. Slag

Slag can be used in preparing composite cements or as aggregates in preparing concrete.Slag

cements are used in concrete structures because it gives some advantages, such as: less carbon
dioxide emission, during the production, lower hydration heat during hardening, low
permeability and good resistance to sulphate attack.Ground granulated Blast Furnace Slag
(GGBFS) improves the flexural strength and compressive strength of concrete and asphalt
mixes, which recommend its use in roads, highways, pavements, hydraulic constructions, etc.
Ground granulated slag is used in producing cement concrete as mix compound of the concrete
or as component of cement. The use of ground granulated slag as component of concrete has
the advantage of using it in different dosages, which is important in obtaining desired
properties. Ground granulated slag can be used in obtaining Portland blast furnace cement,
which contains up to 5% until 95% of filler. Also, this type of waste can be used in preparing
concrete as cementitious material due to its hydraulic property. In this case the fineness of

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ground granulated slag must appropriate to that of cement or even greater. The use of ground
granulated slag used in obtaining concrete is benefice for the environment, but also it improves
some properties of concrete such as: fresh concrete has a better workability, structure of
hardened concrete is more compact, that resulting in increasing the long term strengths and
durability. The content of ground granulated slag in the mix and its fineness depend on the
purpose for which it is used in obtaining specific properties of concrete. Research studies
reported a replacement of cement with dosages between 10 and 80% from the cement mass.
The smaller quantities of waste are for increasing mechanical properties and high dosages are
for improvement the resistance to chemical attack.

The ground granulated blast furnace slag is also used in asphalt concrete for roads, highways,
pavements, etc. An important utilization in the last time is to obtain high performance
concretes, with improved durability, which is required in bridges, marine constructions,
hydraulic dams, etc. Another possibility of consuming ground granulated slag waste is to
manufacture fibres which can be used in production of insulation material as slag wool.
Experimental studies on concrete with aggregates obtained of steel slag had shown that this
type of waste can be used in road construction or in infrastructure works because the presence
of steel increased the density of hardened concrete. Good mechanical properties were obtained
in the case of cement concrete and polymer concrete with slag aggregates and addition of silica
fume.

3. Sludge

Sludge is used in the production of concrete as filling material because its benefits such as
improving the compressive strength, freeze-thaw resistance and waterproofness. Also it can be
used as replacement of fine aggregates in asphalt paving.

The paper sludge is used for obtaining blended cements which contain 90% Portland cement
and 10% waste. Also, the paper making waste can be processed to obtain a composition of
cellulose fibres and clay which is suitable to use as insulating material or as filler in building
materials. The utilization of paper waste sludge obtained from a paper industry, as a
replacement to the mineral filler in various concrete mixes was experimentally analysed .
Concrete mixes containing various contents of the waste (3, 5, 8 and 10%) were studied and
the results shown a recommended replacement of sand of about 5% for obtaining concrete for
masonry construction.

4. Fly ash

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The fly ash utilization is diversified in time and referring to construction industry this waste is
used in: cement and concrete manufacturing, production of bricks, tiles and pavements,
lightweight aggregates, etc. The new researches used fly ash in obtaining eco-concrete, which
eliminated from the mix the cement, the geopolymer obtained being a material more friendlily
with the environment. Although a large proportion of global FA is used by the building
industry, there is a still proportion which is disposed of in ponds or landfills.In the cement
production the fly ash is used in the composition, in different quantities and the cement
obtained are named composite cements.

In the cement-concrete production, a part of cement is replaced with different dosages of fly
ash, normal dosages being between 10-40% and up to 75%. The advantages of using fly ash in
concrete are given by the reduction of cement dosage, and also by the beneficial effects which
improve concrete properties (mechanical strength and durability resistance), reduce bleeding,
reduce cracking, decrease the heat during hardening of concrete. Experimental studies on
cement concrete with fly ash shown that the addition of fibre, near fly ash is beneficial in
improving the properties. Statistical optimization of mechanical properties for a concrete with
10% replacement of cement recommended for example for glass fibre type, a percentage of 1%
from the concrete mass and a length of fibre of 35 mm in the case of compressive strength and
higher percentages and smaller length, in the case of tensile strengths.In obtaining the inorganic
polymer concrete, which is a “green” material, fly ash that is considered alkali activated
cement, replaces totally the cement from the mix. In fly ash-based geopolymer binder, fly ash
reacts with an alkaline solution and the geopolymer paste acts as only binder for aggregates.
The basic ingredients of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete are fly ash, sodium hydroxide,
sodium silicate, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.

The formulation of high-performance materials that are stronger and more durable than
conventional cement-based materials has emerged as an issue of considerable importance in
the construction industry. It is possible to utilize fly ash to produce a high-performance material
at a potentially lower cost and without compromising its structural integrity. The high-
performance polymer concrete made with fly-ash fillers presents the compressive strength,
flexural strength, creep deformation and bond strength with values bigger than that of Portland
cement concrete. Even in the case of fly ash the polymer dosage can be higher than in the case
of other additions, the mechanical properties are increased in comparison with polymer
concrete without addition. The use of fly ash as an aggregate in polymer concrete is very

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promising because it could be used as an overlay in pavement, bridges, and runways or in
precast applications such as utility, transportation, and hydraulic components.

Industrial fly ash is also used for the production of low-strength material, also known as
‘flowable fill’. It is used as a replacement of compacted soil in cases where the application of
the latter is difficult or impossible. Also other wastes such as the cement kiln dust, asphalt dust,
coal fly ash, coal bottom ash and quarry waste are used for preparing low-strength building
materials. The content of these wastes in the mix is between 25-50%.

Construction demolition waste

The construction sector produces high quantities of wastes, over80% being solid waste which
is dumped. Some of these wastes may have particular health, safety and environmental concern,
such as, asbestos materials with lead-based paint coating and lighting waste. These materials
are not included in the present review.

Until now, the construction practice was thought unsustainable because, not only it is
consuming enormous quantities of stone, sand and drinking water, but also huge quantities of
cement. Modern reinforced concrete structures begin to deteriorate in 10 to 20 years. So, an
important problem of concrete structures is that of increasing their durability. New types of
concretes obtained by using Portland cement replacement materials and recycling the concrete
removed from structures will contribute to the sustainability of building material industry.
Also, it must realize that the resources for construction industry are limited and the new
technologies of obtaining building material must be based on the existing wastes.

The construction wastes are easier for recycling because they were parts of constructed
buildings and as raw materials they were analysed as raw materials. The concrete from
demolition can be used as aggregate. Recycled-aggregate concrete is prepared by completely
substituting of natural aggregates. In many cases in the concrete mix there are also used
superplasticizers and supplementary cementing materials (for example fly ash). Also, in the
recycled-aggregate concrete mix, the cement can be replaces by fly ash or other by-product.

The other materials resulted from constructions such as wood, masonry, metal, plastic, fibre
glass, polystyrene granules, etc. can be used in building industry. In the category of “green
concrete” which means a concrete with waste, they are introduce in the mix different additions,
some as filler. Cement concrete with wood waste is a concrete of low strength, and with
characteristics of a lightweight concrete. In the case of cement concrete with polystyrene
granules, experimental studies shown that the mechanical characteristics can be comparable

24
with that of an ordinary concrete, even the density indicates a lightweight concrete. A specific
property of cement concrete with polystyrene is that of elastic behaviour of material under
loads, in the case of high dosages of polystyrene.

The concrete with polystyrene spheres was studied from a long time, and near the fact that it is
a lightweight concrete other advantages recommend its use in construction. Concrete with
polystyrene can be prepared in site or to obtain prefabricated units in factories. The properties
of concrete with polystyrene are influenced by polystyrene dosage and by the size of granule.
It has been shown that these properties can be significantly improved by adding steel fibers or
additions (silica fume, fly ash, etc.) in the concrete matrix or by decreasing expanded
polystyrene sphere size.

The polystyrene waste can be also used in manufacturing lightweight concrete blocks or surface
units, with improved thermal insulating properties, by introducing the polystyrene sphere as
lightweight aggregate in the concrete mix.

USE OF SALVAGED AND RECYCLED MATERIALS FROM

DEMOLITION WASTE
The use of salvaged and recycled materials from demolition waste is an important aspect of
sustainable construction and design. Salvaged and recycled materials refer to materials that are
reused or repurposed from existing buildings that are being demolished or renovated. These
materials include flooring, columns, beams, timber, glass, and other building components. In
this explanation, we will discuss the benefits of using salvaged and recycled materials, and
some examples of their use.

Benefits of using salvaged and recycled materials

● Sustainability: Salvaged and recycled materials reduce the amount of waste that ends up in
landfills and reduces the need for new materials to be manufactured, which reduces the
carbon footprint of the construction industry.
● Cost-effective: Using salvaged and recycled materials can be more cost-effective than
purchasing new materials, especially for historic or unique building elements that may be
difficult or expensive to reproduce.
● Unique character: Salvaged and recycled materials can add character and authenticity to a
project, as they often have a patina and texture that cannot be replicated by new materials.

EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF SALVAGED AND RECYCLED MATERIALS

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1. The Renwick Gallery

The Renwick Gallery is a branch of the Smithsonian American Art Museum located in
Washington, D.C. The gallery is dedicated to showcasing contemporary craft and decorative
arts. The building that houses the gallery is a historic structure, originally built in 1859 as a
public museum.

In 2013, the Renwick Gallery underwent a major renovation that was completed in 2015. The
renovation was designed to update the gallery's infrastructure and systems, while preserving
the historic character of the building. The renovation included the use of salvaged and
recycled materials, as well as the installation of new sustainable features.

Some of the sustainable features that were installed during the renovation include:

● LED lighting: The gallery's lighting was updated to LED technology, which uses less
energy and produces less heat than traditional lighting.
● Solar panels: Solar panels were installed on the roof of the building to generate renewable
energy for the gallery.
● Energy-efficient HVAC systems: The gallery's heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
systems were updated to be more energy-efficient, reducing the building's energy
consumption.
● Water conservation: Low-flow plumbing fixtures were installed throughout the building
to conserve water.

In addition to the sustainable features, the renovation also included the use of salvaged and
recycled materials. Some of the salvaged materials that were used include:

● Wood flooring: The original wood flooring was salvaged and reused throughout the
building.
● Ceiling beams: The original ceiling beams were salvaged and repurposed as decorative
elements in the gallery.
● Marble: Salvaged marble from the original building was used to create the gallery's new
staircase.
● Doors and windows: Doors and windows salvaged from other buildings were used in the
renovation.

The renovation of the Renwick Gallery was a significant example of sustainable renovation
and adaptive reuse of a historic building. The use of salvaged and recycled materials helped
to preserve the historic character of the building, while the installation of sustainable features
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helped to reduce the gallery's environmental impact. Today, the Renwick Gallery is a popular
destination for visitors to Washington, D.C., and a showcase for contemporary craft and
decorative arts.

2. The Empire State Building

The Empire State Building in New York City is a famous example of a building that has
undergone a major renovation that included the use of salvaged and recycled materials. The
renovation was completed in 2009 and was aimed at improving the energy efficiency of the
building and reducing its environmental impact.

The Empire State Building renovation project involved a number of sustainable design
strategies, including the use of salvaged and recycled materials. Some examples of the
materials used in the renovation include:

● Recycled Steel: The Empire State Building's renovation included the installation of new
elevators that were made from recycled steel. This helped to reduce the amount of new
steel that had to be produced, reducing the carbon footprint of the project.
● Salvaged Marble: The lobby walls of the Empire State Building were also renovated, and
salvaged marble was used in the new design. The marble was sourced from the building's
original construction and from other buildings in the area that were being demolished.
● Reclaimed Wood: In addition to using salvaged materials, the Empire State Building's
renovation also included the use of sustainably harvested wood. The wood was certified
by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and was used for the building's new
windowsills and trim.
● Recycled Glass: The building's renovation also included the installation of new windows
that were made from recycled glass. This helped to reduce the amount of new glass that
had to be produced, further reducing the environmental impact of the project.

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3. The Hambidge Center

The Hambidge Center is a non-profit organization located in Rabun Gap, Georgia that provides
residencies for artists and writers. The organization is dedicated to fostering creativity and
providing a peaceful retreat for artists to work and collaborate. The center is located on a 600-
acre property in the Blue Ridge Mountains and includes several buildings that have been
renovated using salvaged and recycled materials.

One of the buildings on the property is the Weave Shed, which was originally a textile mill
built in the early 20th century. The building had fallen into disrepair and was scheduled for
demolition before the Hambidge Center acquired it in the 1990s. Rather than tearing down the
building, the organization decided to renovate it using salvaged and recycled materials.

The renovation of the Weave Shed was a collaborative effort between the Hambidge Center
and a team of architects and builders. The building was gutted, and salvaged materials from
the original structure were repurposed for use in the new design. This included wood from the
original flooring and ceiling, as well as doors and windows that were salvaged from other
buildings.

The renovated Weave Shed now serves as a multi-purpose space for the Hambidge Center,
with areas for workshops, performances, and other events. The building also includes several
artist studios and living quarters for residents.

In addition to the Weave Shed, the Hambidge Center has also renovated several other buildings
on the property using salvaged and recycled materials. This includes the Blue Ridge Lodge, a
former hotel that was converted into artist studios and living quarters, and the Hambidge
House, the original home of the Hambidge family that has been repurposed as a library and
gathering space.

Overall, the Hambidge Center is an excellent example of how salvaged and recycled materials
can be used to create beautiful and functional spaces. By repurposing materials from existing
buildings, the organization was able to preserve historic structures and reduce waste, while
providing a peaceful retreat for artists and writers to work and collaborate.

4. The ReBuilding Center

The ReBuilding Center is a non-profit organization in Portland, Oregon that promotes

sustainable building practices by salvaging and reselling building materials from construction

28
and demolition sites. Founded in 1998, the organization's mission is to build community
through reuse, and to create a more sustainable built environment.

The ReBuilding Center collects a wide range of salvaged materials from construction and
demolition sites, including lumber, doors, windows, plumbing fixtures, lighting, and hardware.
These materials are then sorted, cleaned, and organized in the organization's 20,000 square foot
warehouse, where they are made available for purchase by the public at a fraction of the cost
of new materials.

One of the key objectives of The ReBuilding Center is to reduce waste in the construction
industry. By salvaging materials from demolition sites, the organization is able to divert a
significant amount of waste from landfills. In 2020 alone, the organization diverted over 3
million pounds of building materials from the waste stream.

In addition to its material salvage and resale program, The ReBuilding Center offers a range of
educational and community programs. These programs include workshops on topics such as
home repair, furniture building, and green building practices, as well as job training programs
for individuals seeking employment in the construction industry.

The organization also operates a Tool Library, which allows members to borrow tools for home
repair and improvement projects. This program helps to reduce the financial barriers to home
improvement projects and promotes the use of hand tools, which are often more sustainable
than power tools.

The ReBuilding Center has had a significant impact on the Portland community, both in terms
of its environmental impact and its community-building initiatives. The organization has won
numerous awards for its work, including the Portland Business Journal's Innovation in
Sustainability Award, and has been recognized as a model for sustainable building practices by
organizations around the world.

Overall, The ReBuilding Center is an inspiring example of how a non-profit organization can
promote sustainability and community-building through the salvage and resale of building
materials. By reducing waste, promoting reuse, and providing educational and community
programs, the organization is making a significant contribution to a more sustainable and
resilient built environment.

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