Lecture 5

Variables and hypotheses

A/ Variables in Quantitative Research

1.Definition

The variables derive from the verb” to vary”, the act of changing in nature, position, status, and
value. Weather forecast displays temperature degrees of high and low temperatures. Temperatures may vary
by 10 degrees from morning to evening. Any entity, quality, and/ or quantity that varies is called variable
(namely, age, monthly income, height, and weight, etc.). In research methodology, ''a variable is any
characteristic that can take on different values'' (Heath, 2018, p.12).

2.Types

Independent Variable:

It is the condition, characteristic, component, or procedure that the experimenter or researcher

measures and manipulates in order to investigate its link to an observed phenomenon or another variable.
Let's say the researcher wishes to investigate "The Effects of Various Teaching Methods on Mathematical
Learning Achievements." In this case, the independent variable is various methods of teaching. The
independent variable causes a change in another variable, and it is always interested in observing only its
effect on another variable. According to Johnson & Christensen (2008) “An independent variable is a
variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable.”

Dependent variable:

The dependent variable is any factor, condition, trait, or scenario that is observed and quantified to
determine the effect of the independent variable. This variable is sometimes referred to as the outcome
variable or the response variable. The dependent variable in the example "The Effects of Various Teaching
Methods on Mathematical Learning Achievements." is a measure of mathematical learning achievement.
According to Johnson & Christensen (2008) “A dependent variable is the variable that is presumed to be
influenced by one or more independent variable”

Extraneous, Control and confounding variables:

Every experimental research study aims to determine the link between two specified variables
(independent and dependent). However, most experiments incorporate multiple variables at the same time
and in the same scenario. As a result, it is often difficult to determine this relationship precisely since other
variables may influence the relationship or the outcome of the experiment. Extraneous variables are those
that influence dependent variables while independent variables are being studied. So, any researcher should
attempt to control or neutralize these variables. If it is not possible to control or neutralize certain variables,
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they should be considered when interpreting results. Extraneous variables that are controlled or neutralized
in a study are referred to as control variables.

Confounding variables are extraneous variables that are not under the researcher's control and
systematically vary with the independent variables while simultaneously influencing the dependent
variables, making it impossible to draw clear and meaningful conclusions. For example, suppose a
researcher wishes to investigate the effect of a new teaching method (an independent variable) on a child's
mathematics achievement scores (a dependent variable). The researcher will most likely conclude that the
new teaching style has a beneficial effect on the children's mathematics achievement scores. However, it is
unclear whether students with the new teaching method have higher marks because of the new teaching
method or because they are older (age) or have more prior knowledge of the given topic, among other
factors. Then age, previous knowledge etc. will be the extraneous variables. The variable 'age' will be easier
to regulate than the students' previous knowledge. So, if the extraneous variable 'age' is controlled or
neutralized throughout the experiment, it will be considered the control variable. However, if the
extraneous variable "the students' previous knowledge" is not controlled or neutralized, the researcher will
be unable to reach the conclusion with any degree of confidence, and the reviewer may claim that the result
was caused by this additional variable. So this additional variable is referred to as a confounding variable.

In a quantitative research study, variables are related to answer a research question (e.g., “How does
self-esteem influence the formation of friendships among adolescents?”) or to make predictions about what
the researcher expects the results to show. These predictions are called hypotheses (e.g., “Individual positive
self-esteem expands the number of friends of adolescents.”

B/ Hypothesis

1.What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is, simply put, a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study. For example, here is a
research question followed by its restatement in the form of a possible hypothesis:

Question: Will students who are taught history by a teacher of the same gender like the subject more than
students taught by a teacher of a different gender?

Hypothesis: Students taught history by a teacher of the same gender will like the subject more than students
taught history by a teacher of a different gender.

2.Advantages of Stating Hypotheses In addition to Research Questions

First, a hypothesis forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the possible outcomes of a
study. Elaborating on a question by formulating a hypothesis can lead to a more sophisticated understanding
of what the question implies and exactly what variables are involved.

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 A second advantage of restating questions as hypotheses involves a philosophy of science. The
rationale underlying this philosophy is as follows: If one is attempting to build a body of knowledge in
addition to answering a specific question, then stating hypotheses is a good strategy because it enables one
to make specific predictions based on prior evidence or theoretical argument. If these predictions are borne
out by subsequent research, the entire procedure gains both in persuasiveness and efficiency.

Lastly, stating a hypothesis helps us see if we are, or are not, investigating a relationship. If not, we
may be prompted to formulate one.

3.Types of Hypothesis

Directional Hypothesis:

This hypothesis shows the expected direction of results. It means such hypothesis assumes a
particular result in favour of some factor / variable. In other words it can be said that directional hypothesis
expects particular result in favour of a certain variable out of the probable results. Directional hypothesis
indicates clearly the difference or relationship between variable characteristics under study in the context of
independent variable. E.g. the following directional hypotheses can be formulated in the context of the title
‘Study of the teaching aptitude of student-teachers in the context of their gender.’

 The teaching aptitude of the male student-teachers is better than that of female student- teachers. OR
 The teaching aptitude of the female student-teachers is better than that of male student-teachers. In
both the hypothesis teaching aptitude of one is expected better than others.

In this way, both hypotheses show certain result of the research in favour of certain variable. Here,
teaching aptitude is a variable characteristic under study and gender is an independent variable.

The following directional hypothesis may be there in the context of the title ‘Study of the relationship
between emotional maturity and adjustment level of female teachers of secondary schools.’

 There is a positive correlation between emotional maturity level and adjustment level of the female
teachers of secondary schools. OR
 The adjustment level of female teachers of secondary schools having high emotional level is high.

Here, both hypotheses show a positive relationship between emotional maturity and adjustment level of
female teachers. It means, both indicate a certain direction of the finding. For the same title, hypotheses may
be written in the following way as well.

 There is a negative correlation between emotional maturity level and adjustment level of the female
teachers of secondary schools. OR
 The adjustment level of female teachers of secondary schools having low emotional maturity level is
high.
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The above-mentioned hypotheses clarify that directional hypotheses expect a certain type of relationship
between two or more variables.

Non-directional Hypothesis.

The hypothesis, which does not indicate the direction of the result or in which the result is not expected
in favour of certain variable is called non-directional hypothesis. More clearly, it can be said that it assumes
the difference but does not favour any variable in terms of dependent variable. In inter-relational studies, it
assumes the relationship between variables but does not clarify the type of relationship like positive or
negative. Suppose a research is to be carried out to study the teaching competency of higher secondary
teachers in the context of their gender, non-directional hypothesis will be as follows:

 There is difference between teaching competency of male and female teachers of higher secondary
schools.

This hypothesis assumes difference between the teaching competency of male and female teachers but it
does not favour any of them (male or female). It means, it does not expect the result in any one direction.
According to this hypothesis the finding of the research may be in favour of male or female.

References

Heath, W. (2018). Psychology research methods: Connecting research to students' lives. CUP

Johnson, B. & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational Research (3rd. ed.). SAGE Publication.