Field Theory

By
Sikandar AIi Khan
 INTRODUCTION
Types of physical quantities :

Scalar Quantities : A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. For

example : time, mass, distance, temperature etc.

Vector Quantities : A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and

direction. For example : velocity, force, electric field intensity etc.
 INTRODUCTION
Unit Vector :
A unit vector 𝑎Ԧ𝐴 along 𝐴Ԧ is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity
Ԧ
and its direction is along 𝐴.

𝐴Ԧ
𝑎Ԧ𝐴 =
𝐴Ԧ
 INTRODUCTION
➢Component of a vector along another vector

Component of a vector 𝐴Ԧ along another vector 𝐵 can be calculated as

𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ 𝐵 cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
For proper specification of a vector a coordinate system is required. It is convenient to use
orthonormal coordinate systems due to their symmetry and ease of calculation.

Orthonormal Coordinate System :

An orthonormal coordinate system is one in which the coordinate surfaces are mutually
perpendicular.
Most common orthonormal coordinate systems are :

1. Cartesian Coordinate System

2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System
3. Spherical Coordinate System
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
1. Cartesian Coordinate System z - axis
If the origin of the system is taken at the corner of a
cube and the sides of the cube originating from that z1
corner represents the positive axes, the resulting
coordinate system is called Cartesian Coordinate
System. P 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1
The three axes are denoted as x – axis, y – axis and y1
z – axis. y - axis
The ranges of coordinate variables x, y and z are
x1
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑦 < ∞ x - axis
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
1. Cartesian Coordinate System z - axis
The unit vectors along x, y and z axes are
denoted as 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 , 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 and 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . z1

Any vector 𝐴Ԧ can be represented in Cartesian P 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1

Coordinate System as
y1
y - axis
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
x1
Dot Product
x - axis
Ԧ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
𝐴.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System z - axis
Consider a circular cylinder with its axis along z –
axis. If an origin is assumed at the z – axis at the 𝑧1
bottom of cylinder, then the axis along the radius of 𝜌1
cylinder, axis along the anti – clockwise angle in x –
y plane and z axis forms an orthonormal coordinate P 𝜌1 , 𝜑1 , 𝑧1
system.
This system is called Circular Cylindrical y - axis
Coordinate System. 𝜑 - axis
𝜑1
The three perpendicular axes are denoted as 𝜌 –
axis, 𝜑 – axis and z – axis and the unit vectors along
these axes are denoted as 𝑎Ԧ𝜌 , 𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 and 𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
respectively. x - axis 𝜌 - axis
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System z - axis
The ranges of coordinate variables 𝜌, 𝜑 and z are 𝑧1
𝜌1
0<𝜌<∞
0 < 𝜑 < 2𝜋 P 𝜌1 , 𝜑1 , 𝑧1
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
Any vector 𝐴Ԧ can be represented in Circular
y - axis
Cylindrical Coordinate System as 𝜑1 𝜑 - axis

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎Ԧ𝜌 +𝐴𝜑 𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧

x - axis 𝜌 - axis
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
3. Spherical Coordinate System z - axis
Consider a sphere whose origin coincides with
the origin of Cartesian coordinate system. r - axis
Consider a point on the surface of the sphere. 𝜑 - axis
The line joining the origin and the point is 𝜃1 P 𝑟1 , 𝜃1 , 𝜑1
referred as positive r – axis. The axis along the 𝑟1 𝜃 - axis
clockwise angle from z – axis to x – y plane is y - axis
referred as positive 𝜃 – axis. The axis in the 𝜑1
anticlockwise direction in x – y plane is
referred as 𝜑 – axis.
x - axis
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
3. Spherical Coordinate System
r – axis, 𝜃 – axis and 𝜑 – axis form the set of z - axis
orthonormal system, referred to as Spherical
Coordinate System, and the unit vectors along these
axes are denoted as 𝑎Ԧ 𝑟 , 𝑎Ԧ 𝜃 and 𝑎Ԧ𝜑 . r - axis
𝜑 - axis
The ranges of the variables are :
𝜃1 P 𝑟1 , 𝜃1 , 𝜑1
𝑟1 𝜃 - axis
0<𝑟<∞ y - axis
0<𝜃<π
𝜑1
0 < 𝜑 < 2𝜋
Any vector 𝐴Ԧ can be represented in Circular
Cylindrical Coordinate System as
x - axis
𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎Ԧ𝜃 +𝐴𝜑 𝑎Ԧ𝜑
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Conversion of Cartesian z - axis
coordinate system into circular 𝑧
cylindrical coordinate system 𝜌

𝜌 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
𝜑 = tan −1 y - axis
𝑥
𝑧=𝑧 𝜑

𝑎Ԧ𝜌 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 x - axis

𝑎Ԧ𝜑 = − sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑦
𝑎Ԧ𝑧 0 0 1 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Conversion of circular cylindrical z - axis
coordinate system into Cartesian 𝑧
coordinate system 𝜌

𝑥 = 𝜌 cos 𝜑
𝑦 = 𝜌 sin 𝜑 y - axis
𝑧=𝑧
𝜑

𝑎Ԧ𝑥 cos 𝜑 −sin 𝜑 0 𝑎Ԧ𝜌

𝑎Ԧ𝑦 = sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 0 𝑎Ԧ𝜑 x - axis
𝑎Ԧ𝑧 0 0 1 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Conversion of Cartesian coordinate z - axis
system into spherical coordinate system

𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝜃
−1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑟
𝜃 = tan
𝑧 y - axis
𝑦 𝜑
−1
𝜑 = tan
𝑥

𝑎Ԧ𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥

x - axis
𝑎Ԧ 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 − sin 𝜃 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦
𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 − sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Conversion of spherical coordinate z - axis
system into Cartesian coordinate
system
𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑
𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 𝑟
y - axis
𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝜑

𝑎Ԧ 𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 − sin 𝜑 𝑎Ԧ 𝑟

𝑎Ԧ 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝑎Ԧ 𝜃 x - axis
𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 𝑎Ԧ 𝜑
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Note : In general in an orthonormal coordinate system having unit vectors 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 , 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 and
𝑎Ԧ𝑘 , the following identities are true.

𝑎Ԧ𝑖 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 = 1 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 = 0

𝑎Ԧ𝑗 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 = 1 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 = 0
𝑎Ԧ𝑘 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 . 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 = 1

𝑎Ԧ𝑖 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 = −𝑎Ԧ𝑗

𝑎Ԧ𝑗 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 = −𝑎Ԧ𝑘 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 = 0 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑖
𝑎Ԧ𝑘 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑖 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑗 = −𝑎Ԧ𝑖 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑘 = 0
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Constant Coordinate Surfaces
1. Cartesian Coordinate System
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
z - axis z - axis z - axis

y - axis y - axis y - axis

x - axis x - axis x - axis

 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Constant Coordinate Surfaces
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System

z - axis z - axis z - axis

𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

y - axis y - axis y - axis

x - axis x - axis x - axis

 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
➢Constant Coordinate Surfaces
3. Spherical Coordinate System

z - axis z - axis z - axis

𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

y - axis y - axis y - axis

x - axis x - axis x - axis

 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume z - axis Q 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧

1. Cartesian Coordinate System : 𝑑𝑧

Differential displacement d𝑙Ԧ at point P 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is 𝑑𝑥

the vector from point P 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 to point P 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑦
Q 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 .
y - axis
Mathematically,

𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝑧 x - axis

 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
1. Cartesian Coordinate System :
Differential Surface Area is given by
z - axis z - axis 𝑑𝑦 −𝑎Ԧ 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧

𝑎Ԧ 𝑥
y - axis y - axis

𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ 𝑥 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ 𝑥

x - axis x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
1. Cartesian Coordinate System :
Differential Surface Area is given by
z - axis z - axis

𝑑𝑧 −𝑎Ԧ 𝑦
𝑎Ԧ 𝑦
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

y - axis y - axis

𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑎Ԧ 𝑦 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑎Ԧ 𝑦

x - axis x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
1. Cartesian Coordinate System :
Differential Surface Area is given by
𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
z - axis z - axis

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
y - axis y - axis
−𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎Ԧ 𝑧

x - axis x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume z - axis

1. Cartesian Coordinate System : 𝑑𝑧

Differential volume is given by 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
y - axis

Note : 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ and 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ are vectors whereas 𝑑𝑣 is a

scalar.
x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and z - axis
Volume
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate
System : 𝑑𝜌
Q
Differential displacement d𝑙Ԧ at point P 𝜌, 𝜑, 𝑧 is
the vector from point P 𝜌, 𝜑, 𝑧 to point 𝑑𝑧
Q 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌, 𝜑 + 𝑑𝜑, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 . y - axis
P
Mathematically,
𝜌𝑑𝜑
x - axis
𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝑑𝜌𝑎Ԧ𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ𝜑 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝑧
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System :
Differential surface area is given by
z - axis z - axis

−𝑎Ԧ𝜌
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
y - axis y - axis
𝑎Ԧ𝜌
𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝜌 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝜌

x - axis 𝜌𝑑𝜑 x - axis 𝜌𝑑𝜑

 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System :
Differential surface area is given by
z - axis z - axis

𝑑𝜌
𝑎Ԧ𝜑
𝑑𝑧
y - axis 𝑑𝑧
y - axis
−𝑎Ԧ𝜑
𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = −𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ 𝜑
𝑑𝜌

x - axis x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System :
Differential surface area is given by
z - axis z - axis
𝑎Ԧ𝑧
𝑑𝜌

𝜌𝑑𝜑
y - axis y - axis

𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝑧

𝜌𝑑𝜑
x - axis x - axis −𝑎Ԧ𝑧
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and z - axis
Volume
2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinate
𝑑𝜌
System :
Differential volume is given by
𝑑𝑧
y - axis
𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧

Note : 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ and 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ are vectors whereas 𝑑𝑣 is a 𝜌𝑑𝜑

scalar. x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and z - axis
Volume
3. Spherical Coordinate System :
Differential displacement d𝑙Ԧ at point
P 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑 is the vector from point
𝑟𝑑𝜃
P 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑 to point Q ሺ𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟, 𝜃 +
𝑑𝜃, 𝜑 + 𝑑𝜑ሻ. P y - axis
𝑑𝑟
Q
Mathematically,
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑
x - axis
𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎Ԧ𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎Ԧ𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ𝜑
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
3. Spherical Coordinate System :
The differential surface area is given by
z - axis z - axis
𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝑟 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝑟

𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃
y - axis −𝑎Ԧ𝑟 y - axis
𝑎Ԧ𝑟

x - axis 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 x - axis 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑

 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
3. Spherical Coordinate System :
The differential surface area is given by
z - axis z - axis
𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝜃 −𝑎Ԧ𝜃 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝜃

𝑑𝑟
y - axis 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑 y - axis
𝑑𝑟

𝑎Ԧ𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑
x - axis x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and
Volume
3. Spherical Coordinate System :
The differential surface area is given by
z - axis z - axis
𝑑𝑆Ԧ = −𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎Ԧ 𝜑
𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑎Ԧ𝜑
−𝑎Ԧ𝜑 𝑟𝑑𝜃
y - axis y - axis
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟

x - axis x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Differential Length, Area and z - axis
Volume
3. Spherical Coordinate System :
Q
Differential volume is given by
𝑟𝑑𝜃
2 P
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑 y - axis
𝑑𝑟

Note : 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ and 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ are vectors 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑

whereas 𝑑𝑣 is a scalar. x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Line Integral, Surface Integral and Volume Integral

Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ is the integral of the tangential

Line Integral : The line integral ‫𝐴 𝐿׬‬.
component of 𝐴Ԧ along curve L.
Mathematically,
𝑏
Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = න 𝐴Ԧ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑙
න 𝐴.
𝐿 𝑎
If the path of integration is a closed curve, line integral becomes a closed
Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ which is called the circulation of 𝐴Ԧ around L.
contour integral ‫𝐴 ׯ‬.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Line Integral, Surface Integral and Volume Integral

Surface Integral : Given a vector field 𝐴Ԧ , continuous in a region

containing the smooth surface S, we define the surface integral or the flux
of 𝐴Ԧ through S as
Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝐴Ԧ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑆
𝜓 = න 𝐴.
𝑆 𝑆
𝜓 is also called flux of vector field 𝐴Ԧ over the surface S.
Volume Integral : It is defined as ‫ 𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝜌 𝑣׬‬i.e. the volume integral of
scalar 𝜌𝑣 over the volume 𝑣.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
DEL Operator : Del operator is the vector differential operator which can be written
in three coordinate systems as

Cartesian Coordinate System

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑎Ԧ
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 𝜑 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

Spherical Coordinate System

𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
𝛻 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 + 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑎Ԧ
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜑
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Field : A field is a function that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a
region. It tells about the spatial distribution of quantity in terms of coordinate
variables.
It can be classified depending upon the nature of the physical quantity as
Scalar Field : If the quantity is a scalar, we get a scalar field such as temperature
distribution in a building e.g. 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 represents a scalar field
corresponding to temperature distribution in Cartesian coordinate system.

Vector Field : If the quantity is a vector, we get a vector field such as the
𝑚 1 𝑚2
Ԧ
gravitational force on a body in space e.g. 𝐹 = 𝐺 2 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 represents the
𝑟
gravitational force between two masses in spherical coordinate system.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Application of del operator on fields :
Scalar Fields :
Gradient of a scalar field i.e. 𝛻V
Laplacian of a scalar field i.e. 𝛻 2 𝑉

Vector fields :
Divergence of a vector field i.e. 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ
Curl of a vector field i.e. 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :
The gradient of a scalar field V is a z - axis
vector that represents both the
magnitude and the direction of the 𝑉3
maximum space rate of increase of V.

𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
A mathematical expression for the 𝑉1
gradient can be obtained by evaluating y - axis
𝑃1
the difference in the field 𝑑𝑉 between
points 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 of Figure where 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝜃 𝐺
and 𝑉3 are contours on which 𝑉 is 𝑃2
constant. x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :
Difference in scalar field between points 𝑃1 and z - axis
𝑃2 is given as 𝑉3

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
𝑑𝑉 𝑉1
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 y - axis
= 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑑𝑥𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝑧 𝑃1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜃 𝐺
Lets take
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑃2
Ԧ
𝐺= 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑎Ԧ + 𝑎Ԧ x - axis
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :

Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐺 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑙 z - axis
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐺.
𝑉3
𝑑𝑉
= 𝐺 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑙
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
𝑉1
where 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ is the differential displacement y - axis
from 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 and 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐺Ԧ 𝑃1
and 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ. 𝜃 𝐺
From the above equation, we notice that
𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑙 is a maximum when 𝜃 = 0, that is, 𝑃2
when 𝑑𝑙 is in the direction of 𝐺. x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :
Hence, z - axis
𝑑𝑉 𝑉3
ቤ =𝐺
𝑑𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
𝑉1
Thus 𝐺Ԧ has its magnitude and direction y - axis
as those of the maximum rate of change 𝑃1
of 𝑉. 𝜃 𝐺

By definition, 𝐺Ԧ is the gradient of 𝑉. 𝑃2

x - axis
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :
Cartesian Coordinate System
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 z - axis
𝛻= 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑉3

Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System

𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
𝑉1
𝛻= 𝑎Ԧ𝜌 + 𝑎Ԧ𝜑 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 y - axis
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧 𝑃1
𝜃 𝐺
Spherical Coordinate System 𝑃2
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 x - axis
𝛻= 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 + 𝑎Ԧ𝜃 + 𝑎Ԧ𝜑
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :
Properties :
z - axis
𝛻 𝑈 + 𝑉 = 𝛻𝑈 + 𝛻𝑉 𝑉3

𝛻 𝑈𝑉 = 𝑈𝛻𝑉 + 𝑉𝛻𝑈
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
𝑉1
𝑈 𝑉𝛻𝑈 − 𝑈𝛻𝑉 y - axis
𝛻 = 𝑃1
𝑉 𝑉2
𝜃 𝐺
𝛻𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑉 𝑛−1 𝛻𝑉 𝑃2
where U and V are scalar fields and n is an x - axis
integer.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Gradient of a scalar field :
Properties : z - axis
• 𝛻V at any point is perpendicular to the constant
V surface that passes through that point. 𝑉3

• The projection (or component) of 𝛻V in the

direction of a unit vector a is 𝛻V. a and is called 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + ∆𝑉
the directional derivative of V along a. 𝑉1
y - axis
𝑃1
• This is the rate of change of V in the direction of 𝜃 𝐺
a.
𝑃2
x - axis
• If A = 𝛻V , V is said to be the scalar potential of
A.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence of a vector field :
The divergence of 𝐴Ԧ at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the
volume shrinks about P.

Mathematically,

Ԧ 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
‫𝐴 𝑆ׯ‬.
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐴Ԧ = 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = lim
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣

where ∆𝑣 is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located.

 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence of a vector field :
• Physically, divergence of the vector field 𝐴Ԧ at a given point as a measure
of how much the field diverges or emanates from that point.
• Divergence of a vector field 𝐴Ԧ is positive if the field diverges from all the
points on the surface.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence of a vector field :
• Divergence of a vector field 𝐴Ԧ is negative if the field converges from all
the points on the surface.
• Divergence of a vector field 𝐴Ԧ is zero if the field neither diverges nor
converges on the surface.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence of a vector field :
Mathematically,
Cartesian Coordinate System

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝐴𝑥 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence of a vector field :
Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System

1 𝜕 𝜌𝐴𝜌 1 𝜕𝐴𝜑 𝜕𝐴𝑧

𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ = + +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧
Spherical Coordinate System

1 𝜕 𝑟 2 𝐴𝑟 1 𝜕 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝜃 1 𝜕𝐴𝜑
Ԧ
𝛻. 𝐴 = 2 + +
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence of a vector field :

Properties :

• It produces a scalar field.

• 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ + 𝛻. 𝐵

• 𝛻. 𝑉𝐴Ԧ = 𝑉𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐴.
Ԧ 𝛻𝑉
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Divergence Theorem :

The divergence theorem stales that the total outward flux of a vector field
A through the closed surface S is same as the volume integral of the
divergence of A.
Mathematically,
Ԧ 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = න 𝛻. 𝐴Ԧ 𝑑𝑣
ර 𝐴.
𝑆 𝑣
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Curl of a vector field :
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the
normal direction of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation
maximum.
Mathematically,

Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ
‫𝐴 𝑙ׯ‬.
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴Ԧ = 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ = lim อ 𝑎Ԧ𝑛
∆𝑆→0 ∆𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥

where ∆𝑆 is the area enclosed by the closed path 𝑙 and 𝑎Ԧ 𝑛 is the unit vector normal to
the surface ∆𝑆.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Curl of a vector field :

The curl provides the maximum value of the circulation of the field per
unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the direction along which
this maximum value occurs.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Curl of a vector field :
The curl of a vector field A at a point P may be regarded as a measure of the
circulation or how much the field curls around P.
For example, Left figure shows that the curl of a vector field around P is
directed out of the page while the right figure shows a vector field with zero
curl.
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Curl of a vector field :
Mathematically, curl of a vector field 𝐴Ԧ can be represented in three coordinate
systems as
Cartesian Coordinate System

𝑎Ԧ 𝑥 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦 𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Curl of a vector field :
Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System

𝑎Ԧ𝜌 𝜌𝑎Ԧ𝜑 𝑎Ԧ𝑧

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Ԧ
𝛻×𝐴 =
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝜌 𝜌𝐴𝜑 𝐴𝑧
Spherical Coordinate System

𝑎Ԧ𝑟 𝑟𝑎Ԧ𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑎Ԧ𝜑

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Ԧ
𝛻×𝐴= 2
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜑
𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝜑
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Curl of a vector field :
Properties :

1. 𝛻× A+B =𝛻×A+𝛻×B
2. 𝛻 × A × B = A 𝛻. B − B 𝛻. A
3. 𝛻 × VA = V 𝛻 × A + 𝛻V × A

4. The divergence of the curl of a vector field vanishes, that is,

𝛻. 𝛻 × A = 0

5. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes, that is,

𝛻 × 𝛻V = 0
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Stoke’s Theorem :

The Stoke’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around
a closed path 𝑙 is same as the surface integral of the curl of A over the
open surface S bounded by 𝑙 provided A and 𝛻 × A are continuous on S.
Mathematically,
Ԧ 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = න
ර 𝐴. 𝛻 × 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
𝑙 𝑆
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Laplacian of a scalar field :

The laplacian of a scalar field V, written as 𝛻 2 𝑉, is the divergence of the gradient of

V.
Mathematically,
Cartesian Coordinate System

𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉
𝛻 2𝑉 = 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Laplacian of a scalar field :

Circular Cylindrical Coordinate System

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉
𝛻 2𝑉 = 𝜌 + 2 2+ 2
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧
Spherical Coordinate System

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 2𝑉
𝛻 2𝑉 = 2 𝑟2 + 2 sin 𝜃 + 2
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑2
 VECTOR CALCULUS
Laplacian of a scalar field :

A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in

that region i.e. 𝛻 2 𝑉 = 0.
ELECTROSTATICS
 COULUMB’S LAW
• Coulomb's law is an experimental law formulated in 1785 by the French colonel,
Charles Augustin de Coulomb.

• It deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point charge.

• By a point charge we mean a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions are
much smaller than other relevant dimensions.

• Charges are generally measured in coulombs (C).

• One coulomb is approximately equivalent to 6 × 1018 electrons;

−19
it is a very large
unit of charge because one electron charge e = −1.6019 × 10 C.
 COULUMB’S LAW
• Coulomb's law states that the force F between two point charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 is:

1. Along the line joining them

2. Directly proportional to the product 𝑄1 𝑄2 of the charges
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them.

Mathematically,

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘 2
𝑅
where k is the proportionality constant.
 COULUMB’S LAW
• In SI units, charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are in coulombs (C), the distance R is in
meters (m), and the force F is in newtons (N) so that𝑘 = 1Τ4𝜋𝜀0 .

• The constant 𝜀0 is known as the permittivity of free space (in farads per
meter) and has the value

10−9
𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 ≈ 𝐹 Τ𝑚
36𝜋
or
1
𝑘= = 9 × 109 𝑚Τ𝐹
4𝜋𝜀0
 COULUMB’S LAW
• Substituting the value of k, Coulumb’s law can
be written as
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
• If point charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are located at points
having position vectors 𝑟Ԧ1 and 𝑟Ԧ2 , then the
force 𝐹Ԧ12 on 𝑄2 due to 𝑄1 is given by

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹Ԧ12 = 𝑎Ԧ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑟12
Where
𝑅12 = 𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1
𝑅 = 𝑅12
𝑅12
𝑎Ԧ𝑟12 =
𝑅
 COULUMB’S LAW
• In terms of 𝑅12 , Coulumb’s law can be
written as

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹Ԧ12 = 3
𝑅12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
or

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1
𝐹Ԧ12 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ2 − 𝑟Ԧ1 3
 COULUMB’S LAW
Note :
1. The force 𝐹Ԧ21 , on 𝑄1 due to 𝑄2 is
given by
𝐹Ԧ21 = 𝐹Ԧ12 𝑎Ԧ𝑟21

𝐹Ԧ21 = − 𝐹Ԧ12 𝑎Ԧ𝑟12

𝐹Ԧ21 = −𝐹Ԧ12

There is equal and opposite force on the

two charges of same sign as shown in the
figure.
 COULUMB’S LAW
Note :
2. Like charges (charges of the same
sign) repel each other while unlike
charges attract.
3. The distance 𝑅 between the
charged bodies 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 must
be large compared with the linear
dimensions of the bodies; that is,
𝑄1 and 𝑄2 must be point charges.
4. 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 must be static (at rest).
5. The signs of 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 must be
taken into account in Coulumb’s
law.
 COULUMB’S LAW
• If we have more than two point charges, we can use the principle of superposition to determine the
force on a particular charge.
• The principle states that if there are N charges Q1 , Q2 ,…….., QN located, respectively, at points with
position vectors rԦ1 , rԦ2 ,…….., rԦN the resultant force F on a charge Q located at point rԦ is the vector
sum of the forces exerted on Q by each of the charges Q1 , Q2 ,…….., QN . Hence:

𝑄𝑄1 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ1 𝑄𝑄2 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ2 𝑄𝑄𝑁 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑁

𝐹Ԧ = + + ⋯…+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ1 3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ2 3 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑁 3

𝑁
𝑄 𝑄𝑘 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑘
Ԧ
𝐹= ෍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑘 3
𝑘=1
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
• The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) 𝐸 is the force per unit charge
when placed in the electric field.
𝐹Ԧ
𝐸 = lim
𝑄→0 𝑄

• The electric field intensity 𝐸 is obviously in the direction of the force F and is
measured in newtons/coulomb or volts/meter.
• The electric field intensity at point 𝑟Ԧ due to a point charge located at 𝑟′ is given as

𝑄 𝑄 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟′
𝐸= 2
𝑎Ԧ𝑅 = 3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟′
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
• For N point charges Q1 , Q 2 ,…….., Q N located, respectively, at points with position
vectors rԦ1 , rԦ2 ,…….., rԦN , the electric field intensity at point located at 𝑟Ԧ is given as

𝑄1 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ1 𝑄2 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ2 𝑄𝑁 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑁

𝐸= 3
+ 3
+ ⋯…+ 3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑁

or

𝑁
1 𝑄𝑘 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑘
𝐸= ෍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑘 3
𝑘=1
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
Electric fields due to continuous
charge distributions :
• So far we have only considered forces
and electric fields due to point charges,
which are essentially charges occupying
very small physical space.
• It is also possible to have continuous
charge distribution along a line, on a
surface, or in a volume.
• It is customary to denote the line
charge density, surface charge density,
and volume charge density
2
by 𝜌𝐿 (in
𝐶/𝑚3), 𝜌𝑆 (in 𝐶/𝑚 ), and 𝜌𝑣 (in
𝐶/𝑚 ), respectively.
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
Electric fields due to continuous charge
distributions :
• The charge element 𝑑𝑄 and the total charge 𝑄
due to these charge distributions are obtained
from as

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙 → 𝑄 = න 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙
𝐿

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆 → 𝑄 = න 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆
𝑆

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 → 𝑄 = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣
 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
Electric fields due to continuous
charge distributions :
• The electric field intensity due to different
charge distributions is given as
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙
𝐸=න 2
𝑎Ԧ𝑅
𝐿 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆
𝐸=න 2
𝑎Ԧ𝑅
𝑆 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐸=න 2
𝑎Ԧ𝑅
𝑣 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY
• The electric field intensity is dependent on the medium in which the charge is
placed.
• We can define a quantity which is independent of the medium as

D = ε0 E
• Electric flux can be defined as
Ψ = න D. dS
S
• In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminates on - 1 C.
• Therefore, the electric flux is measured in coulombs.
• Hence, the vector field D is called the electric flux density and is measured in
coulombs per square meter.
 GAUSS’S LAW
• Gauss's law stales that the total electric flux Ψ through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
• Mathematically,
Ψ = න D. dS = Q
S

න D. dS = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 1
S 𝑣

• Applying divergence theorem to the L. H. S.

න 𝛻. D 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
v 𝑣
 GAUSS’S LAW
• Comparing integrand on both L. H. S. and R. H. S.

𝛻. D = 𝜌𝑣 2

• Eq. (1) and (2) represents Maxwell’s first equation for static fields.
• Eq. (1) is integral form while eq. (2) is point form of Maxwell’s first
equation.
• Eq. (1) and (2) are also called integral form and point form of Gauss’s
law.
• The closed surface considered in stating Gauss’s law is called Gaussian
surface.
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
A. Point Charge
• Suppose a point charge 𝑄 is located at the
origin.
• To determine 𝐷 at a point 𝑃, it is easy to
see that choosing a spherical surface
containing 𝑃 will satisfy symmetry
conditions.
• Thus, a spherical surface centered at the
origin is the Gaussian surface in this case.
• Since 𝐷 is everywhere normal to the
Gaussian surface, therefore

𝐷 = 𝐷𝑟 𝑎Ԧ 𝑟
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
A. Point Charge
• Applying Gauss’s law to the
spherical Gaussian surface
ර D. dS = Q
𝑆

න 𝐷𝑟 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 . 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ𝑟 = Q

S 𝜋 2𝜋
න න 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑 = Q
0 0

𝜋 2𝜋
𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 − cos 𝜃 0 𝜑 0 =Q
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
A. Point Charge
𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 cos 0 − cos 𝜋 2𝜋 − 0 =Q

𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑄

𝑄
𝐷𝑟 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
𝐷= 2
𝑎Ԧ𝑟
4𝜋𝑟
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
B. Line Charge
• Suppose the infinite line of uniform
charge 𝜌𝐿 C/m lies along the z-axis.
• To determine 𝐷 at a point 𝑃, we
choose a cylindrical surface
containing 𝑃 to satisfy symmetry
condition as shown in Figure.
• 𝐷 is constant on and normal to the
cylindrical Gaussian surface; that is
𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 𝑎Ԧ𝜌
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
B. Line Charge
• Applying Gauss’s law to the
cylindrical Gaussian surface
ර D. dS = Q
𝑆

න 𝐷𝜌 𝑎Ԧ𝜌 . 𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝜌 = Q
S 𝑙 2𝜋
න න 𝐷𝜌 𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧 = Q
0 0

𝑙 2𝜋
𝐷𝜌 𝜌 𝑧 0 𝜑 0 =Q
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
B. Line Charge

𝐷𝜌 𝜌 𝑙 − 0 2𝜋 − 0 =Q

𝐷𝜌 2𝜋𝜌𝑙 = Q

𝑄 𝜌𝐿 𝑙 𝜌𝐿
𝐷𝜌 = = =
2𝜋𝜌𝑙 2𝜋𝜌𝑙 2𝜋𝜌
𝜌𝐿
𝐷= 𝑎Ԧ𝜌
2𝜋𝜌
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
C. Surface Charge
• Consider the infinite sheet of uniform
charge 𝜌𝑠 𝐶 Τ𝑚2 lying on the 𝑧 =
0 plane.
• To determine 𝐷 at point 𝑃, we choose
a rectangular box that is cut
symmetrically by the sheet of charge
and has two of its faces parallel to the
sheet as shown in Figure.
• As 𝐷 is normal to the sheet, we can
write
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
C. Surface Charge
• Applying Gauss’s law to the Gaussian surface of the box
ර D. dS = Q
𝑆

න D. dS + න D. dS + න D. dS + න D. dS + න D. dS
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑝

+න D. dS = 𝑄
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

න 𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝑥 − න 𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + න 𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑎Ԧ𝑦

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡

−න 𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + න 𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎Ԧ𝑧

𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑝

+න −𝐷𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 . −𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎Ԧ𝑧 = 𝑄

𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
C. Surface Charge

𝐷𝑧 න 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + න 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑄
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Let top and bottom areas be denoted as ∆𝑆

𝐷𝑧 2∆𝑆 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑆

𝜌𝑠
𝐷𝑧 =
2
𝜌𝑠
𝐷 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
2
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere
• Consider a sphere of radius a
with a uniform charge 𝜌𝑣 𝐶/𝑚3 .
• To determine everywhere, we
construct Gaussian surfaces for
cases 𝑟 < 𝑎 and 𝑟 > 𝑎 separately.
• Since the charge has spherical
symmetry, it is obvious that a
spherical surface is an
appropriate Gaussian surface.
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere
• For 𝑟 < 𝑎 , the total charge
enclosed by the spherical surface
of radius r, as shown in Figure is
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣

2𝜋 𝜋 𝑟
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 න න න 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
0 0 0

4 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟
3
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere
and
Ψ = ර 𝐷. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝑆

2𝜋 𝜋
Ψ = 𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
0 0

Ψ = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
Applying Gauss’s law

Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

4 3
𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟
3

𝑟
𝐷𝑟 = 𝜌𝑣
3

𝑟
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎
3
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere
• For 𝑟 > 𝑎 , the Gaussian surface is shown
in Figure.
• The charge enclosed by the surface is the
entire charge in this case, that is,
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣

2𝜋 𝜋 𝑎
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 න න න 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
0 0 0

4 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑎
3
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere
and
Ψ = ර 𝐷. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝑆

2𝜋 𝜋
Ψ = 𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
0 0

Ψ = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
Applying Gauss’s law

Ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

4 3
𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑎
3

𝑎3
𝐷𝑟 = 2 𝜌𝑣
3𝑟

𝑎3
𝐷 = 2 𝜌𝑣 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 𝑎
3𝑟
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• Suppose we wish to move a point charge
𝑄 from point 𝐴 to point 𝐵 in an electric
field 𝐸 as shown in Figure.

• From Coulomb's law, the force on 𝑄 is

𝐹Ԧ = 𝑄𝐸 so that the work done in
displacing the charge by 𝑑𝑙Ԧ is

𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹. Ԧ 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = −𝑄𝐸. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ
• The negative sign indicates that the work
is being done by an external agent.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• Thus the total work done, or the
potential energy required, in
moving 𝑄 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is
𝐵
𝑊 = −𝑄 න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
𝐴
• Dividing W by Q gives the
potential energy per unit charge.
• This quantity, denoted by VAB , is
known as the potential difference
between points A and B.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• Note
1. In determining VAB , A is the initial
point while B is the final point.
2. If VAB is negative, there is a loss in
potential energy in moving Q from A
to B; this implies that the work is
being done by the field. However, if
VAB is positive, there is a gain in
potential energy in the movement; an
external agent performs the work.
3. VAB is independent of the path taken.
4. VAB is measured in joules per
coulomb, commonly referred to as
volts (V).
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A. Electric Potential between two points due to the electric field
produced by a point charge
• Assume that the source point charge is located at origin.
• The electric field produced by the point charge is given by
𝑄
𝐸= 2
𝑎Ԧ𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
• The potential difference between points A and B under the influence of the electric
field is given by
𝑟𝐵
VAB = − න 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ
𝑟𝐴
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A. Electric Potential between two points due to the electric field produced by
a point charge
𝑟𝐵
𝑄
VAB = − න 2 𝑎Ԧ𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟𝑎Ԧ 𝑟
𝑟𝐴 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑟𝐵
𝑄
VAB = − න 2
𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝐴 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑟𝐵
𝑄 1
VAB =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟𝐴
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A. Electric Potential between two points due to the electric field
produced by a point charge

𝑄 1 1
VAB = −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
Or
VAB = VB − VA
• where VB and VA are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at 𝐵 and 𝐴,
respectively.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A. Electric Potential between two points due to the
electric field produced by a point charge
• Thus the potential difference VAB may be regarded as the potential at 𝐵 with
reference to 𝐴.
• In problems involving point charges, it is customary to choose infinity as
reference; that is, we assume the potential at infinity is zero.
• Thus if 𝑉𝐴 = 0 as 𝑟𝐴 → ∞, the potential at any point 𝑟𝐵 → 𝑟 due to a
point charge 𝑄 located at the origin is
𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A. Electric Potential between two points due to the electric field
produced by a point charge
• By assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from the point
charge is the work done per unit charge by an external agent in transferring a test
charge from infinity to that point.
• If the point charge 𝑄 in eq. is not located at the origin but at a point whose position
vector is 𝑟′, the potential 𝑉ሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧ሻ or simply 𝑉ሺ𝑟ሻ at 𝑟Ԧ becomes

𝑄
𝑉 𝑟Ԧ =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟′
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
A. Electric Potential between two points due to the electric field
produced by a point charge
• For n point charges Q1 , Q2 ,…….., Qn located at points with position
vectors rԦ1 , rԦ2 ,…….., rԦn , the potential at rԦ is

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑛
𝑉 𝑟Ԧ = + + ⋯+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑛
𝑛
1 𝑄𝑘
𝑉 𝑟Ԧ = ෍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑟Ԧ𝑘
𝑘=1
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• Note :
1. The zero potential (reference) point has been chosen arbitrarily to be at infinity. If any other point is chosen
as reference, the potential is calculated as

𝑄
𝑉= +𝐶
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
where C is a constant that is determined at the chosen point of reference.
2. The potential at a point can be determined in two ways depending on whether the charge distribution or 𝐸 is
known. If the charge distribution is known, we use the equations depending on the charge distribution. If 𝐸
is known, we simply use
𝑉 = − න 𝐸. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ + 𝐶

The potential difference 𝑉𝐴𝐵 can be found generally from

𝐵
𝑊
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ =
𝐴 𝑄
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 𝐸 AND 𝑉 :
• We know that the potential difference between points A and B is independent of the path
taken. Hence,

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −𝑉𝐵𝐴

𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0

ර 𝐸. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 0 3

• This shows that the line integral of 𝐸 along a closed path must be zero.
• Physically, this implies that no net work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in
an electrostatic field.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 𝐸 AND 𝑉:
• Applying Stokes's theorem,
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = න 𝛻 × 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 0

𝛻×𝐸 =0 4
• Eq. (3) and (4) represents Maxwell’s second equation for static fields.
• Eq. (3) is integral form while eq. (4) is point form of Maxwell’s second equation.
• Eq. (3) and (4) also shows that total work done around a closed path is zero for
electrostatic fields.
• Such fields are called conservative fields.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 𝐸 AND 𝑉:
• We know that
𝑉 = − න 𝐸. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ → 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ
𝐿

𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 = −𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Comparing the coefficients of dx, dy and dz,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 = − and 𝐸𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 𝐸 AND 𝑉:

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎Ԧ𝑧

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸=− 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 − 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 − 𝑎Ԧ𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐸=− 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉
 CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY
“The current (in amperes) through a given area is the electric charge
passing through the area per unit time”

Mathematically,
𝑑𝑄
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
Suppose, a current ∆𝐼 is passing through an area ∆𝑆, the current density
is defined as
∆𝐼
𝐽𝑛 =
∆𝑆
 CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY
or
∆𝐼 = 𝐽𝑛 ∆𝑆

In general,

∆𝐼 = 𝐽.Ԧ ∆𝑆Ԧ

The total current flowing through a surface S,

𝐼 = න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
𝑆
 CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY
Classification of Current Density :
Current density can be classified into the following categories :

1. Convection Current Density

2. Conduction Current Density

3. Displacement Current Density

 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
• Charges in a dielectric are not able to move
about freely, they are bound by finite forces
and hence a charge displacement will take
place when an external force is applied.
• To understand the macroscopic effect of an
electric field on a dielectric, consider an atom
of the dielectric as consisting of a negative
charge −𝑄 (electron cloud) and a positive

≡
charge +𝑄 (nucleus) as shown in figure.
• A similar picture can be adopted for a
dielectric molecule; we can treat the nuclei in
molecules as point charges and the electronic
structure as a single cloud of negative charge.
• Since we have equal amounts of positive and
negative charge, the whole atom or molecule
is electrically neutral.
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
• When an electric field E is applied, the
positive charge is displaced from its
equilibrium position in the direction of E by
the force F+ = QE while the negative charge is
displaced in the opposite direction by the
force F− = −QE.
• A dipole results from the displacement of the
charges and the dielectric is said to be

≡
polarized.
• In the polarized state, the electron cloud is
distorted by the applied electric field E.
• This distorted charge distribution is
equivalent, by the principle of superposition,
to the original distribution plus a dipole whose
moment is
𝑝Ԧ = 𝑄𝑑Ԧ
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
• If there are N dipoles in a volume ∆𝑣
of the dielectric, the total dipole
moment due to the electric field is
𝑁

𝑄1 𝑑Ԧ1 + 𝑄2 𝑑Ԧ2 + ⋯ + 𝑄𝑁 𝑑Ԧ𝑁 = ෍ 𝑄𝑘 𝑑Ԧ𝑘

≡
𝑘=1
• As a measure of intensity of the
polarization, we define polarization 𝑃
(in coulombs/meter square) as the
dipole moment per unit volume of the
dielectric; that is,
σ𝑁 Ԧ
𝑘=1 𝑄𝑘 𝑑𝑘
𝑃 = lim
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
• Thus we conclude that the major effect of
the electric field 𝐸 on a dielectric is the
creation of dipole moments that align
themselves in the direction of 𝐸.
• This type of dielectric is said to be
nonpolar.
• Examples of such dielectrics are
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the rare
Figure A Figure B
gases.
• Nonpolar dielectric molecules do not
possess dipoles until the application of the
electric field as we have noticed.
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
• Other types of molecules such as water,
sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid have
built-in permanent dipoles that are
randomly oriented as shown in Figure (A)
and are said to be polar.

• When an electric field 𝐸 is applied to a

polar molecule, the permanent dipole
experiences a torque tending to align its Figure A Figure B

dipole moment parallel with 𝐸 as in

Figure (B).
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
Relationship between Electric Field Intensity, Electric Flux Density and Polarization:
• We now consider the case in which the dielectric region contains free charge.
• If 𝜌𝑣 is the free charge volume density, the total volume charge density 𝜌𝑡 , is given
by
𝜌𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣 + 𝜌𝑝𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝜀0 𝐸

𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝜀0 𝐸 − 𝜌𝑝𝑣

𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝛻. 𝑃

𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
Relationship between Electric Field Intensity, Electric Flux Density and Polarization:

𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝛻. 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃

𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + 𝑃

• We conclude that the net effect of the dielectric on the electric field 𝐸 is to increase 𝐷 inside it by amount 𝑃.
• In other words, due to the application of 𝐸 to the dielectric material, the flux density is greater than it would be
in free space.
• It should be noted that the definition of 𝐷 for free space is a special case of that of material space because 𝑃 =
0 in free space.
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
Relationship between Electric Field Intensity, Electric Flux Density and Polarization:
• We would expect that the polarization 𝑃 would vary directly as the applied electric field 𝐸.
• For some dielectrics, this is usually the case and we have
𝑃 = χ𝑒 𝜀0 𝐸
• where χe , known as the electric susceptibility of the material, is more or less a measure of how
susceptible (or sensitive) a given dielectric is to electric fields.
• Substituting 𝑃 in the expression of 𝐷

𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 + χ𝑒 𝜀0 𝐸

𝐷 = 𝜀0 1 + χ𝑒 𝐸
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
Relationship between Electric Field Intensity, Electric Flux Density and Polarization:

𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐸

𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
Where
𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟

𝜀
𝜀𝑟 = 1 + χ𝑒 =
𝜀0
• ε is called the permittivity of the dielectric, ε0 is the permittivity of free space, defined as
approximately 10−9 Τ36π F/m, and εr is called the dielectric constant or relative permittivity.
 POLARISATION IN DIELECTRICS
Relationship between Electric Field Intensity, Electric Flux Density and Polarization:
• It should also be noticed that 𝜀𝑟 and χ𝑒 are dimensionless whereas 𝜀 and 𝜀0 are in
farads/meter.
• For free space and non – dielectric materials (such as metals) 𝜀𝑟 = 1.
• When the electric field in a dielectric is sufficiently large, it begins to pull electrons
completely out of the molecules, and the dielectric becomes conducting.
• Dielectric breakdown is said to have occurred when a dielectric becomes conducting.
• Dielectric breakdown occurs in all kinds of dielectric materials (gases, liquids, or solids) and
depends on the nature of the material, temperature, humidity, and the amount of time that
the field is applied.
• The minimum value of the electric field at which dielectric breakdown occurs is called the
dielectric strength of the dielectric material.
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
➢So far, we have considered the existence of the electric field in a homogeneous
medium.
➢If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the conditions that
the field must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary
conditions.
➢These conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if
the field on the other side is known.

➢We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating

1. Dielectric ሺ𝜀𝑟1 ሻ and dielectric ሺ𝜀𝑟2 ሻ

2. Conductor and dielectric
3. Conductor and free space
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
• To determine the boundary conditions, we need to use Maxwell's equations:
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0

ර 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐

• Also we need to decompose the electric field intensity E into two orthogonal
components:
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑡 + 𝐸𝑛
• where 𝐸𝑡 and 𝐸𝑛 are, respectively, the tangential and normal components of 𝐸 to
the interface of interest. A similar decomposition can be done for the electric flux
density 𝐷.
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields

1. Dielectric – Dielectric boundary condition

 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
• Consider the 𝐸 field existing in a
region consisting of two different
dielectrics characterized by 𝜀1 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1
and 𝜀2 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟2 .

• 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 in media 1 and 2,

respectively, can be decomposed as :

𝐸1 = 𝐸1𝑡 + 𝐸1𝑛

𝐸2 = 𝐸2𝑡 + 𝐸2𝑛
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
• Using Maxwell’s second equation for path
abcda, we obtain

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝐸1𝑡 . ∆𝑤 − 𝐸1𝑛 . −𝐸2𝑛 . − 𝐸2𝑡 . ∆𝑤+𝐸2𝑛 .
2 2 2
∆ℎ
+ 𝐸1𝑛 . =0
2

𝐸1𝑡 − 𝐸2𝑡 . ∆𝑤 = 0

𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
• Using Maxwell’s first equation for the Gaussian
cylinder, we obtain

ර D. dS = Qenc

න D. dS + න D. dS + න D. dS = Qenc
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

න D. dS = 0
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields

න D. dS = 𝐷1𝑛 . ∆𝑆
𝑡𝑜𝑝

න D. dS = −𝐷2𝑛 . ∆𝑆
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

Q enc = 𝜌𝑠 . ∆𝑆

𝐷1𝑛 . ∆𝑆−𝐷2𝑛 . ∆𝑆 = 𝜌𝑠 . ∆𝑆

𝐷1𝑛 −𝐷2𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
• If the interface is a charge free surface,
𝜌𝑠 = 0
𝐷1𝑛 = 𝐷2𝑛
In short,
𝐸1𝑡 = 𝐸2𝑡

𝐷1𝑡 𝐷2𝑡
=
𝜀1 𝜀2

𝐷1𝑛 −𝐷2𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠

𝜀1 𝐸1𝑛 − 𝜀2 𝐸2𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
Conductor – Dielectric boundary
condition

• The conductor is assumed to be perfect (i.e., 𝜎 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑣 → 0).

• 𝐸 = 0 inside the perfect conductor.
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
Conductor – Dielectric boundary
condition

• Using Maxwell’s second equation for path abcda, we obtain

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
0. ∆𝑤 + 0. +𝐸𝑛 . − 𝐸𝑡 . ∆𝑤−𝐸𝑛 . − 0. =0
2 2 2 2
𝐸𝑡 = 0
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
Conductor – Dielectric boundary
condition

• Similarly, using Maxwell’s first equation for the Gaussian cylinder, we obtain

𝐷𝑛 . ∆𝑆 − 0. ∆𝑆 = 𝜌𝑠 . ∆𝑆

𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields
3. Conductor – free space boundary
condition
• This is a special case of the conductor-
dielectric conditions.
• The boundary conditions at the interface
between a conductor and free space can be
obtained from the equations derived for
conductor – dielectric boundary conditions
by replacing 𝜀𝑟 by 1.
• We expect the electric field E to be
external to the conductor and normal to its
surface.
• Thus the boundary conditions are :
𝐷𝑡 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑡 = 0
𝐷𝑛 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
 Boundary Value Problems
➢In the previous discussion, electric field 𝐸 is calculated

1. using Coulomb's law or Gauss's law when the charge distribution is known
2. using 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 when the potential V is known throughout the region.

➢In most practical situations, however, neither the charge distribution nor the
potential distribution is known.
➢In the subsequent portion of this unit, we shall consider practical electrostatic
problems where only electrostatic conditions (charge and potential) at some
boundaries are known and it is desired to find 𝐸 and V throughout the region.
➢Such problems are usually tackled using Poisson's or Laplace's equation or the
method of images, and they are usually referred to as boundary value problems.
➢The concepts of resistance and capacitance will be covered.
 Boundary Value Problems
• Poisson's and Laplace's Equation :
From point form of Gauss Law or Maxwell’s first equation, we know that

𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣

𝛻. 𝜀𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣
And
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉
Substituting this in the above expression,

𝛻. 𝜀 −𝛻𝑉 = 𝜌𝑣

𝜌𝑣
−𝛻 2 𝑉 =
𝜀
 Boundary Value Problems
𝜌𝑣
𝛻2𝑉 =−
𝜀
Above equation is called Poisson's Equation.
A special case of this equation occurs when ρv = 0, (i.e., for a charge-free
region).
For a charge free region, above equation can be written as

𝛻2𝑉 = 0

This equation is called Laplace's Equation.

 Boundary Value Problems
A Laplace’s equation in 3 coordinate systems is given as :
Cartesian Coordinate System,

𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉

+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Cylindrical Coordinate System,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉
𝜌 + 2 2+ 2 =0
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧

Spherical Coordinate System,

2𝑉
1 𝜕 2
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕
2 𝑟 + 2 sin 𝜃 + 2 2 2 =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
 Boundary Value Problems
• Uniqueness Theorem :
• Any solution of Laplace's equation which satisfies the same boundary
conditions must be the only solution regardless of the method used.

• This is known as the uniqueness theorem.

• The theorem applies to any solution of Poisson's or Laplace's equation

in a given region or closed surface.
 Boundary Value Problems
• The following general procedure may be taken in solving a given
boundary-value problem involving Poisson's or Laplace's equation:

1. Solve Laplace's (if 𝜌𝑣 = 0) or Poisson's (if 𝜌𝑣 ≠ 0) equation using either (a)

direct integration when V is a function of one variable, or (b) separation of
variables if V is a function of more than one variable. The solution at this
point is not unique but expressed in terms of unknown integration constants
to be determined.
2. Apply the boundary conditions to determine a unique solution for V.
Imposing the given boundary conditions makes the solution unique.
3. Having obtained V, find 𝐸 using 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 and 𝐷 from 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸.
4. If desired, find the charge Q induced on a conductor using 𝑄 =
‫ 𝑆𝑑 𝑠𝜌׬‬where 𝜌𝑠 = 𝐷𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛 is the component of 𝐷 normal to the
conductor.
MAGNETOSTATICS
 INTRODUCTION

• There are two major laws governing magnetostatic fields:

1. Biot-Savart's law
2. Ampere's circuit law

• Like Coulomb's law, Biot-Savart's law is the general law of

magnetostatics.
• Just as Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's law is a
special case of Biot-Savart's law and is easily applied in problems
involving symmetrical current distribution.
 Biot-Savart's law

• Statement : Biot-Savart's law states

that the magnetic field intensity
dH produced at a point P, by the
differential current element Idl is
proportional to the product Idl
and the sine of the angle 𝛼
between the element and the line
joining P to the element and is
inversely proportional to the
square of the distance R between
P and the element.
 Biot-Savart's law
• Mathematically,
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝛼
𝑑𝐻 ∝
𝑅2
𝑘𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝛼
𝑑𝐻 =
𝑅2
1
In SI units, 𝑘 =
4𝜋

𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝛼
𝑑𝐻 =
4𝜋𝑅2
In vector form,

𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎Ԧ 𝑅 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑅
𝑑𝐻 = 2 =
4𝜋𝑅 4𝜋𝑅3
 Biot-Savart's law

• The direction of 𝑑𝐻 can be

determined by the right hand rule with
the right-hand thumb pointing in the
direction of the current, the right-hand
fingers encircling the wire in the
direction of 𝑑𝐻 as shown in Figure.

• It is customary to represent the

direction of the magnetic field intensity
𝐻 (or current I) by a small circle with a
dot or cross sign depending on whether
𝐻 (or I) is out of, or into, the page.
 Biot-Savart's law
• Just as we can have different charge
configurations, we can have different
current distributions: line current,
surface current, and volume current
as shown in Figure.
• 𝐾 → the surface current density (in
amperes/meter)
• 𝐽Ԧ → the volume current density (in
amperes/meter square)
• the source elements are related as
𝐼𝑑𝑙 ≡ 𝐾𝑑𝑆 ≡ 𝐽𝑑𝑣Ԧ
 Biot-Savart's law
• Thus in terms of the distributed current sources, the Biot-Savart law becomes :

1. Line current distribution

𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑅
𝐻=න
𝐿 4𝜋𝑅2
2. Surface current distribution

𝐾𝑑𝑆 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑅
𝐻=න 2
𝑆 4𝜋𝑅
3. Volume current distribution

Ԧ × 𝑎Ԧ𝑅
𝐽𝑑𝑣
𝐻=න
𝑣 4𝜋𝑅2
 Ampere’s Circuit Law
Statement : Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the
tangential component of 𝐻 around a closed path is the same as the net
current 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 enclosed by the path.
Mathematically,
ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐

Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine

𝐻 when the current distribution is symmetrical.
 Ampere’s Circuit Law
Applying Stoke’s theorem to the LHS of the above equation
ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = රሺ𝛻 × 𝐻ሻ. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ

On the other hand, RHS can be written as

𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ

රሺ𝛻 × 𝐻ሻ. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ

𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ
• This is the third Maxwell's equation.
• It is essentially Ampere's law in differential (or point).
• We should observe that𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ ≠ 0; i.e. magnetostatic field is not conservative.
 Application of Ampere’s Law
1. Infinite line current :
• Consider an infinitely long
filamentary current I along the z-axis
as in Figure.
• To determine 𝐻 at an observation
point P, we allow a closed path pass
through P.
• This path, on which Ampere's law is
to be applied, is known as an
Amperian path (analogous to the
term Gaussian surface).
• We choose a concentric circle as
the Amperian path because 𝐻 is
constant provided 𝜌 is constant.
 Application of Ampere’s Law
• Since this path encloses the whole
current I, according to Ampere's law
𝐼 = න 𝐻𝜑 𝑎Ԧ𝜑 . 𝜌𝑑𝜑 𝑎Ԧ𝜑
2𝜋
= 𝜌𝐻𝜑 න 𝑑𝜑
0
= 2𝜋𝜌𝐻𝜑
𝐼
𝐻𝜑 =
2𝜋𝜌
𝐼
𝐻= 𝑎Ԧ𝜑
2𝜋𝜌
 Application of Ampere’s Law
2. Infinite sheet of current :
Consider an infinite current sheet in
the 𝑧 = 0 plane.
If the sheet has a uniform current
density 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 A/m as shown in
Figure, applying Ampere's law to the
rectangular closed path (Amperian
path) gives

ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑏
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Consider the infinite sheet as
comprising of filaments; dH above
or below the sheet due to a pair of
filamentary currents can be found
using
𝐼
𝐻= 𝑎Ԧ 𝜑
2𝜋𝜌
and
𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 = 𝑎Ԧ 𝑙 × 𝑎Ԧ𝜌
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Consider a point above the plane of
current sheet. For current filament on
the positive x – axis, say filament 1

𝑎Ԧ𝑙1 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 and 𝑎Ԧ𝜌1 = 𝑘ሺ−𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 ሻ

𝐴Ԧ𝜑1 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑦 × 𝑘 −𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
= 𝑘 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑥

Direction of magnetic field due to this

current filament

𝑎Ԧ𝜑1 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥
 Application of Ampere’s Law
For current filament on the
negetive x – axis, say filament 2

𝑎Ԧ 𝑙2 = 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦 and 𝑎Ԧ𝜌2 = 𝑘ሺ𝑎Ԧ 𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 ሻ

𝐴Ԧ𝜑2 = 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦 × 𝑘 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
= 𝑘 −𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥

Direction of magnetic field due to

this current filament

𝑎Ԧ 𝜑2 = −𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Direction of magnetic field due to the
pair of current filament which is at
equal distance from the origin

𝑎Ԧ𝜑 = 𝑎Ԧ𝜑1 + 𝑎Ԧ𝜑2

2𝑎Ԧ 𝑥

𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 = 𝑎Ԧ𝑧 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 + −𝑎Ԧ𝑧 + 𝑎Ԧ𝑥

𝑎Ԧ 𝜑 = 2𝑎Ԧ𝑥

Therefore, direction of magnetic field

is 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 .
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Once direction of magnetic field intensity
is known, it can be written as
𝐻0 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 0
𝐻=൝
−𝐻0 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 0
Applying Ampere’s law for amperean
path 12341
2 3
ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = ቆන 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ + න 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ
1 2
4 1
+ න 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ + න 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙Ԧቇ
3 4
= 0 −𝑎 + −𝐻0 −𝑏 + 0 𝑎
+ 𝐻0 𝑏
= 2𝐻0 𝑏
 Application of Ampere’s Law
2𝐻0 𝑏 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑏
𝐾𝑦
𝐻0 =
2
1
𝐾𝑦 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 0
𝐻= 2
1
− 𝐾𝑦 𝑎Ԧ𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 0
2
In general,
1
𝐻 = 𝐾 × 𝑎Ԧ𝑛
2
where 𝑎Ԧ 𝑛 is a unit normal vector directed
from the current sheet to the point of
interest.
 Application of Ampere’s Law
3. Infinitely Long Coaxial Transmission
Line :
• Consider an infinitely long transmission
line consisting of two concentric cylinders
having their axes along the z-axis.
• The cross section of the line is shown in
Figure, where the z-axis is out of the page.
• The inner conductor has radius a and
carries current I while the outer conductor
has inner radius b and thickness t and
carries return current -I.
• We want to determine H everywhere
assuming that current is uniformly
distributed in both conductors.
• Since the current distribution is
symmetrical, we apply Ampere's law along
the Amperean path along each of the four
possible regions.
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Region 1 (0 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑎)
ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝐿1
Where
𝐼
𝐽Ԧ = 2 𝑎Ԧ 𝑧 and 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ 𝑧
𝜋𝑎
𝐼𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑
Ԧ Ԧ
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = න 𝐽. 𝑑 𝑆 = ඵ
𝜋𝑎2
2
𝐼 𝐼𝜌
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 2 𝜋𝜌2 = 2
𝜋𝑎 𝑎 2
𝐼𝜌
𝐻𝜑 න 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻𝜑 2𝜋𝜌 = 2
𝑎
𝐼𝜌
𝐻𝜑 =
2𝜋𝑎2
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Region 2 (a ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑏)

ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼
𝐿2

𝐻𝜑 න 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻𝜑 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼
𝐼
𝐻𝜑 =
2𝜋𝜌
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Region 3 (b ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑏 + 𝑡)
ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐻𝜑 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼 + න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝐿3

Where
𝐼
𝐽Ԧ = − 𝑎Ԧ
𝜋 𝑏 + 𝑡 2 − 𝑏2 𝑧

𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑎Ԧ𝑧
𝐼𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼 + න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝐼 − ඵ
𝜋 𝑏 + 𝑡 2 − 𝑏2
𝜌2 − 𝑏 2
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = I 1 − 2
𝑡 + 2𝑏𝑡
𝐼 𝜌2 − 𝑏 2
𝐻𝜑 = 1− 2
2𝜋𝜌 𝑡 + 2𝑏𝑡
 Application of Ampere’s Law
Region 4 (𝜌 > 𝑏 + 𝑡)

ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 0
𝐿2

𝐻𝜑 න 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻𝜑 2𝜋𝜌 = 0

𝐻𝜑 = 0
 Application of Ampere’s Law
• Graphical representation of magnetic field :
 Magnetic flux density
• The magnetic flux density 𝐵 is similar to the electric flux density 𝐷.
• As 𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 in free space, the magnetic flux density 𝐵 is related to the
magnetic field intensity 𝐻 according to

𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻
where,
𝜇𝑜 → permeability of free space given in henry per meter

𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻 Τ𝑚
 Magnetic flux density
• The magnetic flux through a surface S is
given by
ψ = න 𝐵. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ
𝑆
• The magnetic flux line is the path to which
𝐵 is tangential at every point in a magnetic
field.
• It is the line along which the needle of a
magnetic compass will orient itself if placed
in the magnetic field.
• For example, the magnetic flux lines due to
a straight long wire are shown in Figure.
• The direction of 𝐵 is taken as that
indicated as "north" by the needle of the
magnetic compass. Notice that each flux
line is closed and has no beginning or end.
 Magnetic flux density
• In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a closed surface is the same
as the charge enclosed; that is, ψ = ‫𝐷 𝑆ׯ‬. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = 𝑄.

• Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge.

• Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves.

• This is due to the fact that it is not possible to have isolated magnetic poles
(or magnetic charges).
 Magnetic flux density
• For example, if we desire to have an
isolated magnetic pole by dividing a
magnetic bar successively into two,
we end up with pieces each having
north and south poles as illustrated
in Figure.

• We find it impossible to separate

the north pole from the south pole.

An isolated magnetic charge does not

exist.
 Magnetic flux density
• Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero
ර 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 0

• This equation is referred to as the law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss's

law for magnetostatic fields.
• Although the magnetostatic field is not conservative, magnetic flux is conserved.
• By applying divergence theorem,
ර 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = න 𝛻. 𝐵dv = 0

𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
• This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation.
 Maxwell’s Equations : Summary
Differential (Point) Form Integral Form Remarks

𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 ර 𝐷. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 Gauss’s Law
𝑆 𝑣

Non existence of magnetic

𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 ර 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 0 monopole
𝑆

ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 0 Conservativeness of
𝛻×𝐸 =0 𝐿 electrostatic field

ර 𝐻. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = න 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆Ԧ
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ 𝐿 𝑆
Ampere's law
TIME VARYING FIELDS
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN FINAL
FORMS
Differential (Point) Form Integral Form Remarks

𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 ර 𝐷. 𝑑 𝑆Ԧ = න 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 Gauss’s Law
𝑆 𝑣

Non existence of magnetic

𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 ර 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = 0 monopole
𝑆

𝜕B 𝑑 Conservativeness of
𝛻×E=− ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = − න 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆Ԧ electrostatic field
𝜕t 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑆

𝜕D 𝜕D
𝛻 × H = ԦJ + ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = න 𝐽Ԧ + . 𝑑𝑆Ԧ Ampere's law
𝜕t 𝐿 𝑆 𝜕t